Although the intensity of the bombing was not as great as prewar expectations so an equal comparison is impossible, no psychiatric crisis occurred because of the Blitz even during the period of greatest bombing of September 1940. An American witness wrote "By every test and measure I am able to apply, these people are staunch to the bone and won't quit ... the British are stronger and in a better position than they were at its beginning". People referred to raids as if they were weather, stating that a day was "very blitzy".:75,261 However, another American who visited Britain, the publisher Ralph Ingersoll, wrote soon after the Blitz eased on 15 September that:

With the intense bomb what did not happen as great as prewar predictions expected?

psychiatric crisis

What witness wrote that these people are staunch to the bone and won't quit?

American

People called the raids very blitzy like they were talking about what?

weather


Ingersoll added that, according to Anna Freud and Edward Glover, London civilians surprisingly did not suffer from widespread shell shock, unlike the soldiers in the Dunkirk evacuation.:114,117–118 The psychoanalysts were correct, and the special network of psychiatric clinics opened to receive mental casualties of the attacks closed due to lack of need. Although the stress of the war resulted in many anxiety attacks, eating disorders, fatigue, weeping, miscarriages, and other physical and mental ailments, society did not collapse. The number of suicides and drunkenness declined, and London recorded only about two cases of "bomb neuroses" per week in the first three months of bombing. Many civilians found that the best way to retain mental stability was to be with family, and after the first few weeks of bombing avoidance of the evacuation programs grew.:80–81 Glover speculated that the knowledge that the entire country was being attacked, that there was no way to escape the bombs, forced people to accept and deal with the situation.:118

Anne Freud and Edward Glover said London civilians did not suffer from what?

widespread shell shock

Why did the psychiatric clinics close?

lack of need

What two things declined during the attacks in Britain?

suicides and drunkenness

The entire country was being attack and Glover believe it help people to do what?

accept and deal


The cheerful crowds visiting bomb sites were so large they interfered with rescue work, pub visits increased in number (beer was never rationed), and 13,000 attended cricket at Lord's. People left shelters when told instead of refusing to leave, although many housewives reportedly enjoyed the break from housework. Some people even told government surveyors that they enjoyed air raids if they occurred occasionally, perhaps once a week. Despite the attacks, defeat in Norway and France, and the threat of invasion, overall morale remained high; a Gallup poll found only 3% of Britons expected to lose the war in May 1940, another found an 88% approval rating for Churchill in July, and a third found 89% support for his leadership in October. Support for peace negotiations declined from 29% in February. Each setback caused more civilians to volunteer to become unpaid Local Defence Volunteers, workers worked longer shifts and over weekends, contributions rose to the £5,000 "Spitfire Funds" to build fighters, and the number of work days lost to strikes in 1940 was the lowest in history.:60–63,67–68,75,78–79,215–216

What drink was never rationed?

beer

How many people attended cricket at Lord's?

What percent of Briton's expected to lose the war?

What was Churchill's highest rating?

What were Spitfire Funds used for?

to build fighters


The civilians of London had an enormous role to play in the protection of their city. Many civilians who were unwilling or unable to join the military became members of the Home Guard, the Air Raid Precautions service (ARP), the Auxiliary Fire Service, and many other organisations. The AFS had 138,000 personnel by July 1939. Only one year earlier, there had only been 6,600 full-time and 13,800 part-time firemen in the entire country. During the Blitz, The Scout Association guided fire engines to where they were most needed, and became known as the "Blitz Scouts". Many unemployed were drafted into the Royal Army Pay Corps. These personnel, along with others from the Pioneer Corps, were charged with the task of salvage and clean-up.

What is ARP?

Air Raid Precautions

The Auxiliary Fire Service had how many members in July of 1939?

Who was given the name Blitz Scouts?

Scout Association

The Royal Army Pay Corps and what other group were in charge of salvage and clean-up?

Pioneer Corps


The WVS (Women's Voluntary Services for Civil Defence) was set up under the direction of Samuel Hoare, Home Secretary in 1938 specifically in the event of air raids. Hoare considered it the female branch of the ARP. They organised the evacuation of children, established centres for those displaced by bombing, and operated canteens, salvage and recycling schemes. By the end of 1941, the WVS had one million members. Prior to the outbreak of war, civilians were issued with 50 million respirators (gas masks). These were issued in the event of bombing taking place with gas before evacuation.

What group did Samuel Hoare set up in 1938?

Women's Voluntary Services for Civil Defence

Who was Home Secretary in 1938?

Samuel Hoare

How many members did the WVS have at the end of 1941?

one million

How many gas mask were issued before the war?

50 million


In the inter-war years and after 1940, Hugh Dowding, Air Officer Commanding Fighter Command has received credit for the defence of British air space and the failure of the Luftwaffe to achieve air superiority. However, Dowding had spent so much effort preparing day fighter defences, there was little to prevent the Germans carrying out an alternative strategy by bombing at night. When the Luftwaffe struck at British cities for the first time on 7 September 1940, a number of civic and political leaders were worried by Dowding's apparent lack of reaction to the new crisis.

Who was the Air Officer Commanding Fighter Command after 1940?

Hugh Dowding

What credit did Dowding receive?

defence of British air space

What strategy could the German's have used instead of day raids?

bombing at night

Why were civic and political leaders worried about Dowdings?

lack of reaction to the new crisis


Dowding accepted that as AOC, he was responsible for the day and night defence of Britain, and the blame, should he fail, would be laid at his door. When urgent changes and improvements needed to be made, Dowding seemed reluctant to act quickly. The Air Staff felt that this was due to his stubborn nature and reluctance to cooperate. Dowding's opponents in the Air Ministry, already critical of his handling of the day battle (see Battle of Britain Day and the Big Wing controversy), were ready to use these failings as a cudgel with which to attack him and his abilities.

Who was reluctant to act quickly when urgent changes need to be made?

Dowding

Who thought Dowding was stubborn and didn't like to cooperate?

Air Staff

The Air Ministry was critical of Dowding after which battle?

Battle of Britain Day

What did the Air Ministry plan to do with his failures?

attack him and his abilities


Dowding was summoned to an Air Ministry conference on 17 October 1940 to explain the poor state of night defences and the supposed (but ultimately successful) "failure" of his daytime strategy. The criticism of his leadership extended far beyond the Air Council, and the Minister of Aircraft Production, Lord Beaverbrook, and Churchill themselves intimated their support was waning. While the failure of night defence preparation was undeniable, it was not the AOC's responsibility to accrue resources. The general neglect of the RAF until the late spurt in 1938 had left sparse resources to build defences. While it was permissible to disagree with Dowding's operational and tactical deployment of forces, the failure of the Government and Air Ministry to allot resources was ultimately the responsibility of the civil and military institutions at large. In the pre-war period, the Chamberlain Government stated that night defence from air attack should not take up much of the national effort and, along with the Air Ministry, did not make it a priority.

Who was summoned to the Air Ministry conference on October 17, 1940?

Dowding

Lord Beaverbrook and Churchill's support of Dowding was what?

waning

Neglect of the RAF until 1938 caused what to happen?

sparse resources to build defences

The Air Ministry and which other group decided to not make night defense a top priority?

Chamberlain Government


The attitude of the Air Ministry was in contrast to the experiences of the First World War when a few German bombers caused physical and psychological damage out of all proportion to their numbers. Around 280 short tons (250 t) (9,000 bombs) had been dropped, killing 1,413 people and injuring 3,500 more. Most people aged 35 or over remembered the threat and greeted the bombings with great trepidation. From 1916–1918, German raids had diminished against countermeasures which demonstrated defence against night air raids was possible.

People over the age of 35 reacted to the bombings with what?

great trepidation

Why had German raids decreased between 1916-1918?

countermeasures

How many people were killed by bomb drops during the first World War?

How many bombs had been dropped?


Although night air defence was causing greater concern before the war, it was not at the forefront of RAF planning. Most of the resources went into planning for daylight fighter defences. The difficulty RAF bombers had navigating in darkness, led the British to believe German bombers would suffer the same problems and would be unable to reach and identify their targets. There was also a mentality in all air forces that, if they could carry out effective operations by day, night missions and their disadvantages could be avoided.

What did the RAF put most of their resources into?

daylight fighter defences

RAF bombers had trouble flying at night, so the British believe the Germans would do what?

suffer the same problems

Britain believe German bombers would be unable to reach and identify what?

targets

What did the Air Force believe they could avoid if they carried out effective day missions?

night missions and their disadvantages


British air doctrine, since the time of Chief of the Air Staff Hugh Trenchard in the early 1920s, had stressed offence was the best means of defence. British defensive strategy revolved around offensive action, what became known as the cult of the offensive. To prevent German formations from hitting targets in Britain, RAF's Bomber Command would destroy Luftwaffe aircraft on their own bases, aircraft in their factories and fuel reserves by attacking oil plants. This philosophy was impractical as Bomber Command lacked the technology and equipment and needed several years to develop it. This strategy retarded the development of fighter defences in the 1930s. Dowding agreed air defence would require some offensive action, and fighters could not defend Britain alone. Until September 1940, the RAF lacked specialist night-fighting aircraft and relied on anti-aircraft units which were poorly equipped and lacking in numbers.

What did the British offence become know as?

cult of the offensive

Why was the tactic of bombing German aircraft bases, factories and fuel reserves impractical?

lacked the technology and equipment

Until 1940 what type of aircraft did the RAF lacked?

specialist night-fighting

What was wrong with the anti aircraft units?

poorly equipped and lacking in numbers


Bomber crews already had some experience with these types of systems due to the deployment of the Lorenz beam, a commercial blind-landing aid which allowed aircraft to land at night or in bad weather. The Germans developed the short-range Lorenz system into the Knickebein aid, a system which used two Lorenz beams with much stronger signal transmissions. The concept was the same as the Lorenz system. Two aerials were rotated for the two converging beams which were pointed to cross directly over the target. The German bombers would attach themselves to either beam and fly along it until they started to pick up the signal from the other beam. When a continuous sound was heard from the second beam the crew knew they were above the target and began dropping their bombs.

What did the Lorenz beam allow aircraft to do?

land at night or in bad weather

The Germans developed the Lorenz into what system?

Knickebein

The Knickebein was the same as the Lorenz but used how many beams?

two Lorenz beams

The Germans flew along one beam until they picked up the second beam the sound telling them when to start doing what?

dropping their bombs


While Knickebein was used by German crews en masse, X-Gerät use was limited to specially trained pathfinder crews. Special receivers were mounted in He 111s, with a radio mast on the bomber's fuselage. The system worked on a higher frequency (66–77 MHz, compared to Knickebein's 30–33 MHz). Transmitters on the ground sent pulses at a rate of 180 per minute. X-Gerät received and analysed the pulses, giving the pilot both visual and aural "on course" signals. Three beams intersected the beam along the He 111's flight path. The first cross-beam acted as a warning for the bomb-aimer to start the bombing-clock which he would activate only when the second cross-beam was reached. When the third cross-beam was reached the bomb aimer activated a third trigger, which stopped the first hand of the equipment's clock, with the second hand continuing. When the second hand re-aligned with the first, the bombs were released. The clock's timing mechanism was co-ordinated with the distances of the intersecting beams from the target so the target was directly below when the bomb release occurred.

While Knickebein was used my most German crews who used the X-Gerat system?

specially trained pathfinder crews

What frequency did the X-Gerat system use?

66–77 MHz

What rate per minute did ground transmitters send?

When the bomber crossed the first beam the bomber-aimer did what?

start the bombing-clock

What mechanism cause the bombs to be released?

clock's timing


Y-Gerät was the most complex system of the three. It was, in effect, an automatic beam-tracking system, operated through the bomber's autopilot. The single approach beam along which the bomber tracked was monitored by a ground controller. The signals from the station were retransmitted by the bomber's equipment. This way the distance the bomber travelled along the beam could be precisely verified. Direction-finding checks also enabled the controller to keep the crew on an exact course. The crew would be ordered to drop their bombs either by issue of a code word by the ground controller, or at the conclusion of the signal transmissions which would stop. Although its maximum usable range was similar to the previous systems, it was not unknown for specific buildings to be hit.

Which system was the most complex of the three?

Y-Gerät

Who operated the automatic beam system?

the bomber's autopilot

What kind of checks help to keep the plane on course?

Direction-finding

The crew could be order to drop the bomb by what?

a code word

Who issued the code word to the bombers?

ground controller


In June 1940, a German prisoner of war was overheard boasting that the British would never find the Knickebein, even though it was under their noses. The details of the conversation were passed to an RAF Air Staff technical advisor, Dr. R. V. Jones, who started an in-depth investigation which discovered that the Luftwaffe's Lorenz receivers were more than blind-landing devices. Jones therefore began a search for the German beams. Avro Ansons of the Beam Approach Training Development Unit (BATDU) were flown up and down Britain fitted with a 30 MHz receiver to detect them. Soon a beam was traced to Derby (which had been mentioned in Luftwaffe transmissions). The first jamming operations were carried out using requisitioned hospital electrocautery machines. A subtle form of distortion was introduced. Up to nine special transmitters directed their signals at the beams in a manner that widened its path, negating its ability to accurately locate targets. Confidence in the device was diminished by the time the Luftwaffe decided to launch large-scale raids. The counter operations were carried out by British Electronic Counter Measures (ECM) units under Wing Commander Edward Addison, No. 80 Wing RAF. The production of false radio navigation signals by re-transmitting the originals was a technique known as masking beacons (meacons).

In 1940 a German prisoner overheard boasting that the British would never find what system?

Knickebein

Which RAF technical advisor was the conversation passed onto?

Dr. R. V. Jones

The Bean Approach Training Development Unit were fitted with what kind of transmitter to search for the Knickebein?

30 MHz receiver

The beam was traced to what town?

Derby

The first jamming operation was carried out using what machines?

electrocautery machines


German beacons operated on the medium-frequency band and the signals involved a two-letter Morse identifier followed by a lengthy time-lapse which enabled the Luftwaffe crews to determine the signal's bearing. The Meacon system involved separate locations for a receiver with a directional aerial and a transmitter. The receipt of the German signal by the receiver was duly passed to the transmitter, the signal to be repeated. The action did not guarantee automatic success. If the German bomber flew closer to its own beam than the Meacon then the former signal would come through the stronger on the direction finder. The reverse would apply only if the meacon were closer.

The German beacons used what frequency band?

medium

What two letter identifier did the signal have?

Morse

What system used a separate locations for a receiver and a directional aerial?

Meacon

When a German bomber flew to close to its own beam what happened to the signal?

stronger on the direction finder


In general, German bombers were likely to get through to their targets without too much difficulty. It was to be some months before an effective night fighter force would be ready, and anti-aircraft defences only became adequate after the Blitz was over, so ruses were created to lure German bombers away from their targets. Throughout 1940, dummy airfields were prepared, good enough to stand up to skilled observation. A number[clarification needed] of bombs fell on these diversionary ("Starfish") targets.

Anti-aircraft defenses became better after what?

Blitz was over

What did they use to lure German bombers away from their targets?

ruses

What kind of airfields were prepared to stand up to skilled observers?

dummy

What was the name given to these dummy airfields?

Starfish


The use of diversionary techniques such as fires had to be made carefully. The fake fires could only begin when the bombing started over an adjacent target and its effects were brought under control. Too early and the chances of success receded; too late and the real conflagration at the target would exceed the diversionary fires. Another innovation was the boiler fire. These units were fed from two adjacent tanks containing oil and water. The oil-fed fires were then injected with water from time to time; the flashes produced were similar to those of the German C-250 and C-500 Flammbomben. The hope was that, if it could deceive German bombardiers, it would draw more bombers away from the real target.

Fake fires were used as what kind of technique?

diversionary

Two tanks one of oil, one of water fed what kind of fire?

boiler

What was injected into the fires from time to time to produce a flash?

water

What did these flashes simulate?

German C-250 and C-500 Flammbomben

What was the purpose of these fires?

deceive German bombardiers


Initially the change in strategy caught the RAF off-guard, and caused extensive damage and civilian casualties. Some 107,400 long tons (109,100 t) of shipping was damaged in the Thames Estuary and 1,600 civilians were casualties. Of this total around 400 were killed. The fighting in the air was more intense in daylight. Overall Loge had cost the Luftwaffe 41 aircraft; 14 bombers, 16 Messerschmitt Bf 109s, seven Messerschmitt Bf 110s and four reconnaissance aircraft. Fighter Command lost 23 fighters, with six pilots killed and another seven wounded. Another 247 bombers from Sperrle's Luftflotte 3 (Air Fleet 3) attacked that night. On 8 September, the Luftwaffe returned. This time 412 people were killed and 747 severely wounded.

The bombing of the Thames Estuary cause how many civilian casualties?

How many were killed in the bombing of the Thames Estuary?

around 400

How many aircraft did the Luftwaffe lose?

How many German pilots were killed?

six

How many Air Fleet 3 attacked that night?


On 9 September the OKL appeared to be backing two strategies. Its round-the-clock bombing of London was an immediate attempt to force the British government to capitulate, but it was also striking at Britain's vital sea communications to achieve a victory through siege. Although the weather was poor, heavy raids took place that afternoon on the London suburbs and the airfield at Farnborough. The day's fighting cost Kesselring and Luftflotte 2 (Air Fleet 2) 24 aircraft, including 13 Bf 109s. Fighter Command lost 17 fighters and six pilots. Over the next few days weather was poor and the next main effort would not be made until 15 September 1940.

What was the name of the airfield where heavy raids took place?

Farnborough

How many Bf 109s were lost?

FighterCommand lost how many fighters?

How many pilots did Fighter Command lose?

six

What caused the delay in the effort?

weather was poor


On 15 September the Luftwaffe made two large daylight attacks on London along the Thames Estuary, targeting the docks and rail communications in the city. Its hope was to destroy its targets and draw the RAF into defending them, allowing the Luftwaffe to destroy their fighters in large numbers, thereby achieving an air superiority. Large air battles broke out, lasting for most of the day. The first attack merely damaged the rail network for three days, and the second attack failed altogether. The air battle was later commemorated by Battle of Britain Day. The Luftwaffe lost 18 percent of the bombers sent on the operations that day, and failed to gain air superiority.

On September 15 the Luftwaffe made daylight raids on what target in London?

Thames Estuary

What two targets were the Luftwaffe trying to destroy?

docks and rail communications

What was the reason to try and draw the RAF into a battle?

destroy their fighters in large numbers

What was this air battle called?

Battle of Britain Day

The Luftwaffe lost what percentage of its bombers sent that day?


While Göring was optimistic the Luftwaffe could prevail, Hitler was not. On 17 September he postponed Operation Sea Lion (as it turned out, indefinitely) rather than gamble Germany's newly gained military prestige on a risky cross-Channel operation, particularly in the face of a sceptical Joseph Stalin in the Soviet Union. In the last days of the battle, the bombers became lures in an attempt to draw the RAF into combat with German fighters. But their operations were to no avail; the worsening weather and unsustainable attrition in daylight gave the OKL an excuse to switch to night attacks on 7 October.

Who thought the Luftwaffe could win?

Göring

What day did Hitler postponed Operation Sea Lion?

17 September

What was the name of the man from the Soviet Union who was doubtful of Operation Sea Lion?

Joseph Stalin

Who did the Luftwaffe try to lure into battle using its bombers?

RAF

When did the OKL switch to night raids?

7 October


On 14 October, the heaviest night attack to date saw 380 German bombers from Luftflotte 3 hit London. Around 200 people were killed and another 2,000 injured. British anti-aircraft defences (General Frederick Alfred Pile) fired 8,326 rounds and shot down only two bombers. On 15 October, the bombers returned and about 900 fires were started by the mix of 415 short tons (376 t) of high explosive and 11 short tons (10.0 t) of incendiaries dropped. Five main rail lines were cut in London and rolling stock damaged.

On October 14 how many German bombers attacked?

How many people were killed?

Around 200

Who fired anti-defense rounds?

General Frederick Alfred Pile

How many rounds of anti-defense were fired?

8,326 rounds

How many German bombers were shot down?

two


Loge continued during October. According to German sources, 9,000 short tons (8,200 t) of bombs were dropped in that month, of which about 10 percent of which was dropped in daylight. Over 6,000 short tons (5,400 t) was aimed at London during the night. Attacks on Birmingham and Coventry were subject to 500 short tons (450 t) of bombs between them in the last 10 days of October. Liverpool suffered 200 short tons (180 t) of bombs dropped. Hull and Glasgow were attacked, but 800 short tons (730 t) of bombs were spread out all over Britain. The Metropolitan-Vickers works in Manchester was targeted and 12 short tons (11 t) of bombs dropped against it. Little tonnage was dropped on Fighter Command airfields; Bomber Command airfields were hit instead.

How much of the short tons of bombs were dropped during the day?

10 percent

What two cities had 500 short tons of bombs dropped on them during the end of October?

Birmingham and Coventry

Liverpool had how many short tons dropped on it?

What was targeted with 12 short tons of bombs?

The Metropolitan-Vickers works in Manchester

Which was targeted more heavily, bomber or fighter command airfields?

Bomber Command airfields


Luftwaffe policy at this point was primarily to continue progressive attacks on London, chiefly by night attack; second, to interfere with production in the vast industrial arms factories of the West Midlands, again chiefly by night attack; and third to disrupt plants and factories during the day by means of fighter-bombers. Kesselring, commanding Luftflotte 2, was ordered to send 50 sorties per night against London and attack eastern harbours in daylight. Sperrle, commanding Luftflotte 3, was ordered to dispatch 250 sorties per night including 100 against the West Midlands. Seeschlange would be carried out by Fliegerkorps X (10th Air Corps) which concentrated on mining operations against shipping. It also took part in the bombing over Britain. By 19/20 April 1941, it had dropped 3,984 mines, ⅓ of the total dropped. The mines' ability to destroy entire streets earned them respect in Britain, but several fell unexploded into British hands allowing counter-measures to be developed which damaged the German anti-shipping campaign.

What was the Luftwaffe's second primary policy?

to interfere with production in the vast industrial arms factories of the West Midlands

Who was in command of the Luftflotte 2?

Kesselring

How many sorties a night was Luftflotte 3 doing?

What did the Fliegerkorps X concentrate on?

mining operations against shipping

By April of 1941 about how many mines had been dropped?

3,984 mines


By mid-November 1940, when the Germans adopted a changed plan, more than 13,000 short tons (12,000 t) of high explosive and nearly 1,000,000 incendiaries had fallen on London. Outside the capital, there had been widespread harassing activity by single aircraft, as well as fairly strong diversionary attacks on Birmingham, Coventry and Liverpool, but no major raids. The London docks and railways communications had taken a heavy pounding, and much damage had been done to the railway system outside. In September, there had been no less than 667 hits on railways in Great Britain, and at one period, between 5,000 and 6,000 wagons were standing idle from the effect of delayed action bombs. But the great bulk of the traffic went on; and Londoners—though they glanced apprehensively each morning at the list of closed stretches of line displayed at their local station, or made strange detours round back streets in the buses—still got to work. For all the destruction of life and property, the observers sent out by the Ministry of Home Security failed to discover the slightest sign of a break in morale. More than 13,000 civilians had been killed, and almost 20,000 injured, in September and October alone, but the death toll was much less than expected. In late 1940, Churchill credited the shelters:

By mid November of 1940 how many incendiaries were dropped on London?

What locations suffered strong diversionary tactics?

Birmingham, Coventry and Liverpool

In September how many railway hits were there in Great Britain?

no less than 667

What did the Ministry of Home Security fail to discover?

the slightest sign of a break in morale

About how many civilians were injured in September and October?


The American observer Ingersoll reported at this time that "as to the accuracy of the bombing of military objectives, here I make no qualifications. The aim is surprisingly, astonishingly, amazingly inaccurate ... The physical damage to civilian London, to sum up, was more general and more extensive than I had imagined. The damage to military targets much less", and stated that he had seen numerous examples of untouched targets surrounded by buildings destroyed by errant bombs. For example, in two months of bombing, Battersea Power Station, perhaps the largest single target in London, had only received one minor hit ("a nick"). No bridge over the Thames had been hit, and the docks were still functioning despite great damage. An airfield was hit 56 times but the runways were never damaged and the field was never out of operation, despite German pilots' familiarity with it from prewar commercial flights. Ingersoll wrote that the difference between the failure of the German campaign against military targets versus its success in continental Europe was the RAF retaining control of the air.:79–80,174

What was the name of the American observer?

Ingersoll

The American observer said what about the damage to London?

to sum up, was more general and more extensive than I had imagined.

The Battersea Power Station took how many hits in two months?

one minor hit ("a nick")

How many bridges over the Thames were struck?

No bridge over the Thames had been hit

What did German pilots use to gain knowledge of an airfield?

prewar commercial flights.


British night air defences were in a poor state. Few anti-aircraft guns had fire-control systems, and the underpowered searchlights were usually ineffective against aircraft at altitudes above 12,000 ft (3,700 m). In July 1940, only 1,200 heavy and 549 light guns were deployed in the whole of Britain. Of the "heavies", some 200 were of the obsolescent 3 in (76 mm) type; the remainder were the effective 4.5 in (110 mm) and 3.7 in (94 mm) guns, with a theoretical "ceiling"' of over 30,000 ft (9,100 m) but a practical limit of 25,000 ft (7,600 m) because the predictor in use could not accept greater heights. The light guns, about half of which were of the excellent Bofors 40 mm, dealt with aircraft only up to 6,000 ft (1,800 m). Although the use of the guns improved civilian morale, with the knowledge the German bomber crews were facing the barrage, it is now believed that the anti-aircraft guns achieved little and in fact the falling shell fragments caused more British casualties on the ground.

British night air defenses were effective to what height?

12,000 ft (3,700 m)

By July of 1940 how many guns were deployed in Britain?

only 1,200 heavy and 549 light guns

What was the practical ceiling of the effective heavy guns?

25,000 ft (7,600 m)

What type of light gun dealt with aircraft up to 6000 ft.?

Bofors 40 mm

What is believed to have caused many civilian casualties from anti-aircraft guns?

falling shell fragments


London's defences were rapidly reorganised by General Pile, the Commander-in-Chief of Anti-Aircraft Command. The difference this made to the effectiveness of air defences is questionable. The British were still one-third below the establishment of heavy anti-aircraft artillery AAA (or ack-ack) in May 1941, with only 2,631 weapons available. Dowding had to rely on night fighters. From 1940 to 1941, the most successful night-fighter was the Boulton Paul Defiant; its four squadrons shot down more enemy aircraft than any other type. AA defences improved by better use of radar and searchlights. Over several months, the 20,000 shells spent per raider shot down in September 1940, was reduced to 4,087 in January 1941 and to 2,963 shells in February 1941.

Who reorganised London's defences?

General Pile

The British were how far below the establishment of heavy anti-aircraft artillery?

one-third

Who relied on night fighters?

Dowding

Who's four squadrons shot down more enemy aircraft than any other type?

Boulton Paul Defiant

How were AA defenses improved?

by better use of radar and searchlights


Airborne Interception radar (AI) was unreliable. The heavy fighting in the Battle of Britain had eaten up most of Fighter Command's resources, so there was little investment in night fighting. Bombers were flown with airborne search lights out of desperation[citation needed], but to little avail. Of greater potential was the GL (Gunlaying) radar and searchlights with fighter direction from RAF fighter control rooms to begin a GCI system (Ground Control-led Interception) under Group-level control (No. 10 Group RAF, No. 11 Group RAF and No. 12 Group RAF).

What was considered unreliable?

Airborne Interception radar

What used most of Fighter Command's resources?

the Battle of Britain

The bombers used what out of desperation?

airborne search lights

Gunlaying radar and RAF controls combined to create what system?

Ground Control-led Interception


Whitehall's disquiet at the failures of the RAF led to the replacement of Dowding (who was already due for retirement) with Sholto Douglas on 25 November. Douglas set about introducing more squadrons and dispersing the few GL sets to create a carpet effect in the southern counties. Still, in February 1941, there remained only seven squadrons with 87 pilots, under half the required strength. The GL carpet was supported by six GCI sets controlling radar-equipped night-fighters. By the height of the Blitz, they were becoming more successful. The number of contacts and combats rose in 1941, from 44 and two in 48 sorties in January 1941, to 204 and 74 in May (643 sorties). But even in May, 67% of the sorties were visual cat's-eye missions. Curiously, while 43% of the contacts in May 1941 were by visual sightings, they accounted for 61% of the combats. Yet when compared with Luftwaffe daylight operations, there was a sharp decline in German losses to 1%. If a vigilant bomber crew could spot the fighter first, they had a decent chance at evading it.

Who replaced Dowding on November 25?

Sholto Douglas

How many pilots remained in February 1941?

87 pilots

What supported the GL carpet?

six GCI sets controlling radar-equipped night-fighters

How many number of contacts and combats were there in May?

204 and 74

What did a bomber crew need to do for a good chance at evasion?

spot the fighter first


Nevertheless, it was radar that proved to be critical weapon in the night battles over Britain from this point onward. Dowding had introduced the concept of airborne radar and encouraged its usage. Eventually it would become a success. On the night of 22/23 July 1940, Flying Officer Cyril Ashfield (pilot), Pilot Officer Geoffrey Morris (Observer) and Flight Sergeant Reginald Leyland (Air Intercept radar operator) of the Fighter Interception Unit became the first pilot and crew to intercept and destroy an enemy aircraft using onboard radar to guide them to a visual interception, when their AI night fighter brought down a Do 17 off Sussex. On 19 November 1940 the famous RAF night fighter ace John Cunningham shot down a Ju 88 bomber using airborne radar, just as Dowding had predicted.

What was critical in the night battles over Britain?

radar

What concept eventually became successful?

airborne radar

On what day did airborne radar help intercept and destroy enemy aircraft for the first time?

the night of 22/23 July 1940

Who was the RAF night fighter ace that used airborne radar to destroy a Ju 88 bomber?

John Cunningham


From November 1940 – February 1941, the Luftwaffe shifted its strategy and attacked other industrial cities. In particular, the West Midlands were targeted. On the night of 13/14 November, 77 He 111s of Kampfgeschwader 26 (26th Bomber Wing, or KG 26) bombed London while 63 from KG 55 hit Birmingham. The next night, a large force hit Coventry. "Pathfinders" from 12 Kampfgruppe 100 (Bomb Group 100 or KGr 100) led 437 bombers from KG 1, KG 3, KG 26, KG 27, KG 55 and Lehrgeschwader 1 (1st Training Wing, or LG 1) which dropped 394 short tons (357 t) of high explosive, 56 short tons (51 t) of incendiaries, and 127 parachute mines. Other sources say 449 bombers and a total of 530 short tons (480 t) of bombs were dropped. The raid against Coventry was particularly devastating, and led to widespread use of the phrase "to conventrate". Over 10,000 incendiaries were dropped. Around 21 factories were seriously damaged in Coventry, and loss of public utilities stopped work at nine others, disrupting industrial output for several months. Only one bomber was lost, to anti-aircraft fire, despite the RAF flying 125 night sorties. No follow up raids were made, as OKL underestimated the British power of recovery (as Bomber Command would do over Germany from 1943–1945). The Germans were surprised by the success of the attack. The concentration had been achieved by accident. The strategic effect of the raid was a brief 20 percent dip in aircraft production.

The Luftwaffe's change in strategy targeted what primarily?

the West Midlands

How many parachute mines were dropped?

The Coventry raid led to what phrase being in widespread use?

"to conventrate"

What stopped work in 9 factories in Coventry?

loss of public utilities

What effect did the raid have strategically?

a brief 20 percent dip in aircraft production


Five nights later, Birmingham was hit by 369 bombers from KG 54, KG 26, and KG 55. By the end of November, 1,100 bombers were available for night raids. An average of 200 were able to strike per night. This weight of attack went on for two months, with the Luftwaffe dropping 13,900 short tons (12,600 t) of bombs. In November 1940, 6,000 sorties and 23 major attacks (more than 100 tons of bombs dropped) were flown. Two heavy (50 short tons (45 t) of bombs) attacks were also flown. In December, only 11 major and five heavy attacks were made.

How many bombers hit Birmingham?

For how many months did the night raids continue for?

two months

How many tons of bombs had to be dropped to be considered a major attack?

more than 100 tons of bombs dropped

December saw how many attacks?

only 11 major and five heavy attacks


Probably the most devastating strike occurred on the evening of 29 December, when German aircraft attacked the City of London itself with incendiary and high explosive bombs, causing a firestorm that has been called the Second Great Fire of London. The first group to use these incendiaries was Kampfgruppe 100 which despatched 10 "pathfinder" He 111s. At 18:17, it released the first of 10,000 fire bombs, eventually amounting to 300 dropped per minute. Altogether, 130 German bombers destroyed the historical centre of London. Civilian casualties on London throughout the Blitz amounted to 28,556 killed, and 25,578 wounded. The Luftwaffe had dropped 18,291 short tons (16,593 t) of bombs.

On what day was London itself attacked?

the evening of 29 December

What group was the first to use incendiaries?

Kampfgruppe 100

How many fire bombs were dropped per minute?

How many civilians were killed in the bombing?

28,556 killed

The Luftwaffe dropped how many short tons of bombs?

18,291 short tons


Not all of the Luftwaffe's effort was made against inland cities. Port cities were also attacked to try to disrupt trade and sea communications. In January Swansea was bombed four times, very heavily. On 17 January around 100 bombers dropped a high concentration of incendiaries, some 32,000 in all. The main damage was inflicted on the commercial and domestic areas. Four days later 230 tons was dropped including 60,000 incendiaries. In Portsmouth Southsea and Gosport waves of 150 bombers destroyed vast swaths of the city with 40,000 incendiaries. Warehouses, rail lines and houses were destroyed and damaged, but the docks were largely untouched.

Why were port cities targeted by the Luftwaffe?

to try to disrupt trade and sea communications

How many times was Swansea bombed heavily?

four times

What was primarily damaged in the attacks?

commercial and domestic areas

What cities had large sections of them destroyed?

Portsmouth Southsea and Gosport

What was left mostly unharmed?

the docks


Although official German air doctrine did target civilian morale, it did not espouse the attacking of civilians directly. It hoped to destroy morale by destroying the enemy's factories and public utilities as well as its food stocks (by attacking shipping). Nevertheless, its official opposition to attacks on civilians became an increasingly moot point when large-scale raids were conducted in November and December 1940. Although not encouraged by official policy, the use of mines and incendiaries, for tactical expediency, came close to indiscriminate bombing. Locating targets in skies obscured by industrial haze meant they needed to be illuminated "without regard for the civilian population".

What was the primary goal of the German air doctrine?

target civilian morale

In November and December of 1940 what changed to make attacks on civilians a moot point?

large-scale raids

What had nearly been considered indiscriminate bombing?

use of mines and incendiaries, for tactical expediency

Lighting targets hidden by haze had to be done without what?

regard for the civilian population


Special units, such as KGr 100, became the Beleuchtergruppe (Firelighter Group), which used incendiaries and high explosive to mark the target area. The tactic was expanded into Feuerleitung (Blaze Control) with the creation of Brandbombenfelder (Incendiary Fields) to mark targets. These were marked out by parachute flares. Then bombers carrying SC 1000 (1,000 kg (2,205 lb)), SC 1400 (1,400 kg (3,086 lb)), and SC 1800 (1,800 kg (3,968 lb)) "Satan" bombs were used to level streets and residential areas. By December, the SC 2500 (2,500 kg (5,512 lb)) "Max" bomb was used.

What was the group that used incendiaries and high explosives to mark targets?

Beleuchtergruppe

The Feuerleitung (Blaze Control) tactic led to what creation for marking targets?

Brandbombenfelder (Incendiary Fields)

What was the nickname of bombs used in streets and residential areas?

"Satan"

What was the weight of the "Max" bomb?

2,500 kg (5,512 lb)


These decisions, apparently taken at the Luftflotte or Fliegerkorps level (see Organisation of the Luftwaffe (1933–1945)), meant attacks on individual targets were gradually replaced by what was, for all intents and purposes, an unrestricted area attack or Terrorangriff (Terror Attack). Part of the reason for this was inaccuracy of navigation. The effectiveness of British countermeasures against Knickebein, which was designed to avoid area attacks, forced the Luftwaffe to resort to these methods. The shift from precision bombing to area attack is indicated in the tactical methods and weapons dropped. KGr 100 increased its use of incendiaries from 13–28 percent. By December, this had increased to 92 percent. Use of incendiaries, which were inherently inaccurate, indicated much less care was taken to avoid civilian property close to industrial sites. Other units ceased using parachute flares and opted for explosive target markers. Captured German air crews also indicated the homes of industrial workers were deliberately targeted.

Decision changes at organizational levels led to what type of attacks?

unrestricted area attack or Terrorangriff (Terror Attack)

What was one of the reasons for unrestricted area attacks?

inaccuracy of navigation

How was it known that precision bombing was changed to area attacks?

tactical methods and weapons dropped

What percentage of incendiaries were used in December?

92 percent

How was it determined that homes of industrial workers were targeted?

Captured German air crews


In 1941, the Luftwaffe shifted strategy again. Erich Raeder—commander-in-chief of the Kriegsmarine—had long argued the Luftwaffe should support the German submarine force (U-Bootwaffe) in the Battle of the Atlantic by attacking shipping in the Atlantic Ocean and attacking British ports. Eventually, he convinced Hitler of the need to attack British port facilities. Hitler had been convinced by Raeder that this was the right course of action due to the high success rates of the U-Boat force during this period of the war. Hitler correctly noted that the greatest damage to the British war economy had been done through submarines and air attacks by small numbers of Focke-Wulf Fw 200 naval aircraft. He ordered attacks to be carried out on those targets which were also the target of the Kriegsmarine. This meant that British coastal centres and shipping at sea west of Ireland were the prime targets.

What did Erich Raeder believe the Luftwaffe needed to do?

support the German submarine force

Raeder convinced Hitler to do what?

attack British port facilities.

What ultimately convinced Hitler that Raeder was right?

the high success rates of the U-Boat force

Submarines and naval aircraft damaged what primarily?

British war economy

What became the new targets for the Kriegsmarine?

British coastal centres and shipping at sea west of Ireland


Hitler's interest in this strategy forced Göring and Jeschonnek to review the air war against Britain in January 1941. This led to Göring and Jeschonnek agreeing to Hitler's Directive 23, Directions for operations against the British War Economy, which was published on 6 February 1941 and gave aerial interdiction of British imports by sea top priority. This strategy had been recognised before the war, but Operation Eagle Attack and the following Battle of Britain had got in the way of striking at Britain's sea communications and diverted German air strength to the campaign against the RAF and its supporting structures. The OKL had always regarded the interdiction of sea communications of less importance than bombing land-based aircraft industries.

What was Hitler's Directive 23?

Directions for operations against the British War Economy

What was a top priority of Directive 23?

aerial interdiction of British imports by sea

What prevented the targeting of sea communications before?

Operation Eagle Attack and the following Battle of Britain

What was considered more important than the interdiction of sea communications?

bombing land-based aircraft industries


Directive 23 was the only concession made by Göring to the Kriegsmarine over the strategic bombing strategy of the Luftwaffe against Britain. Thereafter, he would refuse to make available any air units to destroy British dockyards, ports, port facilities, or shipping in dock or at sea, lest Kriegsmarine gain control of more Luftwaffe units. Raeder's successor—Karl Dönitz—would—on the intervention of Hitler—gain control of one unit (KG 40), but Göring would soon regain it. Göring's lack of cooperation was detrimental to the one air strategy with potentially decisive strategic effect on Britain. Instead, he wasted aircraft of Fliegerführer Atlantik (Flying Command Atlantic) on bombing mainland Britain instead of attacks against convoys. For Göring, his prestige had been damaged by the defeat in the Battle of Britain, and he wanted to regain it by subduing Britain by air power alone. He was always reluctant to cooperate with Raeder.

What was the concession Goring made with the strategic bombing against Britain?

Directive 23

What did Goring believe the Kriegsmarine would gain with further support?

control of more Luftwaffe units

Who was Raeder's successor?

Karl Dönitz

What was detrimental to the success of a strategic effect against Britain?

Göring's lack of cooperation

How did Goring expect to regain prestige?

by subduing Britain by air power alone


Even so, the decision by OKL to support the strategy in Directive 23 was instigated by two considerations, both of which had little to do with wanting to destroy Britain's sea communications in conjunction with the Kriegsmarine. First, the difficulty in estimating the impact of bombing upon war production was becoming apparent, and second, the conclusion British morale was unlikely to break led OKL to adopt the naval option. The indifference displayed by OKL to Directive 23 was perhaps best demonstrated in operational directives which diluted its effect. They emphasised the core strategic interest was attacking ports but they insisted in maintaining pressure, or diverting strength, onto industries building aircraft, anti-aircraft guns, and explosives. Other targets would be considered if the primary ones could not be attacked because of weather conditions.

What was the first consideration for the OKL to support Directive 23?

difficulty in estimating the impact of bombing upon war production

What was the second consideration?

the conclusion British morale was unlikely to break

What did the OKL insist on maintaining?

pressure, or diverting strength, onto industries

When would other targets be considered available?

if the primary ones could not be attacked because of weather conditions


A further line in the directive stressed the need to inflict the heaviest losses possible, but also to intensify the air war in order to create the impression an amphibious assault on Britain was planned for 1941. However, meteorological conditions over Britain were not favourable for flying and prevented an escalation in air operations. Airfields became water-logged and the 18 Kampfgruppen (bomber groups) of the Luftwaffe's Kampfgeschwadern (bomber wings) were relocated to Germany for rest and re-equipment.

What was inflicting heavy losses and increasing the air war designed to do?

create the impression an amphibious assault on Britain was planned for 1941

What was preventing escalation of air operations?

meteorological conditions over Britain

What happened to airfields?

Airfields became water-logged

How many bomber groups were relocated to Germany?


From the German point of view, March 1941 saw an improvement. The Luftwaffe flew 4,000 sorties that month, including 12 major and three heavy attacks. The electronic war intensified but the Luftwaffe flew major inland missions only on moonlit nights. Ports were easier to find and made better targets. To confuse the British, radio silence was observed until the bombs fell. X- and Y-Gerät beams were placed over false targets and switched only at the last minute. Rapid frequency changes were introduced for X-Gerät, whose wider band of frequencies and greater tactical flexibility ensured it remained effective at a time when British selective jamming was degrading the effectiveness of Y-Gerät.

How many sorties were flown in March 1941?

When did the Luftwaffe fly inland missions?

only on moonlit nights

Why were ports better targets?

Ports were easier to find

How did the Germans confuse the British?

radio silence was observed until the bombs fell

Why was the X-Gerat frequencies used more?

British selective jamming was degrading the effectiveness of Y-Gerät


The attacks were focused against western ports in March. These attacks produced some breaks in morale, with civil leaders fleeing the cities before the offensive reached its height. But the Luftwaffe's effort eased in the last 10 attacks as seven Kampfgruppen moved to Austria in preparation for the Balkans Campaign in Yugoslavia and Greece. The shortage of bombers caused the OKL to improvise. Some 50 Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive-bombers and Jabos (fighter-bombers) were used, officially classed as Leichte Kampfflugzeuge ("light bombers") and sometimes called Leichte Kesselringe ("Light Kesselrings"). The defences failed to prevent widespread damage but on some occasions did prevent German bombers concentrating on their targets. On occasion, only one-third of German bombs hit their targets.

What was focused in March?

western ports

What did these attacks accomplish?

breaks in morale

Why was the OKL forced to improvise?

shortage of bombers

How many Ju 87 Stuka dive-bombers and Jabos were used?

How many German bombs hit their target?

only one-third


The diversion of heavier bombers to the Balkans meant that the crews and units left behind were asked to fly two or three sorties per night. Bombers were noisy, cold, and vibrated badly. Added to the tension of the mission which exhausted and drained crews, tiredness caught up with and killed many. In one incident on 28/29 April, Peter Stahl of KG 30 was flying on his 50th mission. He fell asleep at the controls of his Ju 88 and woke up to discover the entire crew asleep. He roused them, ensured they took oxygen and Dextro-Energen tablets, then completed the mission.

How many sorties a night were crews asked to fly?

two or three sorties

What contributed to the exhaustion of crews flying extra sorties?

Bombers were noisy, cold, and vibrated badly

What happened to Peter Stahl when he fell asleep flying?

woke up to discover the entire crew asleep.

What did Peter's crew take to complete their mission?

oxygen and Dextro-Energen tablets


Regardless, the Luftwaffe could still inflict huge damage. With the German occupation of Western Europe, the intensification of submarine and air attack on Britain's sea communications was feared by the British. Such an event would have serious consequences on the future course of the war, should the Germans succeed. Liverpool and its port became an important destination for convoys heading through the Western Approaches from North America, bringing supplies and materials. The considerable rail network distributed to the rest of the country. Operations against Liverpool in the Liverpool Blitz were successful. Air attacks sank 39,126 long tons (39,754 t) of shipping, with another 111,601 long tons (113,392 t) damaged. Minister of Home Security Herbert Morrison was also worried morale was breaking, noting the defeatism expressed by civilians. Other sources point to half of the port's 144 berths rendered unusable, while cargo unloading capability was reduced by 75%. Roads and railways were blocked and ships could not leave harbour. On 8 May 1941, 57 ships were destroyed, sunk or damaged amounting to 80,000 long tons (81,000 t). Around 66,000 houses were destroyed, 77,000 people made homeless, and 1,900 people killed and 1,450 seriously hurt on one night. Operations against London up until May 1941 could also have a severe impact on morale. The populace of the port of Hull became 'trekkers', people who underwent a mass exodus from cities before, during, and after attacks. However, the attacks failed to knock out or damage railways, or port facilities for long, even in the Port of London, a target of many attacks. The Port of London in particular was an important target, bringing in one-third of overseas trade.

What did the British fear most?

intensification of submarine and air attack

What was an important destination for supply convoys from North America?

Liverpool

The Liverpool Blitz sank how much shipping?

39,126 long tons (39,754 t) of shipping

How many ships were destroyed on May 8, 1941?

57 ships

How much of the overseas trade did the Port of London take on?

one-third of overseas trade


On 13 March, the upper Clyde port of Clydebank near Glasgow was bombed. All but seven of its 12,000 houses were damaged. Many more ports were attacked. Plymouth was attacked five times before the end of the month while Belfast, Hull, and Cardiff were hit. Cardiff was bombed on three nights, Portsmouth centre was devastated by five raids. The rate of civilian housing lost was averaging 40,000 people per week dehoused in September 1940. In March 1941, two raids on Plymouth and London dehoused 148,000 people. Still, while heavily damaged, British ports continued to support war industry and supplies from North America continued to pass through them while the Royal Navy continued to operate in Plymouth, Southampton, and Portsmouth. Plymouth in particular, because of its vulnerable position on the south coast and close proximity to German air bases, was subjected to the heaviest attacks. On 10/11 March, 240 bombers dropped 193 tons of high explosives and 46,000 incendiaries. Many houses and commercial centres were heavily damaged, the electrical supply was knocked out, and five oil tanks and two magazines exploded. Nine days later, two waves of 125 and 170 bombers dropped heavy bombs, including 160 tons of high explosive and 32,000 incendiaries. Much of the city centre was destroyed. Damage was inflicted on the port installations, but many bombs fell on the city itself. On 17 April 346 tons of explosives and 46,000 incendiaries were dropped from 250 bombers led by KG 26. The damage was considerable, and the Germans also used aerial mines. Over 2,000 AAA shells were fired, destroying two Ju 88s. By the end of the air campaign over Britain, only eight percent of the German effort against British ports was made using mines.

How many houses were spared damage in Glasgow?

seven

How many people per week were losing housing?

40,000 people

Why was Plymouth targeted the most?

because of its vulnerable position on the south coast

What did the Germans use along with incendiaries and bombs?

aerial mines

How many AAA shells were fired?

Over 2,000


In the north, substantial efforts were made against Newcastle-upon-Tyne and Sunderland, which were large ports on the English east coast. On 9 April 1941 Luftflotte 2 dropped 150 tons of high explosives and 50,000 incendiaries from 120 bombers in a five-hour attack. Sewer, rail, docklands, and electric installations were damaged. In Sunderland on 25 April, Luftflotte 2 sent 60 bombers which dropped 80 tons of high explosive and 9,000 incendiaries. Much damage was done. A further attack on the Clyde, this time at Greenock, took place on 6 and 7 May. However, as with the attacks in the south, the Germans failed to prevent maritime movements or cripple industry in the regions.

What were two large ports on the English east coast in the North?

Newcastle-upon-Tyne and Sunderland

How many bombers were used in a five-hour attack?

Sunderland saw how many incendiaries used against it on 25 April?

9,000 incendiaries

What was the result of the German attacks?

the Germans failed to prevent maritime movements or cripple industry in the regions


The last major attack on London was on 10/11 May 1941, on which the Luftwaffe flew 571 sorties and dropped 800 tonnes of bombs. This caused more than 2,000 fires. 1,436 people were killed and 1,792 seriously injured, which affected morale badly. Another raid was carried out on 11/12 May 1941. Westminster Abbey and the Law Courts were damaged, while the Chamber of the House of Commons was destroyed. One-third of London's streets were impassable. All but one railway station line was blocked for several weeks. This raid was significant, as 63 German fighters were sent with the bombers, indicating the growing effectiveness of RAF night fighter defences.

When was the last major attack London saw?

10/11 May 1941

How many tonnes of bombs did the Luftwaffe use on London?

800 tonnes

How many casualties were inflicted?

1,436 people were killed and 1,792 seriously injured

What was the damage done to London's streets?

One-third of London's streets were impassable

What showed RAF night fighter effectiveness was increasing?

63 German fighters were sent with the bombers


German air supremacy at night was also now under threat. British night-fighter operations out over the Channel were proving highly successful. This was not immediately apparent. The Bristol Blenheim F.1 was undergunned, with just four .303 in (7.7 mm) machine guns which struggled to down the Do 17, Ju 88, or Heinkel He 111. Moreover, the Blenheim struggled to reach the speed of the German bombers. Added to the fact an interception relied on visual sighting, a kill was most elusive even in the conditions of a moonlit sky.

How was the British night fighter operations faring?

were proving highly successful.

How did the Bristol Blenheim F.1 perform against German aircraft?

was undergunned, with just four .303 in (7.7 mm) machine guns

How did the Bristol Blenheim F.1 compare to German aircraft speed?

struggled to reach the speed of the German bombers

What did interception rely upon?

visual sighting


The Boulton Paul Defiant, despite its poor performance during daylight engagements, was a much better night fighter. It was faster, able to catch the bombers and its configuration of four machine guns in a turret could (much like German night fighters in 1943–1945 with Schräge Musik) engage the unsuspecting German bomber from beneath. Attacks from below offered a larger target, compared to attacking tail-on, as well as a better chance of not being seen by the bomber (so less chance of evasion), as well as greater likelihood of detonating its bombload. In subsequent months a steady number of German bombers would fall to night fighters.

What performed better during night fighting?

The Boulton Paul Defiant

How could aircraft engage bombers when fitted with a turret?

engage the unsuspecting German bomber from beneath

What benefits did attacking from below offer?

larger target, compared to attacking tail-on, as well as a better chance of not being seen by the bomber


Improved aircraft designs were in the offing with the Bristol Beaufighter, then under development. It would prove formidable, but its development was slow. The Beaufighter had a maximum speed of 320 mph (510 km/h), an operational ceiling of 26,000 ft (7,900 m) and a climb rate of 2,500 ft (760 m) per minute. Its armament of four 20 mm (0.79 in) Hispano cannon and six .303 in Browning machine guns offered a serious threat to German bombers. On 19 November, John Cunningham of No. 604 Squadron RAF shot down a bomber flying an AI-equipped Beaufighter. It was the first air victory for the airborne radar.

What was the max speed of a Beaufighter?

320 mph (510 km/h)

What is the operational ceiling of the Beaufighter?

26,000 ft (7,900 m)

how many machine guns did the Beaufighter include?

six .303 in Browning machine guns

What day was the first victory the RAF had with airborne radar?

19 November


By April and May 1941, the Luftwaffe was still getting through to their targets, taking no more than one- to two-percent losses on any given mission. On 19/20 April 1941, in honour of Hitler's 52nd birthday, 712 bombers hit Plymouth with a record 1,000 tons of bombs. Losses were minimal. In the following month, 22 German bombers were lost with 13 confirmed to have been shot down by night fighters. On 3/4 May, nine were shot down in one night. On 10/11 May, London suffered severe damage, but 10 German bombers were downed. In May 1941, RAF night fighters shot down 38 German bombers.

What was the most losses the Luftwaffe suffered on any mission?

one- to two-percent losses

How many bombers hit Plymouth on Hitler's birthday?

How many bombs hit Plymouth on Hitler's birthday?

1,000 tons of bombs

On May 3/4 how many German bombers were lost?

nine

How many German bombers were shot down by the RAF in May?

38 German bombers


The military effectiveness of bombing varied. The Luftwaffe dropped around 45,000 short tons (41,000 t) of bombs during the Blitz disrupting production and transport, reducing food supplies and shaking the British morale. It also helped to support the U-Boat blockade by sinking some 58,000 long tons (59,000 t) of shipping destroyed and 450,000 long tons (460,000 t) damaged. Yet, overall the British production rose steadily throughout this period although there were significant falls during April 1941, probably influenced by the departure of workers of Easter Holidays according to the British official history. The British official history on war production noted the great impact was upon the supply of components rather than complete equipment. In aircraft production, the British were denied the opportunity to reach the planned target of 2,500 aircraft in a month, arguably the greatest achievement of the bombing, as it forced the dispersal of industry. In April 1941, when the targets were British ports, rifle production fell by 25%, filled-shell production by 4.6%, and in smallarms production 4.5% overall. The strategic impact on industrial cities was varied; most took from 10–15 days to recover from heavy raids, although Belfast and Liverpool took longer. The attacks against Birmingham took war industries some three months to recover fully from. The exhausted population took three weeks to overcome the effects of an attack.

The Luftwaffe used how many short tons of bombs during the Blitz?

45,000 short tons

The Luftwaffe helped the U-boats by sinking how much shipping?

58,000 long tons

How did the British production fare as a result of all the bombing?

overall the British production rose steadily throughout this period

What was the greatest achievement of the bombings?

British were denied the opportunity to reach the planned target of 2,500 aircraft in a month

How long was the recovery of industrial cities from raids?

most took from 10–15 days


The air offensive against the RAF and British industry failed to have the desired effect. More might have been achieved had the OKL exploited their enemy's weak spot, the vulnerability of British sea communications. The Allies did so later when Bomber Command attacked rail communications and the United States Army Air Forces targeted oil, but that would have required an economic-industrial analysis of which the Luftwaffe was incapable. The OKL instead sought clusters of targets that suited the latest policy (which changed frequently), and disputes within the leadership were about tactics rather than strategy. Though militarily ineffective, the Blitz caused enormous damage to Britain's infrastructure and housing stock. It cost around 41,000 lives, and may have injured another 139,000.

How could have more been achieved in the air offensive?

had the OKL exploited their enemy's weak spot

What did the disputes in the OKL tend to be about?

about tactics rather than strategy

What was the Luftwaffe incapable of doing?

an economic-industrial analysis

How many casualties did the Blitz ultimately cause?

cost around 41,000 lives, and may have injured another 139,000


The relieved British began to assess the impact of the Blitz in August 1941, and the RAF Air Staff used the German experience to improve Bomber Command's offensives. They concluded bombers should strike a single target each night and use more incendiaries because they had a greater impact on production than high explosives. They also noted regional production was severely disrupted when city centres were devastated through the loss of administrative offices, utilities and transport. They believed the Luftwaffe had failed in precision attack, and concluded the German example of area attack using incendiaries was the way forward for operations over Germany.

What helped increase the Bomber Command's offensives?

the German experience

What did the RAF conclude?

bombers should strike a single target each night and use more incendiaries because they had a greater impact on production than high explosives

What caused the most production disruption?

when city centres were devastated through the loss of administrative offices, utilities and transport.

What did the Luftwaffe fail?

failed in precision attack

What did the experience of German's using incendiaries mean?

using incendiaries was the way forward for operations over Germany.


Some writers claim the Air Staff ignored a critical lesson, however: British morale did not break. Targeting German morale, as Bomber Command would do, was no more successful. Aviation strategists dispute that morale was ever a major consideration for Bomber Command. Throughout 1933–39 none of the 16 Western Air Plans drafted mentioned morale as a target. The first three directives in 1940 did not mention civilian populations or morale in any way. Morale was not mentioned until the ninth wartime directive on 21 September 1940. The 10th directive in October 1940 mentioned morale by name. However, industrial cities were only to be targeted if weather denied strikes on Bomber Command's main concern, oil.

What was the critical lesson Air Staff ignored?

Targeting German morale, as Bomber Command would do, was no more successful.

Aviation strategists disputed over what?

that morale was ever a major consideration for Bomber Command.

What did 16 of the Western Air Plans not mention?

morale as a target.

When was morale finally mentioned?

ninth wartime directive on 21 September 1940

When were industrial cities to be targeted?

if weather denied strikes on Bomber Command's main concern, oil.


AOC Bomber Command Arthur Harris did see German morale as a major objective. However, he did not believe that the morale-collapse could occur without the destruction of the German economy. The primary goal of Bomber Command's offensives was to destroy the German industrial base (economic warfare), and in doing so reduce morale. In late 1943, just before the Battle of Berlin, he declared the power of Bomber Command would enable it to achieve "a state of devastation in which surrender is inevitable." A summary of Harris' strategic intentions was clear:

Without what could morale collapse occur according to Arthur Harris?

without the destruction of the German economy.

What was the primary strategy for Bomber Command offensives?

to destroy the German industrial base (economic warfare), and in doing so reduce morale

Arthur Harris announced that Bomber Command would enable economic warfare to achieve what?

"a state of devastation in which surrender is inevitable."


A converse popular image arose of British people in the Second World War: a collection of people locked in national solidarity. This image entered the historiography of the Second World War in the 1980s and 1990s, especially after the publication of Angus Calder's book The Myth of the Blitz (1991). It was evoked by both the right and left political factions in Britain during the Falklands War when it was embedded in a nostalgic narrative in which the Second World War represented aggressive British patriotism successfully defending democracy. This imagery of people in the Blitz was and is powerfully portrayed in film, radio, newspapers and magazines. At the time it was a useful propaganda tool for home and foreign consumption. Historians' critical response to this construction focused on what were seen as over-emphasised claims of righteous nationalism and national unity. In the Myth of the Blitz, Calder exposed some of the counter-evidence of anti-social and divisive behaviours. What he saw as the myth—serene national unity—became "historical truth". In particular, class division was most evident.

What view became popular of the British people in WWII?

people locked in national solidarity.

When did this popular view come to be?

in the 1980s and 1990s, especially after the publication of Angus Calder's book The Myth of the Blitz (1991).

Political factions in Britain supported what view of Britains in WWII?

aggressive British patriotism successfully defending democracy.

What was the Historians' critical response to this view?

over-emphasised claims of righteous nationalism and national unity.

What did Calder try to expose in his book?

some of the counter-evidence of anti-social and divisive behaviours


In the wake of the Coventry Blitz, there was widespread agitation from the Communist Party over the need for bomb-proof shelters. Many Londoners, in particular, took to using the Underground railway system, without authority, for shelter and sleeping through the night there until the following morning. So worried were the Government over the sudden campaign of leaflets and posters distributed by the Communist Party in Coventry and London, that the Police were sent in to seize their production facilities. The Government, up until November 1940, was opposed to the centralised organisation of shelter. Home Secretary Sir John Anderson was replaced by Morrison soon afterwards, in the wake of a Cabinet reshuffle as the dying Neville Chamberlain resigned. Morrison warned that he could not counter the Communist unrest unless provision of shelters were made. He recognised the right of the public to seize tube stations and authorised plans to improve their condition and expand them by tunnelling. Still, many British citizens, who had been members of the Labour Party, itself inert over the issue, turned to the Communist Party. The Communists attempted to blame the damage and casualties of the Coventry raid on the rich factory owners, big business and landowning interests and called for a negotiated peace. Though they failed to make a large gain in influence, the membership of the Party had doubled by June 1941. The "Communist threat" was deemed important enough for Herbert Morrison to order, with the support of the Cabinet, the stoppage of the Daily Worker and The Week; the Communist newspaper and journal.

What was the communist party agitated over?

the need for bomb-proof shelters.

What did Londoners use for bomb-shelters?

Underground railway system

What did Morrison warn he couldn't do?

that he could not counter the Communist unrest unless provision of shelters were made.

Who did the Communists blame for the damage in the Conventry raids?

the rich factory owners, big business and landowning interests

What was Morrison forced to do in response to the Communist Party?

the stoppage of the Daily Worker and The Week; the Communist newspaper and journal.


The brief success of the Communists also fed into the hands of the British Union of Fascists (BUF). Anti-Semitic attitudes became widespread, particularly in London. Rumours that Jewish support was underpinning the Communist surge were frequent. Rumours that Jews were inflating prices, were responsible for the Black Market, were the first to panic under attack (even the cause of the panic), and secured the best shelters via underhanded methods, were also widespread. Moreover, there was also racial antagonism between the small Black, Indian and Jewish communities. However, the feared race riots did not transpire despite the mixing of different peoples into confined areas.

The success of the Communists helped what political group?

British Union of Fascists (BUF)

Where did anti-semitic attitude spread primarily?

particularly in London

What was one the rumors that Jews were doing in regard to shelters?

secured the best shelters via underhanded methods

What was feared would happen when different races were mixed in shelters?

race riots


In other cities, class conflict was more evident. Over a quarter of London's population had left the city by November 1940. Civilians left for more remote areas of the country. Upsurges in population south Wales and Gloucester intimated where these displaced people went. Other reasons, including industry dispersal may have been a factor. However, resentment of rich self-evacuees or hostile treatment of poor ones were signs of persistence of class resentments although these factors did not appear to threaten social order. The total number of evacuees numbered 1.4 million, including a high proportion from the poorest inner-city families. Reception committees were completely unprepared for the condition of some of the children. Far from displaying the nation's unity in time of war, the scheme backfired, often aggravating class antagonism and bolstering prejudice about the urban poor. Within four months, 88% of evacuated mothers, 86% of small children, and 43% of school children had been returned home. The lack of bombing in the Phoney War contributed significantly to the return of people to the cities, but class conflict was not eased a year later when evacuation operations had to be put into effect again.

How much of London's population left?

Over a quarter

What locations saw an increase in populations?

south Wales and Gloucester

What was another reason for populations moving?

industry dispersal may have been a factor

How many evacuees were there?

1.4 million

How much of the population returned in four months?

88% of evacuated mothers, 86% of small children, and 43% of school children


In recent years a large number of wartime recordings relating to the Blitz have been made available on audiobooks such as The Blitz, The Home Front and British War Broadcasting. These collections include period interviews with civilians, servicemen, aircrew, politicians and Civil Defence personnel, as well as Blitz actuality recordings, news bulletins and public information broadcasts. Notable interviews include Thomas Alderson, the first recipient of the George Cross, John Cormack, who survived eight days trapped beneath rubble on Clydeside, and Herbert Morrison's famous "Britain shall not burn" appeal for more fireguards in December 1940.

What are the audiobooks with wartime recordings?

The Blitz, The Home Front and British War Broadcasting

What are some of the things included in these recordings?

period interviews with civilians, servicemen, aircrew, politicians and Civil Defence personnel, as well as Blitz actuality recordings

What is one of the notable recordings included?

Thomas Alderson, the first recipient of the George Cross, John Cormack, who survived eight days trapped beneath rubble on Clydeside

What is a second recording that is of note?

Herbert Morrison's famous "Britain shall not burn" appeal for more fireguards in December 1940.


The Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA; 16 U.S.C. § 1531 et seq.) is one of the few dozens of United States environmental laws passed in the 1970s, and serves as the enacting legislation to carry out the provisions outlined in The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). The ESA was signed into law by President Richard Nixon on December 28, 1973, it was designed to protect critically imperiled species from extinction as a "consequence of economic growth and development untempered by adequate concern and conservation." The U.S. Supreme Court found that "the plain intent of Congress in enacting" the ESA "was to halt and reverse the trend toward species extinction, whatever the cost." The Act is administered by two federal agencies, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).

In what year did the Endangered Species Act become law?

Which president signed the Act into law?

Richard Nixon

Which two federal agencies administer the Act?

the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)

On what day was the Endangered Species Act signed?

December 28

What did the Supreme Court cite as the intent of Congress in enacting the Endangered Species Act?

to halt and reverse the trend toward species extinction, whatever the cost

When was CITES created?

I'm not sure.

What did the Supreme Court sign into law in the 1970s?

I'm not sure.

Who is the President of the FWS?

I'm not sure.

What day did the Supreme Court rule on ESA?

I'm not sure.

Who ruled on which agencies would administer the act?

I'm not sure.


One species in particular received widespread attention—the whooping crane. The species' historical range extended from central Canada South to Mexico, and from Utah to the Atlantic coast. Unregulated hunting and habitat loss contributed to a steady decline in the whooping crane population until, by 1890, it had disappeared from its primary breeding range in the north central United States. It would be another eight years before the first national law regulating wildlife commerce was signed, and another two years before the first version of the endangered species act was passed. The whooping crane population by 1941 was estimated at about only 16 birds still in the wild.

What was the historical range of the whooping crane?

central Canada South to Mexico, and from Utah to the Atlantic coast

What two issues caused steady decline in the whooping crane population?

Unregulated hunting and habitat loss

What was the estimated population of the whooping crane in 1941?

16 birds

How many years after the noted absence of the whooping crane from its breeding range did the first law regulating wildlife commerce pass

eight years

What species is found ranging from Canada to Utah?

I'm not sure.

How many years did it take for the whooping crane to disappear?

I'm not sure.

How many whooping cranes were there in 1890?

I'm not sure.

What was passed in 1941?

I'm not sure.

What year did the whooping crane begin to get attention?

I'm not sure.


The Lacey Act of 1900 was the first federal law that regulated commercial animal markets. It prohibited interstate commerce of animals killed in violation of state game laws, and covered all fish and wildlife and their parts or products, as well as plants. Other legislation followed, including the Migratory Bird Conservation Act of 1929, a 1937 treaty prohibiting the hunting of right and gray whales, and the Bald Eagle Protection Act of 1940. These later laws had a low cost to society–the species were relatively rare–and little opposition was raised.

What was the first federal law that regulated wildlife commerce?

Lacey Act of 1900

What did the first federal wildlife commerce law prohibit?

interstate commerce of animals killed in violation of state game laws

What wildlife was covered by the first federal wildlife commerce regulation?

all fish and wildlife and their parts or products, as well as plants

What law passed in 1940 regarding the population of the U.S. national bird?

Bald Eagle Protection Act of 1940

What legislation was considered costly?

I'm not sure.

What was the first federal treaty?

I'm not sure.

What did the first federal law on wildlife allow regarding interstate commerce?

I'm not sure.

What was the name of the 1937 treaty?

I'm not sure.

Which laws faced significant opposition?

I'm not sure.


It authorized the Secretary of the Interior to list endangered domestic fish and wildlife and allowed the United States Fish and Wildlife Service to spend up to $15 million per year to buy habitats for listed species. It also directed federal land agencies to preserve habitat on their lands. The Act also consolidated and even expanded authority for the Secretary of the Interior to manage and administer the National Wildlife Refuge System. Other public agencies were encouraged, but not required, to protect species. The act did not address the commerce in endangered species and parts.

What did the Endangered Species Act authorize the Secretary of the Interior to do?

list endangered domestic fish and wildlife

The Endangered Species Act permitted how much annual expenditure by the US Fish and Wildlife Service for habitat purchase?

$15 million per year

The Endangered Species Act gave the Secretary of the Interior administrative power of what organization?

the National Wildlife Refuge System

How did the Endangered Species Act impact wildlife commerce?

The act did not address the commerce in endangered species and parts

How did the Endangered Species Act impact other agencies not specifically mentioned in the Act?

Other public agencies were encouraged, but not required, to protect species

How much could the Act spend per year?

I'm not sure.

Who runs the United States Fish and Wildlife Service?

I'm not sure.

What commerce did the ESA affect?

I'm not sure.

What animals could not be listed as endangered due to this act?

I'm not sure.

What did the National Wildlife Refuge System preserve?

I'm not sure.


This first list is referred to as the "Class of '67" in The Endangered Species Act at Thirty, Volume 1, which concludes that habitat destruction, the biggest threat to those 78 species, is still the same threat to the currently listed species. It included only vertebrates because the Department of Interior's definition of "fish and wildlife" was limited to vertebrates. However, with time, researchers noticed that the animals on the endangered species list still were not getting enough protection, thus further threatening their extinction. The endangered species program was expanded by the Endangered Species Act of 1969.

What is the nickname given to the first listing of endangered species?

"Class of '67"

What was concluded to be the biggest threat to the listed species?

habitat destruction

How was the first listing limited in what species were listed?

It included only vertebrates

How did being listed initially impact species?

the animals on the endangered species list still were not getting enough protection, thus further threatening their extinction

How many species are currently listed?

I'm not sure.

What type of animal was not included in Volume 1?

I'm not sure.

What volume was published in 1969?

I'm not sure.

What threat towards species has been neutralized?

I'm not sure.

What is the Endangered Species Act of 1969 referred to as?

I'm not sure.


The Endangered Species Conservation Act (P. L. 91-135), passed in December, 1969, amended the original law to provide additional protection to species in danger of "worldwide extinction" by prohibiting their importation and subsequent sale in the United States. It expanded the Lacey Act's ban on interstate commerce to include mammals, reptiles, amphibians, mollusks and crustaceans. Reptiles were added mainly to reduce the rampant poaching of alligators and crocodiles. This law was the first time that invertebrates were included for protection.

When was the Endangered Species Conservation Act passed?

December, 1969

How did the Endangered Species Conservation Act benefit endangered species?

by prohibiting their importation and subsequent sale in the United States

What did the Endangered Species Conservation Act add to the wildlife definition of the Lacey Act?

mammals, reptiles, amphibians, mollusks and crustaceans

What two reptiles were particularly of interest for the inclusion of "reptiles" in the Endangered Species Conservation Act?

alligators and crocodiles

What important precedent did this set for invertebrates?

This law was the first time that invertebrates were included for protection

What repealed the Lacey Act?

I'm not sure.

What is the identification number for the Lacey Act?

I'm not sure.

Why were mammals added to the protected species list?

I'm not sure.

When was the Lacey Act passed?

I'm not sure.

What was excluded in the 1969 law?

I'm not sure.


President Richard Nixon declared current species conservation efforts to be inadequate and called on the 93rd United States Congress to pass comprehensive endangered species legislation. Congress responded with a completely rewritten law, the Endangered Species Act of 1973 which was signed by Nixon on December 28, 1973 (Pub.L. 93–205). It was written by a team of lawyers and scientists, including the first appointed head of the Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ),an outgrowth of NEPA (The "National Environmental Policy Act of 1969") Dr. Russell E. Train. Dr. Train was assisted by a core group of staffers, including Dr. Earl Baysinger at EPA (currently Assistant Chief, Office of Endangered Species and International. Activities), Dick Gutting (U.S. Commerce Dept. lawyer, currently joined NOAA the previous year (1972), and Dr. Gerard A. "Jerry" Bertrand, a marine biologist (Ph.D, Oregon State University) by training, who had transferred from his post as the Scientific Adviser to the U.S Army Corps of Engineers, office of the Commandant of the Corp. to join the newly formed White House office. The staff, under Dr. Train's leadership, incorporated dozens of new principles and ideas into the landmark legislation; crafting a document that completely changed the direction of environmental conservation in the United States. Dr. Bertrand is credited with writing the most challenged section of the Act, the "takings" clause - Section 2.

Who led the team of lawyers and scientists who crafted the Endangered Species Act of 1973?

Dr. Russell E. Train

The team leader was the first appointed head of what organization?

the Council on Environmental Quality

Who wrote the most challenged section of the Act?

Dr. Gerard A. "Jerry" Bertrand

Who was the core staffer to the legislation that worked for the EPA and continued to work in the Office of Endangered Species?

Dr. Earl Baysinger

What Congress called for the drafting of the Endangered Species Act of 1973?

the 93rd United States Congress

What did the 93rd Congress declare inadequate?

I'm not sure.

Who was the 93rd US President?

I'm not sure.

What law did Nixon rewrite?

I'm not sure.

What section of the act did Dr. Train write?

I'm not sure.

What grew out of CEQ?

I'm not sure.


A species can be listed in two ways. The United States Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) or NOAA Fisheries (also called the National Marine Fisheries Service) can directly list a species through its candidate assessment program, or an individual or organizational petition may request that the FWS or NMFS list a species. A "species" under the act can be a true taxonomic species, a subspecies, or in the case of vertebrates, a "distinct population segment." The procedures are the same for both types except with the person/organization petition, there is a 90-day screening period.

How many different ways can a species be added to the endangered list?

two ways

What federal program is used to list a species?

candidate assessment program

How long is the screening period of an individual's or organization's petition to add a species to the list

90-day screening period

In the case of vertebrates, what is the most lenient interpretation of "species"?

a "distinct population segment."

How many ways FWS list a species?

I'm not sure.

Who does the FWS or NMFS have to petition to list a species?

I'm not sure.

How long does an individual have to petition the FWS?

I'm not sure.

In what case does a distinct population segment not count?

I'm not sure.

What is another name for the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS)?

I'm not sure.


During the listing process, economic factors cannot be considered, but must be " based solely on the best scientific and commercial data available." The 1982 amendment to the ESA added the word "solely" to prevent any consideration other than the biological status of the species. Congress rejected President Ronald Reagan's Executive Order 12291 which required economic analysis of all government agency actions. The House committee's statement was "that economic considerations have no relevance to determinations regarding the status of species."

What word was added to the Endangered Species Act in 1982?

"solely"

Because of the change to the Endangered Species Act in 1982, what is the only consideration for being listed as endangered?

the biological status of the species

Which president issued an Executive Order that required financial consideration of all government actions?

Ronald Reagan

What did Congress do to the Executive Order that would have included financial considerations as a factor for a species to be listed?

Congress rejected

When are economic factors considered?

I'm not sure.

When was Executive Order 12291 put into place?

I'm not sure.

Which president added the word "solely" to the ESA?

I'm not sure.

What was Reagan's statement regarding economic considerations in species status?

I'm not sure.

Whose order did President Reagan reject?

I'm not sure.


Public notice is given through legal notices in newspapers, and communicated to state and county agencies within the species' area. Foreign nations may also receive notice of a listing. A public hearing is mandatory if any person has requested one within 45 days of the published notice. "The purpose of the notice and comment requirement is to provide for meaningful public participation in the rulemaking process." summarized the Ninth Circuit court in the case of Idaho Farm Bureau Federation v. Babbitt.

How is public notice given regarding a listing?

through legal notices in newspapers, and communicated to state and county agencies within the species' area

How long after a published notice of the listing may a public hearing regarding the listing be requested?

45 days

Do listing notices cross international soil?

Foreign nations may also receive notice of a listing

How are policy changes communicated to state and counties?

I'm not sure.

How long does a public hearing last?

I'm not sure.

What case took 45 days to be heard?

I'm not sure.

Which court publishes legal notices?

I'm not sure.

What is not given to foreign nations?

I'm not sure.


The provision of the law in Section 4 that establishes critical habitat is a regulatory link between habitat protection and recovery goals, requiring the identification and protection of all lands, water and air necessary to recover endangered species. To determine what exactly is critical habitat, the needs of open space for individual and population growth, food, water, light or other nutritional requirements, breeding sites, seed germination and dispersal needs, and lack of disturbances are considered.

What section of the Endangered Species Act establishes critical habitat regulations?

Section 4

Critical habitat regulation links what two topics?

habitat protection and recovery goals

What does critical habitat regulation require?

the identification and protection of all lands, water and air necessary to recover endangered species

What is an example of a critical habitat consideration that would apply to plant wildlife?

seed germination and dispersal needs

What section establishes recovery goals?

I'm not sure.

What type of link is formed between identification and protection?

I'm not sure.

What are cataloguing disturbances are not necessary for determining?

I'm not sure.

What are water and air unnecessary for?

I'm not sure.

What does Section 4 separate?

I'm not sure.


All federal agencies are prohibited from authorizing, funding or carrying out actions that "destroy or adversely modify" critical habitats (Section 7(a) (2)). While the regulatory aspect of critical habitat does not apply directly to private and other non-federal landowners, large-scale development, logging and mining projects on private and state land typically require a federal permit and thus become subject to critical habitat regulations. Outside or in parallel with regulatory processes, critical habitats also focus and encourage voluntary actions such as land purchases, grant making, restoration, and establishment of reserves.

What does the Endangered Species Act detail about government action regarding critical habitats?

federal agencies are prohibited from authorizing, funding or carrying out actions that "destroy or adversely modify" critical habitats

How are non-federal government activities that might impact critical habitat often subject to the Endangered Species Act?

require a federal permit

What are some non-regulation actions that critical habitats encourage?

land purchases, grant making, restoration, and establishment of reserves

What are federal agencies allowed to do to critical habitats?

I'm not sure.

Which section applies to private landowners?

I'm not sure.

What does not require a federal permit?

I'm not sure.

What requires voluntary actions?

I'm not sure.

Which aspect applies to non-federal landowners?

I'm not sure.


The ESA requires that critical habitat be designated at the time of or within one year of a species being placed on the endangered list. In practice, most designations occur several years after listing. Between 1978 and 1986 the FWS regularly designated critical habitat. In 1986 the Reagan Administration issued a regulation limiting the protective status of critical habitat. As a result, few critical habitats were designated between 1986 and the late 1990s. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, a series of court orders invalidated the Reagan regulations and forced the FWS and NMFS to designate several hundred critical habitats, especially in Hawaii, California and other western states. Midwest and Eastern states received less critical habitat, primarily on rivers and coastlines. As of December, 2006, the Reagan regulation has not yet been replaced though its use has been suspended. Nonetheless, the agencies have generally changed course and since about 2005 have tried to designate critical habitat at or near the time of listing.

What is the time limit for designating a species critical habitat after the species has been added to the endangered list?

within one year

Which presidential adminstration limited the protective status of critical habitat in 1986?

the Reagan Administration

After the limitations placed on critical habitat were lifted by the courts, where were critical habitats established primarily?

Hawaii, California and other western states

Where have the majority of critical habitats in the Midwest and Eastern states been located geographically?

primarily on rivers and coastlines

What has to be designated after a waiting period of 1 year?

I'm not sure.

What entity caused an increase of critical habitats in between 1986 and the 1990s?

I'm not sure.

What did the Reagan regulations invalidate?

I'm not sure.

How many critical habitats were built between 1978 and 1986?

I'm not sure.

Which two states in the Midwest and Eastern states received fewer habitats?

I'm not sure.