This influx was compounded by the decline of the Western Sudanic Mali Empire in 1375 and the Songhai Empire in 1591. Additionally, as inland regions underwent desertification, inhabitants moved to the wetter coast. These new inhabitants brought skills such as cotton spinning, cloth weaving, iron smelting, rice and sorghum cultivation, and social and political institutions from the Mali and Songhai empires. Shortly after the Mane conquered the region, the Vai people of the former Mali Empire immigrated into the Grand Cape Mount region. The ethnic Kru opposed the influx of Vai, forming an alliance with the Mane to stop further influx of Vai.[citation needed]

What empire was o the decline on 1375?

Western Sudanic Mali Empire

What happened when regions underwent desertification?

inhabitants moved to the wetter coast

Where did the people of the Mali empire immigrate to?

the Grand Cape Mount region.

Who opposed the influx of vai forming an alliance with maine?

The ethnic Kru

When did the Western Sudanic Mali Empire begin?

I'm not sure.

When did the Songhai Empire Begin?

I'm not sure.

Who conquered Mongolia?

I'm not sure.

What group wanted to extend the influence of the Vai?

I'm not sure.

What skills were the Yun Song Empire known for?

I'm not sure.


In the United States, there was a movement to resettle American free blacks and freed slaves in Africa. The American Colonization Society was founded in 1816 in Washington, DC for this purpose, by a group of prominent politicians and slaveholders. But its membership grew to include mostly people who supported abolition of slavery. Slaveholders wanted to get free people of color out of the South, where they were thought to threaten the stability of the slave societies. Some abolitionists collaborated on relocation of free blacks, as they were discouraged by discrimination against them in the North and believed they would never be accepted in the larger society. Most African Americans, who were native-born by this time, wanted to improve conditions in the United States rather than emigrate. Leading activists in the North strongly opposed the ACS, but some free blacks were ready to try a different environment.

What is "the american colonization society"?

a movement to resettle American free blacks and freed slaves in Africa.

When was the "american colonization society founded"?

The "american colonization society" consisted mostly of whom"

people who supported abolition of slavery

What did slave holders want to do?

to get free people of color out of the South

rather than emigrate African Americans wanted to do what?

improve conditions in the United States

What group colonized Central America?

I'm not sure.

What city helped enfranchise former slaves?

I'm not sure.

How did many African Americans feel after the abolition of slavery?

I'm not sure.

Who preferred to live in the North?

I'm not sure.

What did leading activists in the North want to do?

I'm not sure.


In 1822, the American Colonization Society began sending African-American volunteers to the Pepper Coast to establish a colony for freed African Americans. By 1867, the ACS (and state-related chapters) had assisted in the migration of more than 13,000 African Americans to Liberia. These free African Americans and their descendants married within their community and came to identify as Americo-Liberians. Many were of mixed race and educated in American culture; they did not identify with the indigenous natives of the tribes they encountered. They intermarried largely within the colonial community, developing an ethnic group that had a cultural tradition infused with American notions of political republicanism and Protestant Christianity.

African  Americans were sent to the pepper coast to do what?

establish a colony for freed African Americans.

By 1837 the ACS had assisted in moving how many african americans to liberia?

What did African Americans who were moved to Liberia identify as?

Americo-Liberians

Who did Americo-Liberians not identify with?

indigenous natives of the tribes they encountered

What did African Americans moved to Liberia keep from America?

cultural tradition

In what year did volunteers leave the Pepper Coast?

I'm not sure.

What organization was formed by Americo-Liberians?

I'm not sure.

How many African Americans migrated to Liberia in 1867?

I'm not sure.

What did African Americans moved to Liberia keep secret from the ACS?

I'm not sure.

What were natives of the Pepper Coast called?

I'm not sure.


The Americo-Liberian settlers did not identify with the indigenous peoples they encountered, especially those in communities of the more isolated "bush." They knew nothing of their cultures, languages or animist religion. Encounters with tribal Africans in the bush often developed as violent confrontations. The colonial settlements were raided by the Kru and Grebo people from their inland chiefdoms. Because of feeling set apart and superior by their culture and education to the indigenous peoples, the Americo-Liberians developed as a small elite that held on to political power. It excluded the indigenous tribesmen from birthright citizenship in their own lands until 1904, in a repetition of the United States' treatment of Native Americans. Because of the cultural gap between the groups and assumption of superiority of western culture, the Americo-Liberians envisioned creating a western-style state to which the tribesmen should assimilate. They encouraged religious organizations to set up missions and schools to educate the indigenous peoples.

The americo-liberians did not identify with who?

indigenous peoples they encountered,

What were americo-liberians encounters like with tribal Africans"

violent confrontations.

Who raided the colonial settlements?

the Kru and Grebo people from their inland chiefdoms.

What did Americo-liberians exclude tribes from?

citizenship in their own lands

Americo-Liberians set up missions and schools to do what?

to educate the indigenous peoples.

Who did the Americo-Liberian settlers raid?

I'm not sure.

What groups killed the Americo-Liberian children?

I'm not sure.

What did the indigenous peoples envision creating?

I'm not sure.

The indigenous tribesmen set up missions and schools to do what?

I'm not sure.

In what year were indigenous tribesmen allowed to become Liberian citizens?

I'm not sure.


On April 12, 1980, a military coup led by Master Sergeant Samuel Doe of the Krahn ethnic group overthrew and killed President William R. Tolbert, Jr.. Doe and the other plotters later executed a majority of Tolbert's cabinet and other Americo-Liberian government officials and True Whig Party members. The coup leaders formed the People's Redemption Council (PRC) to govern the country. A strategic Cold War ally of the West, Doe received significant financial backing from the United States while critics condemned the PRC for corruption and political repression.

Who was responsible for the death of William R. Tolbert?

a military coup led by Master Sergeant Samuel Doe of the Krahn ethnic group

On what date was William R. Tolbert killed?

April 12, 1980

Who was also executed on the day of William R. Tolbert's death?

majority of Tolbert's cabinet and other Americo-Liberian government officials and True Whig Party members.

The coup leaders later became known as?

the People's Redemption Council

What was the PRC criticized for ?

corruption and political repression

Who led a military coup that killed the American ambassador?

I'm not sure.

On what date did Master Sergeant Samuel Doe become president?

I'm not sure.

Who tried to stop President Tolbert's assasination?

I'm not sure.

What did the United States criticize the PRC for?

I'm not sure.

Who provided financial backing to the United States?

I'm not sure.


The rebels soon split into various factions fighting one another. The Economic Community Monitoring Group under the Economic Community of West African States organized a military task force to intervene in the crisis. From 1989 to 1996 one of Africa's bloodiest civil wars ensued, claiming the lives of more than 200,000 Liberians and displacing a million others into refugee camps in neighboring countries. A peace deal between warring parties was reached in 1995, leading to Taylor's election as president in 1997.

What eventually happened to the rebels?

split into various factions fighting one another.

Who intervened in the rebel crisis?

The Economic Community Monitoring Group under the Economic Community of West African States

What did the economic community monitoring group do to intervene in the crisis?

organized a military task force

During what period did the African civil war last?

1989 to 1996

How many liberians died in the civil war?

What did the Economic Community Monitorig Group cause the rebels to do?

I'm not sure.

In what year did rebels kill 200,000 refugees?

I'm not sure.

Who was the leader of the Economic Community Monitoring Group?

I'm not sure.

What did Taylor do to intervene in the crisis?

I'm not sure.

How many refugees were sent home after a the crisis?

I'm not sure.


In March 2003, a second rebel group, Movement for Democracy in Liberia, began launching attacks against Taylor from the southeast. Peace talks between the factions began in Accra in June of that year, and Taylor was indicted by the Special Court for Sierra Leone for crimes against humanity that same month. By July 2003, the rebels had launched an assault on Monrovia. Under heavy pressure from the international community and the domestic Women of Liberia Mass Action for Peace movement, Taylor resigned in August 2003 and went into exile in Nigeria.

What is "Movement For democracy in Liberia"?

a second rebel group,

Movement For democracy in Liberia launched attacks against who?

Taylor

where did peace talks begin between Movement For democracy in Liberia and Taylor?

Accra in June of that year

Why was Taylor indicted by a special court ?

for crimes against humanity

Who did the rebels launch an assault on in July, 2003?

Monrovia.

When did the Movement for Democracy in Liberia begin launching attacks against Taylor from the Southwest?

I'm not sure.

When did peace talks between factions begin in Nigeria?

I'm not sure.

Who was indicted by the Women of Liberia Mass Action for Peace Movement?

I'm not sure.

When did the rebels surrender Monrovia?

I'm not sure.

When did Taylor go into exile in Accra?

I'm not sure.


The subsequent 2005 elections were internationally regarded as the most free and fair in Liberian history. Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, a Harvard-trained economist and former Minister of Finance, was elected as the first female president in Africa. Upon her inauguration, Sirleaf requested the extradition of Taylor from Nigeria and transferred him to the SCSL for trial in The Hague. In 2006, the government established a Truth and Reconciliation Commission to address the causes and crimes of the civil war.

The 2005 elections were known as what?

the most free and fair in Liberian history

Who is ellen johnson sirleaf?

a Harvard-trained economist and former Minister of Finance

Who was elected the first female president of Africa?

Ellen Johnson Sirleaf

Movement For democracy in Liberia requested the extradition of whom"

Taylor from Nigeria

What was created to address the causes of civil war?

Truth and Reconciliation Commission

What elections saw the defeat of Sirleaf?

I'm not sure.

In what year was Taylor extradited from Nigeria?

I'm not sure.

Who was the first non-African president in Africa?

I'm not sure.

What was created to address the inauguration of Sirleaf?

I'm not sure.

Who was transferred from The Hague for trial in the NIgeria?

I'm not sure.


Liberia is divided into fifteen counties, which, in turn, are subdivided into a total of 90 districts and further subdivided into clans. The oldest counties are Grand Bassa and Montserrado, both founded in 1839 prior to Liberian independence. Gbarpolu is the newest county, created in 2001. Nimba is the largest of the counties in size at 11,551 km2 (4,460 sq mi), while Montserrado is the smallest at 1,909 km2 (737 sq mi). Montserrado is also the most populous county with 1,144,806 residents as of the 2008 census.

How many counties is liberia divided into?

fifteen

How many districts are the 15 counties of liberia divided into?

What is the oldest county in liberia?

Grand Bassa

When was Grand Bassa founded?

What is Liberia's newest county?

Gbarpolu

How many clans is Liberia divided into?

I'm not sure.

In what year was Liberia liberated from Nimba?

I'm not sure.

What county became the capitol in 2001?

I'm not sure.

What county was shown to be the most populous in the 2006 census?

I'm not sure.

What counties were the first to be founded after Liberian independence?

I'm not sure.


The Legislature is composed of the Senate and the House of Representatives. The House, led by a speaker, has 73 members apportioned among the 15 counties on the basis of the national census, with each county receiving a minimum of two members. Each House member represents an electoral district within a county as drawn by the National Elections Commission and is elected by a plurality of the popular vote of their district into a six-year term. The Senate is made up of two senators from each county for a total of 30 senators. Senators serve nine-year terms and are elected at-large by a plurality of the popular vote. The vice president serves as the President of the Senate, with a President pro tempore serving in their absence.

What is the legislature composed of?

the Senate and the House of Representatives

Who is the house led by?

a speaker

How many members are in a house?

What are the 73 members of the house are appropriated among?

the 15 counties on the basis of the national census

What is the senate made up of?

two senators from each county for a total of 30 senators.

What is the minimum number of members in a Legislature session?

I'm not sure.

What is a speaker elected by?

I'm not sure.

Who serves also serves as the speaker?

I'm not sure.

Who takes the place of the speaker when he or she is absent?

I'm not sure.

How many members are in a county?

I'm not sure.


Liberia's highest judicial authority is the Supreme Court, made up of five members and headed by the Chief Justice of Liberia. Members are nominated to the court by the president and are confirmed by the Senate, serving until the age of 70. The judiciary is further divided into circuit and speciality courts, magistrate courts and justices of the peace. The judicial system is a blend of common law, based on Anglo-American law, and customary law. An informal system of traditional courts still exists within the rural areas of the country, with trial by ordeal remaining common despite being officially outlawed.

What is Liberia's highest judicial authority?

Supreme Court

How many members are in the Supreme court?

five

Who is the head of the supreme court?

the Chief Justice of Liberia

How are members chosen for the court?

Members are nominated to the court by the president and are confirmed by the Senate

How long do members of the supreme court serve?

until the age of 70

What is the highest judicial authority in Anglo-America?

I'm not sure.

What is a blend of common law and supreme law?

I'm not sure.

Where does customary law still exist?

I'm not sure.

How many members is the magistrate court made up of?

I'm not sure.

To what age are Senators guaranteed salary?

I'm not sure.


Liberia scored a 3.3 on a scale from 10 (highly clean) to 0 (highly corrupt) on the 2010 Corruption Perceptions Index. This gave it a ranking 87th of 178 countries worldwide and 11th of 47 in Sub-Saharan Africa. This score represented a significant improvement since 2007, when the country scored 2.1 and ranked 150th of 180 countries. When seeking attention of a selection of service[clarification needed] providers, 89% of Liberians had to pay a bribe, the highest national percentage in the world according to the organization's 2010 Global Corruption Barometer.

What was liberia's score on the 2010 Corruption Perceptions index?

What was Liberia's ranking compared to the other 176 countries?

What did Liberia's score  and ranking  on the 2010 Corruption Perceptions index represent?

a significant improvement since 2007

What was Liberia's score and rank on the 2007 Corruption Perceptions index?

scored 2.1 and ranked 150th of 180 countries

In 2007, when seeking attention, selection or service . What percent of Liberians had to pay a bribe?

When was the Corruption Perceptions Index implemented?

I'm not sure.

What rank is does Liberia come in for gender equality?

I'm not sure.

What did Liberia score on the 2011 Corruption Perceptions Index?

I'm not sure.

What percentage of Liberians are from Sub-Saharan Africa?

I'm not sure.

I what year did Liberia score a 1.9 on the Corruption Perceptions Index?

I'm not sure.


The Central Bank of Liberia is responsible for printing and maintaining the Liberian dollar, which is the primary form of currency in Liberia. Liberia is one of the world's poorest countries, with a formal employment rate of 15%. GDP per capita peaked in 1980 at US$496, when it was comparable to Egypt's (at the time). In 2011, the country's nominal GDP was US$1.154 billion, while nominal GDP per capita stood at US$297, the third-lowest in the world. Historically, the Liberian economy has depended heavily on foreign aid, foreign direct investment and exports of natural resources such as iron ore, rubber and timber.

What is the central bank of Liberia responsible for?

printing and maintaining the Liberian dollar

What is Liberia considered around the world economically?

one of the world's poorest countries

What is Liberia's employment rate?

The GDP peaked in 1980 at what amount?

What does Liberia's economy heavily depends on?

foreign aid

What is responsible for printing $1.154 billion Liberian dollars each year?

I'm not sure.

What is Liberia's rate of isolation?

I'm not sure.

What has The Central Bank of Liberia depended heavily on historically?

I'm not sure.

In what year was the Liberian dollar equal to 496 US dollars?

I'm not sure.

What was the GDP per capita of Liberia in 2012?

I'm not sure.


Following a peak in growth in 1979, the Liberian economy began a steady decline due to economic mismanagement following the 1980 coup. This decline was accelerated by the outbreak of civil war in 1989; GDP was reduced by an estimated 90% between 1989 and 1995, one of the fastest declines in history. Upon the end of the war in 2003, GDP growth began to accelerate, reaching 9.4% in 2007. The global financial crisis slowed GDP growth to 4.6% in 2009, though a strengthening agricultural sector led by rubber and timber exports increased growth to 5.1% in 2010 and an expected 7.3% in 2011, making the economy one of the 20 fastest growing in the world.

When did the Liberian economy hit it's peak growth?

Why did the Liberian economy decline after 1980?

economic mismanagement following the 1980 coup.

By what percentage did Liberia's GDP reduced by during the civil war?

Why was Liberia's GDP growth stalled in 2007?

The global financial crisis

In 2011 Liberia's economy was considered what?

one of the 20 fastest growing in the world.

When did the Liberian economy reach peak timber exports?

I'm not sure.

Why was Liberia's GDP growth stalled prior to 2007?

I'm not sure.

In 2011 Liberia's exports were considered what?

I'm not sure.

When was the GDP reduced by 95%?

I'm not sure.

In what year did GDP growth reach 5.1%?

I'm not sure.


In 2003, additional UN sanctions were placed on Liberian timber exports, which had risen from US$5 million in 1997 to over US$100 million in 2002 and were believed to be funding rebels in Sierra Leone. These sanctions were lifted in 2006. Due in large part to foreign aid and investment inflow following the end of the war, Liberia maintains a large account deficit, which peaked at nearly 60% in 2008. Liberia gained observer status with the World Trade Organization in 2010 and is in the process of acquiring full member status.

What were UN sanctions place placed on 2003?

Liberian timber exports

Why were sanctions place on Liberian timber exports?

were believed to be funding rebels in Sierra Leone.

When were the timber export sanctions lifted for Liberia?

in 2006

Liberia's account deficit peaked at what percentage in 2008?

When was Liberia was granted observer status with the world trade organization>

In what year did UN sanctions prohibit membership in the World Trade Organization?

I'm not sure.

In what year were rubber exports US$5 million

I'm not sure.

What happened to Liberia's large export deficit?

I'm not sure.

In what year were World Trade Organization sanctions lifted?

I'm not sure.

What was due in large part to foreign rebels in Sierra Leone?

I'm not sure.


Liberia has the highest ratio of foreign direct investment to GDP in the world, with US$16 billion in investment since 2006. Following the inauguration of the Sirleaf administration in 2006, Liberia signed several multibillion-dollar concession agreements in the iron ore and palm oil industries with numerous multinational corporations, including BHP Billiton, ArcelorMittal, and Sime Darby. Especially palm oil companies like Sime Darby (Malaysia) and Golden Veroleum (USA) are being accused by critics of the destruction of livelihoods and the displacement of local communities, enabled through government concessions. The Firestone Tire and Rubber Company has operated the world's largest rubber plantation in Liberia since 1926.

Liberia has the highest ratio of what?

of foreign direct investment to GDP in the world

How much money has the US invested in Liberia since 2006?

16 billion

What agreement did Liberia sign n 2006?

several multibillion-dollar concession agreements

How long has Firestone tire and rubber company ran a rubber plantation in Liberia?

since 1926

In what year did Liberia invest US$16billion in foreign markets?

I'm not sure.

What industries grew under the Sirleaf Administration?

I'm not sure.

Who operated the world's first rubber plantation in Liberia since 1926?

I'm not sure.

What agreement did foreign investors sign in 2006?

I'm not sure.

Liberia has the lowest ratio of what?

I'm not sure.


The Kpelle comprise more than 20% of the population and are the largest ethnic group in Liberia, residing mostly in Bong County and adjacent areas in central Liberia. Americo-Liberians, who are descendants of African American and West Indian, mostly Barbadian settlers, make up 2.5%. Congo people, descendants of repatriated Congo and Afro-Caribbean slaves who arrived in 1825, make up an estimated 2.5%. These latter two groups established political control in the 19th century which they kept well into the 20th century.

What is the largest ethnic group in liberia?

The Kpelle

What percentage of the population are the Kpelle?

Where do the Kpelle reside?

mostly in Bong County and adjacent areas in central Liberia.

When did the decedents of the Congo and Afro-Caribbean arrive in liberia?

Congo descendants and Afro-Caribbean make of what percentage of liberia's population?

What county contains 20% of Liberia's population?

I'm not sure.

What is the largest ethnic group in Congo?

I'm not sure.

When did the decendents of West Indian settlers arrive in Liberia?

I'm not sure.

Americo-Liberian descendants make up what percentage of African Americans?

I'm not sure.

Who established political control in the 18th century?

I'm not sure.


Numerous immigrants have come as merchants and become a major part of the business community, including Lebanese, Indians, and other West African nationals. There is a high percentage of interracial marriage between ethnic Liberians and the Lebanese, resulting in a significant mixed-race population especially in and around Monrovia. A small minority of Liberians of European descent reside in the country.[better source needed] The Liberian constitution restricts citizenship to people of Black African descent.

There is high percentage of interracial marriage between what two groups?

Liberians and the Lebanese

The interracial couples in Liberia result in what?

a significant mixed-race population

Where do Liberians of European decent live?

in the country

The Liberian constitution restricts citizenship of whom?

Black African descent.

Who became a part of the athletic community?

I'm not sure.

What is there is a high percentage of between Liberians and West African Nationals?

I'm not sure.

Where do Liberians of Black African descent live?

I'm not sure.

The business community results in what?

I'm not sure.

Where do A small minority of Indians live?

I'm not sure.


In 2010, the literacy rate of Liberia was estimated at 60.8% (64.8% for males and 56.8% for females). In some areas primary and secondary education is free and compulsory from the ages of 6 to 16, though enforcement of attendance is lax. In other areas children are required to pay a tuition fee to attend school. On average, children attain 10 years of education (11 for boys and 8 for girls). The country's education sector is hampered by inadequate schools and supplies, as well as a lack of qualified teachers.

What was the literacy rate in Liberia in 2010?

How intense is the enforcement of school attendance?

lax.

On average children attain how many years of education?

10 years

What is Liberia's education system hampered by?

inadequate schools and supplies, as well as a lack of qualified teachers.

What was he literacy rate of Liberia prior to 2010?

I'm not sure.

What is free and compulsory from the ages of 6 to 18?

I'm not sure.

What is the country's environmental sector hampered by?

I'm not sure.

For how many years do children play sports on average?

I'm not sure.

How intense is the enforcement of school dress code?

I'm not sure.


Hospitals in Liberia include the John F. Kennedy Medical Center in Monrovia and several others. Life expectancy in Liberia is estimated to be 57.4 years in 2012. With a fertility rate of 5.9 births per woman, the maternal mortality rate stood at 990 per 100,000 births in 2010. A number of highly communicable diseases are widespread, including tuberculosis, diarrheal diseases and malaria. In 2007, the HIV infection rates stood at 2% of the population aged 15–49  whereas the incidence of tuberculosis was 420 per 100,000 people in 2008. Approximately 58.2% – 66% of women are estimated to have undergone female genital mutilation.

What is the name of the hospital in Monrova?

John F. Kennedy Medical Center

What is the life expectancy in Liberia?

57.4 years

What was the fertility rate of women in 2012?

5.9 births per woman

What was the maternal mortality rate in 2010?

990 per 100,000 births

What were the HIV infection rates in 2007?

What is the life expectancy in Monrovia?

I'm not sure.

What was the fertility rate of women in 2010?

I'm not sure.

What was the maternal mortality rate in 2012?

I'm not sure.

How many cases of HIV were reported in 2008?

I'm not sure.

What percentage of men are estimated to have undergone male genital mutilation?

I'm not sure.


Liberia has a long, rich history in textile arts and quilting, as the settlers brought with them their sewing and quilting skills. Liberia hosted National Fairs in 1857 and 1858 in which prizes were awarded for various needle arts. One of the most well-known Liberian quilters was Martha Ann Ricks, who presented a quilt featuring the famed Liberian coffee tree to Queen Victoria in 1892. When President Ellen Johnson Sirleaf moved into the Executive Mansion, she reportedly had a Liberian-made quilt installed in her presidential office.

What arts does Liberia have a rich history of?

textile arts and quilting

In what years did Liberia host national fairs?

1857 and 1858

Who is Martha Ann Ricks?

the most well-known Liberian quilters

Who did Martha Ann Ricks present the famed Liberian coffee tree to?

Queen Victoria

What did President Ellen Johnson Sirleaf have installed in her presidential office?

Liberian-made quilt

In what years did Liberia host coffee festivals?

I'm not sure.

Who did Martha Ann Ricks present the quilting skills to?

I'm not sure.

What arts were brought to Liberia by Queen Victoria?

I'm not sure.

What kind of tree did Ellen Johnson Sirleaf own?

I'm not sure.

Where did Queen Victoria install her quilt?

I'm not sure.


Beginning in the late 1910s and early 1920s, Whitehead gradually turned his attention from mathematics to philosophy of science, and finally to metaphysics. He developed a comprehensive metaphysical system which radically departed from most of western philosophy. Whitehead argued that reality consists of processes rather than material objects, and that processes are best defined by their relations with other processes, thus rejecting the theory that reality is fundamentally constructed by bits of matter that exist independently of one another. Today Whitehead's philosophical works – particularly Process and Reality – are regarded as the foundational texts of process philosophy.

What did Whitehead first study?

mathematics

What was Whitehead's second area of study?

philosophy

What was Whitehead's final area of study?

metaphysics

What type of system did he develop?

metaphysical

What did Whitehead argue reality consists of?

processes

During which decade did Whitehead's focus start shifting away from mathematics?

After moving away from mathematics, what subjects did Whitehead explore?

philosophy of science, and finally to metaphysics

As opposed to physical objects, what did Whitehead believe reality is composed of?

processes

What was the predominant theory of reality that Whitehead opposed?

reality is fundamentally constructed by bits of matter that exist independently of one another

What book of Whitehead's is now considered a primary source of process philosophy?

Process and Reality

During which decade did Whitehead's focus start shifting away from science?

I'm not sure.

As opposed to physical objects, what did Whitehead believe nonreality is composed of?

I'm not sure.

What song of Whitehead's is now considered a primary source of process philosophy?

I'm not sure.

After moving away from mathematics, what subjects did Whitehead reject?

I'm not sure.

What was the predominant theory of reality that Whitehead agreed with?

I'm not sure.


Alfred North Whitehead was born in Ramsgate, Kent, England, in 1861. His father, Alfred Whitehead, was a minister and schoolmaster of Chatham House Academy, a successful school for boys established by Thomas Whitehead, Alfred North's grandfather. Whitehead himself recalled both of them as being very successful schoolmasters, but that his grandfather was the more extraordinary man. Whitehead's mother was Maria Sarah Whitehead, formerly Maria Sarah Buckmaster. Whitehead was apparently not particularly close with his mother, as he never mentioned her in any of his writings, and there is evidence that Whitehead's wife, Evelyn, had a low opinion of her.

Where was Alfred North Whitehead born?

Ramsgate, Kent, England

What year was Whitehead born?

What was Whitehead's father's profession?

minister and schoolmaster

What was Whitehead's mother's name?

Maria Sarah Whitehead,

What was Whitehead's wife's name?

Evelyn

Where was Alfred North Whitehead born?

Ramsgate, Kent, England

In what year was Whitehead born?

Who founded Chatham House Academy?

Thomas Whitehead, Alfred North's grandfather

What was Whitehead's father's profession?

minister and schoolmaster of Chatham House Academy

Who was Whitehead's mother?

Maria Sarah Whitehead, formerly Maria Sarah Buckmaster

Where was Alfred West Whitehead born?

I'm not sure.

What happened in 1864?

I'm not sure.

Who destroyed Chatham House Academy?

I'm not sure.

What was Whitehead's father's hobbies?

I'm not sure.

Who was Whitehead's aunt?

I'm not sure.


In 1918 Whitehead's academic responsibilities began to seriously expand as he accepted a number of high administrative positions within the University of London system, of which Imperial College London was a member at the time. He was elected Dean of the Faculty of Science at the University of London in late 1918 (a post he held for four years), a member of the University of London's Senate in 1919, and chairman of the Senate's Academic (leadership) Council in 1920, a post which he held until he departed for America in 1924. Whitehead was able to exert his newfound influence to successfully lobby for a new history of science department, help establish a Bachelor of Science degree (previously only Bachelor of Arts degrees had been offered), and make the school more accessible to less wealthy students.

When did Whitehead accept administrative positions?

Where did Whitehead accept administrative positions?

University of London

What was he elected at the University of London?

Dean of the Faculty of Science

When did Whitehead go to America?

In which educational system was Whitehead employed in the late 1910s?

University of London system

What was Whitehead's title at the University of London in late 1918?

Dean of the Faculty of Science

What was Whitehead's last position before he traveled to America?

chairman of the Senate's Academic (leadership) Council

In which year did Whitehead relocate to America?

What degree program did Whitehead contribute to establishing at University of London?

Bachelor of Science

In which year did Whitehead relocate to Africa?

I'm not sure.

What degree program did Whitehead contribute to unestablishing at University of London?

I'm not sure.

What was Whitehead's title at the University of France in late 1918?

I'm not sure.

What was Whitehead's last position before he traveled to Africa?

I'm not sure.


The two volume biography of Whitehead by Victor Lowe is the most definitive presentation of the life of Whitehead. However, many details of Whitehead's life remain obscure because he left no Nachlass; his family carried out his instructions that all of his papers be destroyed after his death. Additionally, Whitehead was known for his "almost fanatical belief in the right to privacy", and for writing very few personal letters of the kind that would help to gain insight on his life. This led to Lowe himself remarking on the first page of Whitehead's biography, "No professional biographer in his right mind would touch him."

How many volumes is the biography of Whitehead?

two

Who wrote the biography of Whitehead?

Victor Lowe

What was Whitehead's wish upon his death for his family?

all of his papers be destroyed after his death.

What did Whitehead believe in so profusely that it was difficult to write a biography on him?

right to privacy

Who authored Whitehead's biography that is considered to be the most reliable description of Whitehead's life?

Victor Lowe

Why was no Nachlass left behind after Whitehead's death?

his family carried out his instructions that all of his papers be destroyed after his death

What was Whitehead's opinion on privacy?

almost fanatical belief in the right to privacy

What did the author of Whitehead's biography comment on the first page regarding the difficulty of obtaining information about Whitehead?

"No professional biographer in his right mind would touch him."

Who authored Whitehead's biography that is considered to be the least reliable description of Whitehead's life?

I'm not sure.

Why was every Nachlass left behind after Whitehead's death?

I'm not sure.

What was Whitehead's opinion on public matters?

I'm not sure.

What did the author of Whitehead's biography comment on the first page regarding the ease of obtaining information about Whitehead?

I'm not sure.

How many pages is the biography of Whitehead?

I'm not sure.


In addition to numerous articles on mathematics, Whitehead wrote three major books on the subject: A Treatise on Universal Algebra (1898), Principia Mathematica (co-written with Bertrand Russell and published in three volumes between 1910 and 1913), and An Introduction to Mathematics (1911). The former two books were aimed exclusively at professional mathematicians, while the latter book was intended for a larger audience, covering the history of mathematics and its philosophical foundations. Principia Mathematica in particular is regarded as one of the most important works in mathematical logic of the 20th century.

What did Whitehead publish numerous articles about?

mathematics

How many books on mathematics did Whitehead write?

three

Who co-wrote Principia Mathematica with Whitehead?

Bertrand Russell

Which of Whitehead's books is known as one of the most important works in mathematical logical?

Principia Mathematica

When did Whitehead write his first book?

What was Whitehead's first published book on mathematics?

A Treatise on Universal Algebra

With what mathematician and philosopher did Whitehead collaborate to write Principia Mathematica?

Bertrand Russell

Who was the intended audience of Whitehead's first two mathematics books?

professional mathematicians

What was Whitehead's final book on mathematics?

An Introduction to Mathematics

What is the significance of Principia Mathematica currently?

regarded as one of the most important works in mathematical logic of the 20th century

What was Whitehead's first unpublished book on mathematics?

I'm not sure.

With what mathematician and philosopher did Whitehead reject to write Principia Mathematica?

I'm not sure.

What was Whitehead's last unpublished book on mathematics?

I'm not sure.

What is the insignificance of Principia Mathematica currently?

I'm not sure.

Who was the intended audience of Whitehead's last mathematics books?

I'm not sure.


At the time structures such as Lie algebras and hyperbolic quaternions drew attention to the need to expand algebraic structures beyond the associatively multiplicative class. In a review Alexander Macfarlane wrote: "The main idea of the work is not unification of the several methods, nor generalization of ordinary algebra so as to include them, but rather the comparative study of their several structures." In a separate review, G. B. Mathews wrote, "It possesses a unity of design which is really remarkable, considering the variety of its themes."

Lie algebras and hypobolic quanternions drew attention to the need for what?

expand algebraic structures

What did reviewer GB Mathews say algebraic structures possessed?

unity of design

Reviewer Alexander Macfarlane believed that the main idea of the work is a comparative study of what?

several structures

What did Lie algebras and hyperbolic quaternions demonstrate a need for?

the need to expand algebraic structures beyond the associatively multiplicative class

How did Alexander Macfarlane summarize the relationship between different methods in "A Treatise on Algebra" in his review?

comparative study of their several structures

What was G.B. Matthew's opinion of "A Treatise on Algebra"?

"It possesses a unity of design which is really remarkable, considering the variety of its themes."

How did Alexander Macfarlane summarize the relationship between similar methods in "A Treatise on Algebra" in his review?

I'm not sure.

What wasnt' G.B. Matthew's opinion of "A Treatise on Algebra"?

I'm not sure.

What did Lie algebras and hyperbolic quaternions not demonstrate a need for?

I'm not sure.

Lie algebras and hypobolic quanternions drew attention to the lack of need for what?

I'm not sure.

What did reviewer GB Mathews say algebraic structures did not possess?

I'm not sure.


Whitehead and Russell had thought originally that Principia Mathematica would take a year to complete; it ended up taking them ten years. To add insult to injury, when it came time for publication, the three-volume work was so massive (more than 2,000 pages) and its audience so narrow (professional mathematicians) that it was initially published at a loss of 600 pounds, 300 of which was paid by Cambridge University Press, 200 by the Royal Society of London, and 50 apiece by Whitehead and Russell themselves. Despite the initial loss, today there is likely no major academic library in the world which does not hold a copy of Principia Mathematica.

How long did Whitehead and Russell think it would take them to complete Principia Mathematica?

a year

How long did it actually take Whitehead and Russell to complete Principia Mathematica?

ten years

How many volumes was Principia Mathematica?

three

How many pages was Principia Mathematica?

Who paid to publish Principia Mathematica?

Cambridge University Press

How long did Whitehead and Russell expect to spend creating Principia Mathematica?

a year

How long did it actually take to complete Principia Mathematica?

ten years

Why was there a funding shortfall for the publishing of Princpia Mathematica?

the three-volume work was so massive (more than 2,000 pages) and its audience so narrow (professional mathematicians)

Who supplied the funding to cover the shortfall?

00 of which was paid by Cambridge University Press, 200 by the Royal Society of London, and 50 apiece by Whitehead and Russell

How prevalent is Principia Mathematica today?

today there is likely no major academic library in the world which does not hold a copy of Principia Mathematica

How long did Whitehead and Russell not expect to spend creating Principia Mathematica?

I'm not sure.

Why was there a funding burst for the publishing of Princpia Mathematica?

I'm not sure.

Who didn't supply the funding to cover the shortfall?

I'm not sure.

How prevalent is Principia Mathematica when it came out?

I'm not sure.


The ultimate substantive legacy of Principia Mathematica is mixed. It is generally accepted that Kurt Gödel's incompleteness theorem of 1931 definitively demonstrated that for any set of axioms and inference rules proposed to encapsulate mathematics, there would in fact be some truths of mathematics which could not be deduced from them, and hence that Principia Mathematica could never achieve its aims. However, Gödel could not have come to this conclusion without Whitehead and Russell's book. In this way, Principia Mathematica's legacy might be described as its key role in disproving the possibility of achieving its own stated goals. But beyond this somewhat ironic legacy, the book popularized modern mathematical logic and drew important connections between logic, epistemology, and metaphysics.

When was Kurt Godel's incompleteness theorem?

What did Kurt Godel's theorem demonstrate about axioms and the inference rules?

some truths of mathematics which could not be deduced from them

Godel couldn't have come to his conclusion without what book?

Principia Mathematica

Besides logic and epistemology, what else did Principia Mathematica connect?

metaphysics

What is the general consensus of the axioms and inference rules declared in Principia Mathematica?

mixed

Who discovered the incompleteness theorem of 1931?

Kurt Gödel

What did the incompleteness theorem of 1931 indicate regarding Principia Mathematica?

for any set of axioms and inference rules proposed to encapsulate mathematics, there would in fact be some truths of mathematics which could not be deduced

Why was Gödels finding ironic?

Gödel could not have come to this conclusion without Whitehead and Russell's book

Despite its imperfection, what are now considered valuable achievements of Principia Mathematica?

the book popularized modern mathematical logic and drew important connections between logic, epistemology, and metaphysics

What is the general consensus of the axioms and inference rules not declared in Principia Mathematica?

I'm not sure.

Who discovered the incompleteness theorem of 1961?

I'm not sure.

What did the incompleteness theorem of 1955 indicate regarding Principia Mathematica?

I'm not sure.


Whitehead's most complete work on education is the 1929 book The Aims of Education and Other Essays, which collected numerous essays and addresses by Whitehead on the subject published between 1912 and 1927. The essay from which Aims of Education derived its name was delivered as an address in 1916 when Whitehead was president of the London Branch of the Mathematical Association. In it, he cautioned against the teaching of what he called "inert ideas" – ideas that are disconnected scraps of information, with no application to real life or culture. He opined that "education with inert ideas is not only useless: it is, above all things, harmful."

What year was The Aims of Education and Other Essays published?

What was the Aims of Education and Other Essays comprised of?

numerous essays and addresses

What teaching did Whitehead caution against teaching?

inert ideas

When was "The Aims of Education and Other Essays" published?

During what periods of time were the essays and address contained in "The Aims of Education and Other Essays" composed?

between 1912 and 1927

What is the origin of the title of the book?

The essay from which Aims of Education derived its name was delivered as an address in 1916

How did Whitehead define "inert ideas"?

ideas that are disconnected scraps of information, with no application to real life or culture

What was Whitehead's criticism of the use of inert ideas in education?

"education with inert ideas is not only useless: it is, above all things, harmful."

When was "The Aims of DeEducation and Other Essays" published?

I'm not sure.

During what periods of time were the essays and address contained in "The Aims of Education and Other Essays" destroyed?

I'm not sure.

What is the origin of the title of the song?

I'm not sure.

How didn't Whitehead define "inert ideas"?

I'm not sure.

What was Whitehead's criticism of the use of inert ideas in noneducation?

I'm not sure.


Rather than teach small parts of a large number of subjects, Whitehead advocated teaching a relatively few important concepts that the student could organically link to many different areas of knowledge, discovering their application in actual life. For Whitehead, education should be the exact opposite of the multidisciplinary, value-free school model – it should be transdisciplinary, and laden with values and general principles that provide students with a bedrock of wisdom and help them to make connections between areas of knowledge that are usually regarded as separate.

Whitehead's education style was to teach what?

a relatively few important concepts

What should Whitehead's students organically link due to his teaching methods?

different areas of knowledge, discovering their application in actual life.

Whitehead believed education should be the opposite of what?

value-free school model

What did Whitehead believe regarding the variety of subjects in education?

Whitehead advocated teaching a relatively few important concepts

How did Whitehead propose that students would expand their knowledge beyond the subjects taught in school?

important concepts that the student could organically link to many different areas of knowledge, discovering their application in actual life

What was Whitehead's general opinion of what the school model should be?

For Whitehead, education should be the exact opposite of the multidisciplinary, value-free school model

What was Whitehead's opinion on the inclusion of values and general principles in education?

it should be transdisciplinary, and laden with values and general principles that provide students with a bedrock of wisdom

How did Whitehead reject that students would expand their knowledge beyond the subjects taught in school?

I'm not sure.

What was Whitehead's opinion on the inclusion of values and general principles in noneducation?

I'm not sure.

What did Whitehead believe regarding the lack of variety of subjects in education?

I'm not sure.

What was Whitehead's general opinion of what the school model shouldn't be?

I'm not sure.


Whitehead did not begin his career as a philosopher. In fact, he never had any formal training in philosophy beyond his undergraduate education. Early in his life he showed great interest in and respect for philosophy and metaphysics, but it is evident that he considered himself a rank amateur. In one letter to his friend and former student Bertrand Russell, after discussing whether science aimed to be explanatory or merely descriptive, he wrote: "This further question lands us in the ocean of metaphysic, onto which my profound ignorance of that science forbids me to enter." Ironically, in later life Whitehead would become one of the 20th century's foremost metaphysicians.

What is the highest Whitehead was trained in philosophy?

undergraduate

What did Whitehead consider himself as a philosopher?

rank amateur

What is the relationship between Whitehead and Russell?

friend and former student

What was Whitehead considered as a metaphysician?

one of the 20th century's foremost metaphysicians.

What was the extent of Whitehead's education in philosophy?

he never had any formal training in philosophy beyond his undergraduate education

With what friend and former student did Whitehead correspond regarding the goals of science?

Bertrand Russell

What was Whitehead's opinion of his own knowledge of metaphysics in that correspondence?

"This further question lands us in the ocean of metaphysic, onto which my profound ignorance of that science forbids me to enter."

How did Whitehead eventually become regarded in the field of metaphysics?

in later life Whitehead would become one of the 20th century's foremost metaphysicians

What was the extent of Whitehead's noneducation in philosophy?

I'm not sure.

With what friend and former student did Whitehead not correspond regarding the goals of science?

I'm not sure.

What wasn't Whitehead's opinion of his own knowledge of metaphysics in that correspondence?

I'm not sure.

How did Whitehead eventually become regarded in the field of science?

I'm not sure.


Whitehead was unimpressed by this objection. In the notes of one his students for a 1927 class, Whitehead was quoted as saying: "Every scientific man in order to preserve his reputation has to say he dislikes metaphysics. What he means is he dislikes having his metaphysics criticized." In Whitehead's view, scientists and philosophers make metaphysical assumptions about how the universe works all the time, but such assumptions are not easily seen precisely because they remain unexamined and unquestioned. While Whitehead acknowledged that "philosophers can never hope finally to formulate these metaphysical first principles," he argued that people need to continually re-imagine their basic assumptions about how the universe works if philosophy and science are to make any real progress, even if that progress remains permanently asymptotic. For this reason Whitehead regarded metaphysical investigations as essential to both good science and good philosophy.

What do philosophers do, in Whitehead's view?

make metaphysical assumptions about how the universe works

Assumptions of how the universe works are difficult to see precisely because of what?

they remain unexamined and unquestioned

What did Whitehead ask people to reimagine in order for philosophy to make progress?

basic assumptions about how the universe works

What did Whitehead regard as essential to good science and good philosophy?

metaphysical investigations

What quotation of Whitehead's was noted by a student in 1927?

"Every scientific man in order to preserve his reputation has to say he dislikes metaphysics. What he means is he dislikes having his metaphysics criticized."

What was Whitehead's opinion of basic assumptions in metaphysics?

such assumptions are not easily seen precisely because they remain unexamined and unquestioned

What did Whitehead feel was necessary regarding basic assumptions in metaphysics?

people need to continually re-imagine their basic assumptions about how the universe works if philosophy and science are to make any real progress

What was Whitehead's opinion of metaphysical investigations?

Whitehead regarded metaphysical investigations as essential to both good science and good philosophy

What quotation of Whitehead's was noted by a student in 1977?

I'm not sure.

What did Whitehead feel was necessary regarding complex assumptions in metaphysics?

I'm not sure.

What was Whitehead's opinion of nonmetaphysical investigations?

I'm not sure.


Perhaps foremost among what Whitehead considered faulty metaphysical assumptions was the Cartesian idea that reality is fundamentally constructed of bits of matter that exist totally independently of one another, which he rejected in favor of an event-based or "process" ontology in which events are primary and are fundamentally interrelated and dependent on one another. He also argued that the most basic elements of reality can all be regarded as experiential, indeed that everything is constituted by its experience. He used the term "experience" very broadly, so that even inanimate processes such as electron collisions are said to manifest some degree of experience. In this, he went against Descartes' separation of two different kinds of real existence, either exclusively material or else exclusively mental. Whitehead referred to his metaphysical system as "philosophy of organism", but it would become known more widely as "process philosophy."

What idea states that reality is fundamentally constructed of bits of matter?

Cartesian idea

Whitehead rejected the Cartesian idea in favor of what?

an event-based or "process" ontology

Whitehead believed instead of matter existing independently of each other, it did what?

interrelated and dependent

Whitehead believed that reality should be regarded as what?

experiential

Whitehead's system as "philosophy of organism" became widely known as what term?

process philosophy

What Cartesian concept did Whitehead believe to be erroneous?

reality is fundamentally constructed of bits of matter that exist totally independently of one another

What theory did Whitehead prefer to the Cartesian concept?

event-based or "process" ontology in which events are primary and are fundamentally interrelated and dependent on one another

How did whitehead define "experience"?

He used the term "experience" very broadly, so that even inanimate processes such as electron collisions are said to manifest some degree of experience

How did Descartes' distinguish types of existence?

two different kinds of real existence, either exclusively material or else exclusively mental

How did Whitehead identify his system of metaphysics?

"philosophy of organism"

What Cartesian concept did Whitehead believe to be correct?

I'm not sure.

What theory did Whitehead not prefer to the Cartesian concept?

I'm not sure.

How did whitehead define "inexperience"?

I'm not sure.

How did Whitehead identify his system of math?

I'm not sure.


This is not to say that Whitehead's thought was widely accepted or even well-understood. His philosophical work is generally considered to be among the most difficult to understand in all of the western canon. Even professional philosophers struggled to follow Whitehead's writings. One famous story illustrating the level of difficulty of Whitehead's philosophy centers around the delivery of Whitehead's Gifford lectures in 1927–28 – following Arthur Eddington's lectures of the year previous – which Whitehead would later publish as Process and Reality:

In all of the western canon, what is Whitehead's work considered?

the most difficult to understand

Who also struggled to follow Whitehead's writings?

professional philosophers

When did Whitehead delivery the Gifford lectures?

Following Arthur Eddington's lectures, what did Whitehead  publish?

Process and Reality

What is the general opinion of the difficulty level of Whitehead's work in philosophy?

generally considered to be among the most difficult to understand in all of the western canon

What lectures did Whitehead present in 1927-28?

Gifford lectures

Under what name were those lectures later published?

Process and Reality

What is the general opinion of the difficulty level of Whitehead's work in math?

I'm not sure.

What lectures did Whitehead not present in 1927-28?

I'm not sure.

Under what name were those lectures first published?

I'm not sure.

In all of the western canon, what is Whitehead's work never considered?

I'm not sure.


However, Mathews' frustration with Whitehead's books did not negatively affect his interest. In fact, there were numerous philosophers and theologians at Chicago's Divinity School that perceived the importance of what Whitehead was doing without fully grasping all of the details and implications. In 1927 they invited one of America's only Whitehead experts – Henry Nelson Wieman – to Chicago to give a lecture explaining Whitehead's thought. Wieman's lecture was so brilliant that he was promptly hired to the faculty and taught there for twenty years, and for at least thirty years afterward Chicago's Divinity School was closely associated with Whitehead's thought.

Who was frustrated in Whitehead's books but still interested?

Mathews

What school recognized the importance of Whitehead's work?

Chicago's Divinity School

Who was invited to the Chicago Divinity school as one of Whitehead's only experts?

Henry Nelson Wieman

When was Henry Nelson Wieman invited to the Chicago Divinity school?

What happened after Henry Nelson Wieman gave a lecture about Whitehead?

hired

What affect did Matthews' opinion of the difficulty of Whitehead's works have on his interest in them?

Mathews' frustration with Whitehead's books did not negatively affect his interest

How did many philosophers and theologians at Chicago's Divinity School view Whitehead's work?

perceived the importance of what Whitehead was doing without fully grasping all of the details and implications

What expert on Whitehead delivered a lecture at the school to explain Whitehead's ideas?

Henry Nelson Wieman

What was the result of that lecture?

Wieman's lecture was so brilliant that he was promptly hired to the faculty and taught there for twenty years

What affect did Matthews' opinion of the ease of Whitehead's works have on his interest in them?

I'm not sure.

How did many philosophers and theologians at Illinois Divinity School view Whitehead's work?

I'm not sure.

What expert on Whitehead delivered a lecture at the school to reject Whitehead's ideas?

I'm not sure.

Who was amused in Whitehead's books but still interested?

I'm not sure.


Wieman's words proved prophetic. Though Process and Reality has been called "arguably the most impressive single metaphysical text of the twentieth century," it has been little-read and little-understood, partly because it demands – as Isabelle Stengers puts it – "that its readers accept the adventure of the questions that will separate them from every consensus." Whitehead questioned western philosophy's most dearly held assumptions about how the universe works, but in doing so he managed to anticipate a number of 21st century scientific and philosophical problems and provide novel solutions.

Which publication is considered the most impressive metaphysical text?

Process and Reality

Who thought Process and Reality was little-read because the reader has to separate them from normal thought?

Isabelle Stengers

What philosophy in the west was challenged by Whitehead?

how the universe works

What was Whitehead's philosophy able to anticipate for the 21st century?

scientific and philosophical problems

What was the outcome of anticipating the scientific and philosophical problems Whitehead proposed?

novel solutions

How has "Process and Reality" been described?

"arguably the most impressive single metaphysical text of the twentieth century,"

What did Isabelle Stengers say is the reason that "Process and Reality" is not commonly read and understood?

it demands – as Isabelle Stengers puts it – "that its readers accept the adventure of the questions that will separate them from every consensus."

What effect did Whitehead have on the future of metaphysics?

he managed to anticipate a number of 21st century scientific and philosophical problems and provide novel solutions.

How has "Process and Reality" been rejected?

I'm not sure.

What did Isabelle Stengers say is the reason that "Process and Reality" is commonly read and understood?

I'm not sure.

What effect did Whitehead have on the past of metaphysics?

I'm not sure.

Which publication is considered the least impressive metaphysical text?

I'm not sure.


In Whitehead's view, then, concepts such as "quality", "matter", and "form" are problematic. These "classical" concepts fail to adequately account for change, and overlook the active and experiential nature of the most basic elements of the world. They are useful abstractions, but are not the world's basic building blocks. What is ordinarily conceived of as a single person, for instance, is philosophically described as a continuum of overlapping events. After all, people change all the time, if only because they have aged by another second and had some further experience. These occasions of experience are logically distinct, but are progressively connected in what Whitehead calls a "society" of events. By assuming that enduring objects are the most real and fundamental things in the universe, materialists have mistaken the abstract for the concrete (what Whitehead calls the "fallacy of misplaced concreteness").

Concepts such as quality, matter, and form fail to account for what?

change

What concepts overlook the experiential nature of basic elements?

quality", "matter", and "form"

What are the concepts quality, matter, and form considered?

"classical" concepts

Instead of being a single person, what does Whitehead view a person as?

continuum of overlapping events

What does Whitehead call experiences that are progressively connected?

society

What basic concepts did Whitehead believe were questionable?

"quality", "matter", and "form"

Why did he believe those concepts were inaccurate?

These "classical" concepts fail to adequately account for change, and overlook the active and experiential nature of the most basic elements of the world.

How did Whitehead classify what is usually seen as an individual person?

a continuum of overlapping events

How did Whitehead refer to the combination of a person's separate experiences?

a "society" of events

How did Whitehead define the "fallacy of misplaced concreteness"?

By assuming that enduring objects are the most real and fundamental things in the universe, materialists have mistaken the abstract for the concrete

What basic concepts did Whitehead believe were not questionable?

I'm not sure.

Why did he believe those concepts were accurate?

I'm not sure.

How did Whitehead refer to the combination of a person's not separate experiences?

I'm not sure.

How did Whitehead classify what is usually seen as a nonindividual person?

I'm not sure.

How did Whitehead define the "fallacy of well placed concreteness"?

I'm not sure.


To put it another way, a thing or person is often seen as having a "defining essence" or a "core identity" that is unchanging, and describes what the thing or person really is. In this way of thinking, things and people are seen as fundamentally the same through time, with any changes being qualitative and secondary to their core identity (e.g. "Mark's hair has turned gray as he has gotten older, but he is still the same person"). But in Whitehead's cosmology, the only fundamentally existent things are discrete "occasions of experience" that overlap one another in time and space, and jointly make up the enduring person or thing. On the other hand, what ordinary thinking often regards as "the essence of a thing" or "the identity/core of a person" is an abstract generalization of what is regarded as that person or thing's most important or salient features across time. Identities do not define people, people define identities. Everything changes from moment to moment, and to think of anything as having an "enduring essence" misses the fact that "all things flow", though it is often a useful way of speaking.

The idea that people are unchanging and stay the same even through changes is considered what?

defining essence

In Whitehead's cosmology, what are the only things that fundamentally exist?

occasions of experience

Where do occasions of experience overlap?

time and space

In Whitehead's view, identities do not define people, but what?

people define identities

Instead of having an enduring essence, what does Whitehead believe?

all things flow"

Regarding the idea that individuals or objects don't fundamentally change, what terms can be used to describe what an object or individual actually is?

"defining essence" or a "core identity"

In that line of thinking, how are changes described?

qualitative and secondary to their core identity

What did Whitehead believe were essentially the only things that truly exist?

discrete "occasions of experience" that overlap one another in time and space, and jointly make up the enduring person or thing

Regarding the idea that individuals or objects fundamentally change, what terms can be used to describe what an object or individual actually is?

I'm not sure.

In that line of thinking, how are changes never described?

I'm not sure.

What did Whitehead believe were not essentially the only things that truly exist?

I'm not sure.

The idea that people are changing and stay the same even through changes is considered what?

I'm not sure.

In Whitehead's cosmology, what are the only things that fundamentally dont exist?

I'm not sure.


Whitehead pointed to the limitations of language as one of the main culprits in maintaining a materialistic way of thinking, and acknowledged that it may be difficult to ever wholly move past such ideas in everyday speech. After all, each moment of each person's life can hardly be given a different proper name, and it is easy and convenient to think of people and objects as remaining fundamentally the same things, rather than constantly keeping in mind that each thing is a different thing from what it was a moment ago. Yet the limitations of everyday living and everyday speech should not prevent people from realizing that "material substances" or "essences" are a convenient generalized description of a continuum of particular, concrete processes. No one questions that a ten-year-old person is quite different by the time he or she turns thirty years old, and in many ways is not the same person at all; Whitehead points out that it is not philosophically or ontologically sound to think that a person is the same from one second to the next.

What did Whitehead believe was a culprit in maintaining a materialistic way of thinking?

limitations of language

Why couldn't each moment of each person's life be given a different proper name?

limitations of language

Whitehead's main philosophy on humans changing is what?

each thing is a different thing from what it was a moment ago

What did Whitehead believe was one of the biggest reasons materialistic thinking endured?

limitations of language

Why did Whitehead think people continued to subscribe to materialistic thinking?

it is easy and convenient to think of people and objects as remaining fundamentally the same things

What did Whitehead believe regarding factors that limit people's understanding of his concepts?

should not prevent people from realizing that "material substances" or "essences" are a convenient generalized description of a continuum

What did Whitehead state about the belief that a person is exactly the same from moment to moment?

it is not philosophically or ontologically sound

Why did Whitehead think people continued to subscribe to nonmaterialistic thinking?

I'm not sure.

What did Whitehead believe regarding factors that don't limit people's understanding of his concepts?

I'm not sure.

What did Whitehead believe was one of the biggest reasons materialistic thinking did not endure?

I'm not sure.


A second problem with materialism is that it obscures the importance of relations. It sees every object as distinct and discrete from all other objects. Each object is simply an inert clump of matter that is only externally related to other things. The idea of matter as primary makes people think of objects as being fundamentally separate in time and space, and not necessarily related to anything. But in Whitehead's view, relations take a primary role, perhaps even more important than the relata themselves. A student taking notes in one of Whitehead's fall 1924 classes wrote that:

What obscures the importance of relations according to Whitehead?

materialism

What does Materialism see each object as?

distinct and discrete

How is each object related to other things?

externally

What is another issue that Whitehead had with materialism?

it obscures the importance of relations

What is the general materialistic view of an object?

Each object is simply an inert clump of matter that is only externally related to other things

How the fundamental concept of matter influence people to view objects?

The idea of matter as primary makes people think of objects as being fundamentally separate in time and space, and not necessarily related to anything

What is Whitehead's belief regarding the importance of relations?

in Whitehead's view, relations take a primary role, perhaps even more important than the relata themselves

What is the materialistic view of matter in relation to other objects?

It sees every object as distinct and discrete from all other objects.

How the fundamental concept of matter influence people to not view objects?

I'm not sure.

What is another issue that Whitehead had without materialism?

I'm not sure.

What is the general non-materialistic view of an object?

I'm not sure.

What is Whitehead's non-belief regarding the importance of relations?

I'm not sure.

What is the materialistic view of matter in relation to no ohter objects?

I'm not sure.


In fact, Whitehead describes any entity as in some sense nothing more and nothing less than the sum of its relations to other entities – its synthesis of and reaction to the world around it. A real thing is just that which forces the rest of the universe to in some way conform to it; that is to say, if theoretically a thing made strictly no difference to any other entity (i.e. it was not related to any other entity), it could not be said to really exist. Relations are not secondary to what a thing is, they are what the thing is.

Whitehead believes any entity is in some sense what?

nothing more and nothing less than the sum of its relations to other entities

If an object made no difference to any other entity, what could be said about it?

not be said to really exist.

If relations are not secondary to what a thing is, what is it?

they are what the thing is

What makes up the sum of relations to an entity?

rld around it

A real object forces the universe to do what?

in some way conform to it

How does Whitehead characterize anything that exists?

in some sense nothing more and nothing less than the sum of its relations to other entities – its synthesis of and reaction to the world around it

How does he describe what makes something real?

A real thing is just that which forces the rest of the universe to in some way conform to it

In Whitehead's thinking, what could be said about something that has no effect on any other person or object?

if theoretically a thing made strictly no difference to any other entity (i.e. it was not related to any other entity), it could not be said to really exist

What did Whitehead believe about the concept of relations in the context of defining an entity?

Relations are not secondary to what a thing is, they are what the thing is.

How does Whitehead not characterize anything that exists?

I'm not sure.

How does he describe what makes something fake?

I'm not sure.

In Whitehead's thinking, what could be said about something that has a lot of effect on any other person or object?

I'm not sure.

What did Whitehead believe about the concept of relations in the context of not defining an entity?

I'm not sure.


It must be emphasized, however, that an entity is not merely a sum of its relations, but also a valuation of them and reaction to them. For Whitehead, creativity is the absolute principle of existence, and every entity (whether it is a human being, a tree, or an electron) has some degree of novelty in how it responds to other entities, and is not fully determined by causal or mechanistic laws. Of course, most entities do not have consciousness. As a human being's actions cannot always be predicted, the same can be said of where a tree's roots will grow, or how an electron will move, or whether it will rain tomorrow. Moreover, inability to predict an electron's movement (for instance) is not due to faulty understanding or inadequate technology; rather, the fundamental creativity/freedom of all entities means that there will always remain phenomena that are unpredictable.

An entity is a sum of relations, a valuation of them and what else?

reaction to them.

Most entities do not have what?

consciousness

All entities, being unable to predict behavior, are because of what?

the fundamental creativity/freedom of all entities

Not being able to predict what any entity is going to do is what principle b Whitehead?

creativity is the absolute principle of existence

Other than the combination of its relations, what else defines an entity?

an entity is not merely a sum of its relations, but also a valuation of them and reaction to them

What did Whitehead believe regarding creativity?

creativity is the absolute principle of existence

What did Whitehead believe about an entity's relation to other entities?

has some degree of novelty in how it responds to other entities, and is not fully determined by causal or mechanistic laws

Other than the combination of its relations, what else does not define an entity?

I'm not sure.

What did Whitehead believe regarding non-creativity?

I'm not sure.

An entity is not a sum of relations, a valuation of them and what else?

I'm not sure.


Since Whitehead's metaphysics described a universe in which all entities experience, he needed a new way of describing perception that was not limited to living, self-conscious beings. The term he coined was "prehension", which comes from the Latin prehensio, meaning "to seize." The term is meant to indicate a kind of perception that can be conscious or unconscious, applying to people as well as electrons. It is also intended to make clear Whitehead's rejection of the theory of representative perception, in which the mind only has private ideas about other entities. For Whitehead, the term "prehension" indicates that the perceiver actually incorporates aspects of the perceived thing into itself. In this way, entities are constituted by their perceptions and relations, rather than being independent of them. Further, Whitehead regards perception as occurring in two modes, causal efficacy (or "physical prehension") and presentational immediacy (or "conceptual prehension").

What term did Whitehead describe that perception is not limited to the living?

prehension

What language does the term "prehensio" come from?

Latin

What does the word "Prehensio" translate into?

to seize

What entities does the term prehension apply to?

conscious or unconscious

How many modes does perception occur in according to Whitehead?

two

What is the origin of the word "prehension"?

comes from the Latin prehensio, meaning "to seize."

What is prehension used to define?

a kind of perception that can be conscious or unconscious, applying to people as well as electrons

What is a basic description of the theory of representative perception?

the mind only has private ideas about other entities

What does the term "prehension" signify regarding an entities perceptions and relations?

entities are constituted by their perceptions and relations, rather than being independent of them

What did Whitehead state are the two types of perception?

causal efficacy (or "physical prehension") and presentational immediacy (or "conceptual prehension")

What does the term "prehension" signify regarding an entities nonperceptions and nonrelations?

I'm not sure.

What is a basic description of the theory of non-representative perception?

I'm not sure.

What is not the origin of the word "prehension"?

I'm not sure.

What is prehension used to not define?

I'm not sure.


Whitehead describes causal efficacy as "the experience dominating the primitive living organisms, which have a sense for the fate from which they have emerged, and the fate towards which they go." It is, in other words, the sense of causal relations between entities, a feeling of being influenced and affected by the surrounding environment, unmediated by the senses. Presentational immediacy, on the other hand, is what is usually referred to as "pure sense perception", unmediated by any causal or symbolic interpretation, even unconscious interpretation. In other words, it is pure appearance, which may or may not be delusive (e.g. mistaking an image in a mirror for "the real thing").

What is the term for the experience dominating primitive organisms that have a sense for fate?

causal efficacy

What is the other term for "pure sense perception"?

Presentational immediacy

What is it called if you mistake a reflection in a mirror for the real thing?

Presentational immediacy

How does Whitehead define causal efficacy?

"the experience dominating the primitive living organisms, which have a sense for the fate from which they have emerged, and the fate towards which they go."

How do the senses affect causal efficacy?

unmediated by the senses

How does Whitehead define presentational immediacy?

"pure sense perception", unmediated by any causal or symbolic interpretation, even unconscious interpretation

What can be said about the accuracy of presentational immediacy?

it is pure appearance, which may or may not be delusive

What can be said about the inaccuracy of presentational immediacy?

I'm not sure.

How does Whitehead define noncausal efficacy?

I'm not sure.

How do the senses affect non-causal efficacy?

I'm not sure.

How does Whitehead define unpresentational immediacy?

I'm not sure.


In higher organisms (like people), these two modes of perception combine into what Whitehead terms "symbolic reference", which links appearance with causation in a process that is so automatic that both people and animals have difficulty refraining from it. By way of illustration, Whitehead uses the example of a person's encounter with a chair. An ordinary person looks up, sees a colored shape, and immediately infers that it is a chair. However, an artist, Whitehead supposes, "might not have jumped to the notion of a chair", but instead "might have stopped at the mere contemplation of a beautiful color and a beautiful shape." This is not the normal human reaction; most people place objects in categories by habit and instinct, without even thinking about it. Moreover, animals do the same thing. Using the same example, Whitehead points out that a dog "would have acted immediately on the hypothesis of a chair and would have jumped onto it by way of using it as such." In this way symbolic reference is a fusion of pure sense perceptions on the one hand and causal relations on the other, and that it is in fact the causal relationships that dominate the more basic mentality (as the dog illustrates), while it is the sense perceptions which indicate a higher grade mentality (as the artist illustrates).

What is Whitehead's term for the two modes of perceptions combining?

symbolic reference

What does symbolic reference link appearance with?

causation

What dominates more basic mentality in symbolic reference?

causal relationships

What does having sense perceptions conclude about a person?

higher grade mentality

What is the purpose of symbolic reference?

links appearance with causation in a process that is so automatic that both people and animals have difficulty refraining from it

How does Whitehead describe the process of a typical person noticing a chair?

An ordinary person looks up, sees a colored shape, and immediately infers that it is a chair

How might an artist view a chair differently than a typical person?

"might have stopped at the mere contemplation of a beautiful color and a beautiful shape."

How does Whitehead say a dog may interpret the presence of a chair?

"would have acted immediately on the hypothesis of a chair and would have jumped onto it by way of using it as such."

Which concept does Whitehead state is more dominant in a lower mentality?

causal relationships

How does Whitehead describe the process of an atypical person noticing a chair?

I'm not sure.

How might an artist view a chair the same as a typical person?

I'm not sure.

How does Whitehead say a dog may not interpret the presence of a chair?

I'm not sure.

Which concept does Whitehead state is less dominant in a lower mentality?

I'm not sure.


Whitehead makes the startling observation that "life is comparatively deficient in survival value." If humans can only exist for about a hundred years, and rocks for eight hundred million, then one is forced to ask why complex organisms ever evolved in the first place; as Whitehead humorously notes, "they certainly did not appear because they were better at that game than the rocks around them." He then observes that the mark of higher forms of life is that they are actively engaged in modifying their environment, an activity which he theorizes is directed toward the three-fold goal of living, living well, and living better. In other words, Whitehead sees life as directed toward the purpose of increasing its own satisfaction. Without such a goal, he sees the rise of life as totally unintelligible.

Whitehead observes that life is deficient in what?

survival value

What are higher life forms actively engaged in?

modifying their environment

How many goals of living is there?

three

Whitehead sees life as directed towards what purpose?

increasing its own satisfaction

Without Whitehead's proposed purpose, life would be what?

unintelligible

What observation did Whitehead make about life?

"life is comparatively deficient in survival value."

What was Whitehead's response to questions about why complex life evolved?

"they certainly did not appear because they were better at that game than the rocks around them."

What did Whitehead state was the biggest indicator of a higher form of life?

they are actively engaged in modifying their environment

What did Whitehead believe are the goals f life?

living, living well, and living better

What did Whitehead believe was the fundamental purpose of life?

increasing its own satisfaction

What did Whitehead believe are not the goals of life?

I'm not sure.

Whitehead observes that life is never deficient in what?

I'm not sure.

What are higher life forms never actively engaged in?

I'm not sure.

Whitehead sees life as directed away from what purpose?

I'm not sure.


Whitehead's idea of God differs from traditional monotheistic notions. Perhaps his most famous and pointed criticism of the Christian conception of God is that "the Church gave unto God the attributes which belonged exclusively to Caesar." Here Whitehead is criticizing Christianity for defining God as primarily a divine king who imposes his will on the world, and whose most important attribute is power. As opposed to the most widely accepted forms of Christianity, Whitehead emphasized an idea of God that he called "the brief Galilean vision of humility":

What is Whitehead's most well-known critical statement regarding the Christian notion of God?

"the Church gave unto God the attributes which belonged exclusively to Caesar."

What qualities dis Whitehead state that Christians attributed to their version of God?

primarily a divine king who imposes his will on the world, and whose most important attribute is power

What was Whitehead's description of God?

"the brief Galilean vision of humility"

What was Whitehead's description of The Devil?

I'm not sure.

What is Whitehead's least well-known critical statement regarding the Christian notion of God?

I'm not sure.

What qualities dis Whitehead not state that Christians attributed to their version of God?

I'm not sure.


It should be emphasized, however, that for Whitehead God is not necessarily tied to religion. Rather than springing primarily from religious faith, Whitehead saw God as necessary for his metaphysical system. His system required that an order exist among possibilities, an order that allowed for novelty in the world and provided an aim to all entities. Whitehead posited that these ordered potentials exist in what he called the primordial nature of God. However, Whitehead was also interested in religious experience. This led him to reflect more intensively on what he saw as the second nature of God, the consequent nature. Whitehead's conception of God as a "dipolar" entity has called for fresh theological thinking.

What was Whitehead's belief about God in relation to religion?

God is not necessarily tied to religion

Why did Whitehead view the existence of God as a necessity for his metaphysical system?

His system required that an order exist among possibilities, an order that allowed for novelty in the world and provided an aim to all entities.

In what did Whitehead believe that those concepts existed?

primordial nature of God

What did Whitehead view as the second nature of God?

the consequent nature

What type of God did Whitehead believe existed?

dipolar

What was Whitehead's belief about God in relation to nonreligion?

I'm not sure.

What did Whitehead view as the first nature of God?

I'm not sure.

What type of God did Whitehead believe never existed?

I'm not sure.

Why did Whitehead view the existence of God as a necessity for his mathematical system?

I'm not sure.


God's consequent nature, on the other hand, is anything but unchanging – it is God's reception of the world's activity. As Whitehead puts it, "[God] saves the world as it passes into the immediacy of his own life. It is the judgment of a tenderness which loses nothing that can be saved." In other words, God saves and cherishes all experiences forever, and those experiences go on to change the way God interacts with the world. In this way, God is really changed by what happens in the world and the wider universe, lending the actions of finite creatures an eternal significance.

How does Whitehead define he consequent nature of God?

God's reception of the world's activity

How does Whitehead describe the judgment of God?

It is the judgment of a tenderness which loses nothing that can be saved.

What does Whitehead say that God does with all experiences?

God saves and cherishes all experiences forever

What effect does Whitehead claim that experiences have on God?

those experiences go on to change the way God interacts with the world

What conclusion does Whitehead draw about God's treatment of humans' experiences?

God is really changed by what happens in the world and the wider universe, lending the actions of finite creatures an eternal significance.

How does Whitehead define inconsequent nature of God?

I'm not sure.

How does Whitehead not describe the judgment of God?

I'm not sure.

What does Whitehead say that God does with no experiences?

I'm not sure.

What conclusion does Whitehead draw about God's treatment of humans' inexperiences?

I'm not sure.


Whitehead thus sees God and the world as fulfilling one another. He sees entities in the world as fluent and changing things that yearn for a permanence which only God can provide by taking them into God's self, thereafter changing God and affecting the rest of the universe throughout time. On the other hand, he sees God as permanent but as deficient in actuality and change: alone, God is merely eternally unrealized possibilities, and requires the world to actualize them. God gives creatures permanence, while the creatures give God actuality and change. Here it is worthwhile to quote Whitehead at length:

How does Whitehead view the relationship between God an the world?

Whitehead thus sees God and the world as fulfilling one another

How does he define entities' need for God?

He sees entities in the world as fluent and changing things that yearn for a permanence which only God can provide

How dis Whitehead believe God provided permanence to entities?

by taking them into God's self, thereafter changing God and affecting the rest of the universe throughout time

In what way did Whitehead view God as deficient?

deficient in actuality and change

What did Whitehead claim God would be without the world?

merely eternally unrealized possibilities

How does he define entities' lack of God?

I'm not sure.

How dis Whitehead believe God provided impermanence to entities?

I'm not sure.

What did Whitehead claim God would be with the world?

I'm not sure.


For Whitehead the core of religion was individual. While he acknowledged that individuals cannot ever be fully separated from their society, he argued that life is an internal fact for its own sake before it is an external fact relating to others. His most famous remark on religion is that "religion is what the individual does with his own solitariness ... and if you are never solitary, you are never religious." Whitehead saw religion as a system of general truths that transformed a person's character. He took special care to note that while religion is often a good influence, it is not necessarily good – an idea which he called a "dangerous delusion" (e.g., a religion might encourage the violent extermination of a rival religion's adherents).

What did Whitehead believe was the basis of religion?

individual

What is Whitehead's most famous statement on religion?

"religion is what the individual does with his own solitariness ... and if you are never solitary, you are never religious."

How did Whitehead define religion?

a system of general truths that transformed a person's character

How did Whitehead define "dangerous delusion" as it relates to religion?

while religion is often a good influence, it is not necessarily good

What did Whitehead believe was the basis of nonreligion?

I'm not sure.

What is Whitehead's most famous statement on nonreligion?

I'm not sure.

How did Whitehead define nonreligion?

I'm not sure.

How did Whitehead define "dangerous delusion" as it doesn't relate to religion?

I'm not sure.


However, while Whitehead saw religion as beginning in solitariness, he also saw religion as necessarily expanding beyond the individual. In keeping with his process metaphysics in which relations are primary, he wrote that religion necessitates the realization of "the value of the objective world which is a community derivative from the interrelations of its component individuals." In other words, the universe is a community which makes itself whole through the relatedness of each individual entity to all the others – meaning and value do not exist for the individual alone, but only in the context of the universal community. Whitehead writes further that each entity "can find no such value till it has merged its individual claim with that of the objective universe. Religion is world-loyalty. The spirit at once surrenders itself to this universal claim and appropriates it for itself." In this way the individual and universal/social aspects of religion are mutually dependent.

In what state did Whitehead believe religion began?

solitariness

What realization did Whitehead believe religion made necessary?

"the value of the objective world which is a community derivative from the interrelations of its component individuals."

What did Whitehead believe was necessary for an entity to have meaning and value?

meaning and value do not exist for the individual alone, but only in the context of the universal community

How does Whitehead describe religion as world-loyalty?

The spirit at once surrenders itself to this universal claim and appropriates it for itself

What did Whitehead believe was the relationship between the individual and social aspects of religion?

the individual and universal/social aspects of religion are mutually dependent

How does Whitehead describe religion as non-world-loyalty?

I'm not sure.

In what state did Whitehead believe religion not begin?

I'm not sure.

What did Whitehead believe was not necessary for an entity to have meaning and value?

I'm not sure.

What did Whitehead believe was the relationship between the individual and nonsocial aspects of religion?

I'm not sure.


Whitehead also described religion more technically as "an ultimate craving to infuse into the insistent particularity of emotion that non-temporal generality which primarily belongs to conceptual thought alone." In other words, religion takes deeply felt emotions and contextualizes them within a system of general truths about the world, helping people to identify their wider meaning and significance. For Whitehead, religion served as a kind of bridge between philosophy and the emotions and purposes of a particular society. It is the task of religion to make philosophy applicable to the everyday lives of ordinary people.

What was Whitehead's technical definition of religion?

"an ultimate craving to infuse into the insistent particularity of emotion that non-temporal generality which primarily belongs to conceptual thought alone."

What did Whitehead believe religion did with strong emotions?

religion takes deeply felt emotions and contextualizes them within a system of general truths about the world

What purpose did Whitehead believe religion served?

a kind of bridge between philosophy and the emotions and purposes of a particular society

What did Whitehead believe was the job of religion regarding philosophy?

It is the task of religion to make philosophy applicable to the everyday lives of ordinary people.

What was Whitehead's technical definition of nonreligion?

I'm not sure.

What did Whitehead believe religion did with weak emotions?

I'm not sure.

What purpose did Whitehead believe religion never served?

I'm not sure.

What did Whitehead believe was the job of religion not regarding philosophy?

I'm not sure.


Isabelle Stengers wrote that "Whiteheadians are recruited among both philosophers and theologians, and the palette has been enriched by practitioners from the most diverse horizons, from ecology to feminism, practices that unite political struggle and spirituality with the sciences of education." Indeed, in recent decades attention to Whitehead's work has become more widespread, with interest extending to intellectuals in Europe and China, and coming from such diverse fields as ecology, physics, biology, education, economics, and psychology. One of the first theologians to attempt to interact with Whitehead's thought was the future Archbishop of Canterbury, William Temple. In Temple's Gifford Lectures of 1932-1934 (subsequently published as "Nature, Man and God"), Whitehead is one of a number of philosophers of the emergent evolution approach Temple interacts with. However, it was not until the 1970s and 1980s that Whitehead's thought drew much attention outside of a small group of philosophers and theologians, primarily Americans, and even today he is not considered especially influential outside of relatively specialized circles.

According to Isabelle Stengers, what are unifying factors in diverse practices (like ecology and feminism) that have become interested in Whitehead's work?

practices that unite political struggle and spirituality with the sciences of education

In what areas of the world has interest in Whitehead's work spread in recent decades?

Europe and China

What other fields have shown more recent interest in Whitehead's work?

ecology, physics, biology, education, economics, and psychology

Who was one of the first theologians to try to interact with Whitehead's ideas?

William Temple

What was the basis for "Nature, Man and God"?

Temple's Gifford Lectures of 1932-1934

According to Isabelle Stengers, what are non unifying factors in diverse practices (like ecology and feminism) that have become interested in Whitehead's work?

I'm not sure.

In what areas of the world has interest in Whitehead's work spread in past decades?

I'm not sure.

What other fields have shown less recent interest in Whitehead's work?

I'm not sure.

Who was one of the last theologians to try to interact with Whitehead's ideas?

I'm not sure.


Early followers of Whitehead were found primarily at the University of Chicago's Divinity School, where Henry Nelson Wieman initiated an interest in Whitehead's work that would last for about thirty years. Professors such as Wieman, Charles Hartshorne, Bernard Loomer, Bernard Meland, and Daniel Day Williams made Whitehead's philosophy arguably the most important intellectual thread running through the Divinity School. They taught generations of Whitehead scholars, the most notable of which is John B. Cobb, Jr.

Where were the first followers mainly found?

at the University of Chicago's Divinity School

Who began the interest in Whitehead at Chicago's Divinity School?

Henry Nelson Wieman

What professors established the importance of Whitehead's work?

Wieman, Charles Hartshorne, Bernard Loomer, Bernard Meland, and Daniel Day Williams

Who id the most well-known Whitehead scholar?

John B. Cobb

Where were the last followers mainly found?

I'm not sure.

Who lost the interest in Whitehead at Chicago's Divinity School?

I'm not sure.

What professors established the unimportance of Whitehead's work?

I'm not sure.

Who is the least well-known Whitehead scholar?

I'm not sure.