Cork City is at the heart of industry in the south of Ireland. Its main area of industry is pharmaceuticals, with Pfizer Inc. and Swiss company Novartis being big employers in the region. The most famous product of the Cork pharmaceutical industry is Viagra. Cork is also the European headquarters of Apple Inc. where over 3,000 staff are involved in manufacturing, R&D and customer support. Logitech and EMC Corporation are also important IT employers in the area. Three hospitals are also among the top ten employers in the city (see table below).

What is the main industry in Cork?

pharmaceuticals

Who are the two major industry employers in Cork?

Pfizer Inc. and Swiss company Novartis

What is the most famous pharmaceutical company in Cork?

Viagra

What major computing company calls Cork it's European Headquarters?

Apple

Who are important industrial technology companies in Cork?

Logitech and EMC Corporation

Where is the main area of industry in the north of Ireland?

I'm not sure.

What company has its international headquarters in Cork?

I'm not sure.

What type of company is Viagra?

I'm not sure.

What are the 2 main pharmaceutical companies in Switzerland?

I'm not sure.

What is the main industry in Europe?

I'm not sure.

How many employees at Pfizer Inc. are employed in Europe?

I'm not sure.

What are the staff of EMC Corp. involved in in Europe?

I'm not sure.

What is the most famous product by Novartis manufactured in Europe?

I'm not sure.

What kind of company was EMC Corporation originally when founded?

I'm not sure.


The city is also home to the Heineken Brewery that brews Murphy's Irish Stout and the nearby Beamish and Crawford brewery (taken over by Heineken in 2008) which have been in the city for generations. 45% of the world's Tic Tac sweets are manufactured at the city's Ferrero factory. For many years, Cork was the home to Ford Motor Company, which manufactured cars in the docklands area before the plant was closed in 1984. Henry Ford's grandfather was from West Cork, which was one of the main reasons for opening up the manufacturing facility in Cork. But technology has replaced the old manufacturing businesses of the 1970s and 1980s, with people now working in the many I.T. centres of the city – such as Amazon.com, the online retailer, which has set up in Cork Airport Business Park.

Cork is home to which internationally famous brewery?

Heineken

What is the Ferro Factory known for producing?

45% of the world's Tic Tac sweets

Which car company closed the doors on it's Cork operations in 1984?

Ford Motor Company

What online retail giant has operations at the Cork Airport Business Park?

Amazon.com

Why was it natural to have Ford Motor Company based in Cork?

Henry Ford's grandfather was from West Cork

What brewery took over Heineken in 2008?

I'm not sure.

Where are most of the world's Tic Tacs made?

I'm not sure.

What car manufacturer came to Cork in 1984?

I'm not sure.

What businessman was from Cork?

I'm not sure.

What did Beamish and Crawford brewery take over in 1984?

I'm not sure.

How many people in the city drink Heineken?

I'm not sure.

In what year did Ford open its first factory in Beamish?

I'm not sure.

What famous company owner's grandfather was from Beamish?

I'm not sure.

Where has the Heineken Brewery set up its main location?

I'm not sure.


Public bus services within the city are provided by the national bus operator Bus Éireann. City routes are numbered from 201 through to 219 and connect the city centre to the principal suburbs, colleges, shopping centres and places of interest. Two of these bus routes provide orbital services across the Northern and Southern districts of the city respectively. Buses to the outer suburbs, such as Ballincollig, Glanmire, Midleton and Carrigaline are provided from the city's bus terminal at Parnell Place in the city centre. Suburban services also include shuttles to Cork Airport, and a park and ride facility in the south suburbs only.

Who runs the public busses in Cork?

Bus Éireann

Besides busses, what kinds of public transportation are offered in Cork?

shuttles to Cork Airport, and a park and ride facility in the south suburbs only

What do the routes consist of?

connect the city centre to the principal suburbs, colleges, shopping centres and places of interest

What connects the suburbs to shopping centers and places of interest?

I'm not sure.

How many routes offer service to both Northern and Southern Ireland?

I'm not sure.

What is offered for the north suburbs?

I'm not sure.

Who runs the public colleges in Cork?

I'm not sure.

How are shuttles to Cork Airport numbered?

I'm not sure.

What does Glanmire connect the city centre to?

I'm not sure.

What do shuttles provide to Glanmire?

I'm not sure.

What is used for transportation and only available in Midleton?

I'm not sure.


The Cork area has seen improvements in road infrastructure in recent years. For example, the Cork South Link dual carriageway was built in the early 1980s, to link the Kinsale Road roundabout with the city centre. Shortly afterwards, the first sections of the South Ring dual carriageway were opened. Work continued through the 1990s on extending the N25 South Ring Road, with the opening of the Jack Lynch Tunnel under the River Lee being a significant addition. The Kinsale Road flyover opened in August 2006 to remove a bottleneck for traffic heading to Cork Airport or Killarney. Other projects completed at this time include the N20 Blackpool bypass and the N20 Cork to Mallow road projects. The N22 Ballincollig dual carriageway bypass, which links to the Western end of the Cork Southern Ring road was opened in September 2004. City Centre road improvements include the Patrick Street project - which reconstructed the street with a pedestrian focus. The M8 motorway links Cork with Dublin.

When was the Cork South Link dual carriageway built?

What was the purpose of the dual carriageway?

to link the Kinsale Road roundabout with the city centre

What was the purpose of the Kinsale Road flyover?

remove a bottleneck for traffic heading to Cork Airport or Killarney

What was a beneficial improvement made to Patrick Street?

pedestrian focus

When was Kinsale Road built?

I'm not sure.

What was linked to The Kinsale Road roundabout in the 1990's?

I'm not sure.

What tunnel passes over the Lee River?

I'm not sure.

What Links Patrick Street with Dublin?

I'm not sure.

In what year was the Kinsale Road roundabout built?

I'm not sure.

Why did the N25 South Ring Road open in 2006?

I'm not sure.

From who would the N25 South Ring Road help remove the bottleneck?

I'm not sure.

What does the Jack Lynch Tunnel link Mallow with?

I'm not sure.

What improvement was made to N20 Blackpool bypass to make it safer?

I'm not sure.


Cork was one of the most rail-oriented cities in Ireland, featuring eight stations at various times. The main route, still much the same today, is from Dublin Heuston. Originally terminating on the city's outskirts at Blackpool, the route now reaches the city centre terminus of Kent Station via Glanmire tunnel. Now a through station, the line through Kent connects the towns of Cobh and Midleton east of the city. This also connected to the seaside town of Youghal, until the 1980s.[citation needed]

How many rail stations has cork had over the years?

eight

What connects Cobh and Midleton to Cork?

the line through Kent

Where does the main rail originate?

Dublin Heuston

Where was the original end of the line?

Blackpool

What was Ireland's most rail-centric city?

Cork

What is one or the most rail oriented cities in Europe?

I'm not sure.

What has connected to Youghal since the 1980's?

I'm not sure.

What route now ends in Blackpool?

I'm not sure.

How many rail stations are there in Youghal?

I'm not sure.

What from Youghal is still the same today as when it began?

I'm not sure.

What originally terminated at Kent?

I'm not sure.

How does the route reach the city centre terminus of Youghal Station?

I'm not sure.

What is Youghal considered now that it connects Cobh and Midleton?

I'm not sure.


Within the city there have been two tram networks in operation. A proposal to develop a horse-drawn tram (linking the city's railway termini) was made by American George Francis Train in the 1860s, and implemented in 1872 by the Cork Tramway Company. However, the company ceased trading in 1875 after Cork Corporation refused permission to extend the line, mainly because of objections from cab operators to the type of tracks which – although they were laid to the Irish national railway gauge of 5 ft 3in – protruded from the road surface.[citation needed]

How many tram systems were in Cork?

two

Who wanted to develop a horse drawn tram system?

George Francis Train

When did the Cork Tramway Company start a horse driven tram system?

Why did the Cork Tramway Company stop operations?

Cork Corporation refused permission to extend the line

Why did the cab operators not like the tracks?

protruded from the road surface

Who opposed a horse drawn tram in the 18th century?

I'm not sure.

What type of tram was built in the 18th century?

I'm not sure.

Who built the horse drawn tram in the 18th century?

I'm not sure.

What did the Cork Corporation give permission for in 1875?

I'm not sure.

What company did George Francis Train work for in 1872?

I'm not sure.

When did George Francis Train arrive in Cork?

I'm not sure.

How tall was George Francis Train?

I'm not sure.

Why did George Francis Train refuse to extend the line?

I'm not sure.

Where did the attachment sit when the horses were hitched to the tram?

I'm not sure.


The Cork Suburban Rail system also departs from Kent Station and provides connections to parts of Metropolitan Cork. Stations include Little Island, Mallow, Midleton, Fota and Cobh. In July 2009 the Glounthaune to Midleton line was reopened, with new stations at Carrigtwohill and Midleton (with future stations planned for Kilbarry, Monard, Carrigtwohill West and Blarney). Little Island Railway Station serves Cork's Eastern Suburbs, while Kilbarry Railway Station is planned to serve the Northern Suburbs.

Which line was reopened in 2009?

Glounthaune to Midleton

What new stations were added to the Glounthaune to Midleton line?

Carrigtwohill and Midleton

What station is going to be available to the Northern Suburbs?

Kilbarry Railway Station

Where are the Little Island Railway Station routes?

Cork's Eastern Suburbs

What system are Little Island, Mallow, Midleton, Fota and Cobh stations of?

The Cork Suburban Rail

What line was close in July of 2009?

I'm not sure.

What rail system has connections arriving in Kent?

I'm not sure.

What Railway station serves the Northern Suburbs?

I'm not sure.

What happened to the Little Island to Mallow line in July 2009?

I'm not sure.

What area is Midelton Railway Station planned to serve?

I'm not sure.

Where does the Glounthaune Rail system that departs from Kent Station connect to?

I'm not sure.

What is planned for Little Island, Mallow and Cobh?

I'm not sure.

What year was the cork Suburban Rail system opened?

I'm not sure.


The National Maritime College of Ireland is also located in Cork and is the only college in Ireland in which Nautical Studies and Marine Engineering can be undertaken. CIT also incorporates the Cork School of Music and Crawford College of Art and Design as constituent schools. The Cork College of Commerce is the largest post-Leaving Certificate college in Ireland and is also the biggest provider of Vocational Preparation and Training courses in the country.[citation needed] Other 3rd level institutions include Griffith College Cork, a private institution, and various other colleges.

Where can one study nautical and marine subjects in Cork?

The National Maritime College of Ireland

What liberal arts type colleges are in Cork?

Cork School of Music and Crawford College of Art and Design

Who provides vocational training in Cork?

The Cork College of Commerce

Who offers post-secondary education in Cork?

Griffith College Cork

What is the only college in Europe for Nautical Studies?

I'm not sure.

What is the largest college in Ireland?

I'm not sure.

What is the biggest provider of Vocational Training in Europe?

I'm not sure.

Griffith College Cork is the only college in Ireland where you can study what?

I'm not sure.

What is the Cork School of Music the largest provider of in the country?

I'm not sure.

What constituent schools are incorporated into Griffith College Cork?

I'm not sure.

What kind of Certificate does Crawford College of Art and Design offer?

I'm not sure.

What level institution is the Cork School of Music?

I'm not sure.


Research institutes linked to the third level colleges in the city support the research and innovation capacity of the city and region. Examples include the Tyndall National Institute (ICT hardware research), IMERC (Marine Energy), Environmental Research Institute, NIMBUS (Network Embedded Systems); and CREATE (Advanced Therapeutic Engineering). UCC and CIT also have start-up company incubation centres. In UCC, the IGNITE Graduate Business Innovation Centre aims to foster and support entrepreneurship. In CIT, The Rubicon Centre is a business innovation hub that is home to 57 knowledge based start-up companies.

What is the biggest conglomeration of start-up companies in Cork?

The Rubicon Centre

Where is a good source of marine research in Cork?

IMERC (Marine Energy)

What is a good source for business start-ups in Cork?

the IGNITE Graduate Business Innovation Centre

How many start-ups are associated with the Rubicon Center?

What supports the research and innovation of Europe?

I'm not sure.

How many start ups are associated with UCC?

I'm not sure.

What is the Rubicon Centre linked to?

I'm not sure.

What does the Environmental Research Institute support in Cork?

I'm not sure.

How may start ups are associated with the Environmental Research Institute?

I'm not sure.

What kind of start up companies are associated with the Environmental Research Institute?

I'm not sure.

What does the Environmental Research Institute want to support for new business?

I'm not sure.


Hurling and football are the most popular spectator sports in the city. Hurling has a strong identity with city and county – with Cork winning 30 All-Ireland Championships. Gaelic football is also popular, and Cork has won 7 All-Ireland Senior Football Championship titles. There are many Gaelic Athletic Association clubs in Cork City, including Blackrock National Hurling Club, St. Finbarr's, Glen Rovers, Na Piarsaigh and Nemo Rangers. The main public venues are Páirc Uí Chaoimh and Páirc Uí Rinn (named after the noted Glen Rovers player Christy Ring). Camogie (hurling for ladies) and women's gaelic football are increasing in popularity.

What are the biggest sports draws in Cork?

Hurling and football

How many All-Ireland Championships has Cork won?

How many All-Ireland Senior Football Championship titles have been won by Cork?

What kind of hurling do the women of Cork play?

Camogie

What sport has been gaining steam as more and more women play?

gaelic football

What does  football have a strong identity with?

I'm not sure.

How many football championships has Cork won?

I'm not sure.

What are the most popular sports in Ireland?

I'm not sure.

Where are camogie and women's gaelic football the most popular?

I'm not sure.

How many All-Ireland Championships have the Nemo Rangers won?

I'm not sure.

How many Senior Football Championship titles has Pairc Ui Chaoimh won?

I'm not sure.

What is Pairc Ui Rinn increasing in as more women join?

I'm not sure.

What is another name for women's gaelic football?

I'm not sure.


There are a variety of watersports in Cork, including rowing and sailing. There are five rowing clubs training on the river Lee, including Shandon BC, UCC RC, Pres RC, Lee RC, and Cork BC. Naomhóga Chorcaí is a rowing club whose members row traditional naomhóga on the Lee in occasional competitions. The "Ocean to City" race has been held annually since 2005, and attracts teams and boats from local and visiting clubs who row the 24 kilometres (15 mi) from Crosshaven into Cork city centre. The decision to move the National Rowing Center to Inniscarra has boosted numbers involved in the sport.[citation needed] Cork's maritime sailing heritage is maintained through its sailing clubs. The Royal Cork Yacht Club located in Crosshaven (outside the city) is the world's oldest yacht club, and "Cork Week" is a notable sailing event.

What kinds of sea faring sports are available in Cork?

rowing and sailing

How many rowing clubs are in Cork?

five

Where is the world's oldest yahct club?

The Royal Cork Yacht Club located in Crosshaven

What is one of the more popular sailing events in Cork?

Cork Week

What annual rowing event has been happening in Cork since 2005?

Ocean to City

What watersports are available in Ireland?

I'm not sure.

What race was held until 2005

I'm not sure.

What has reduced numbers involved rowing?

I'm not sure.

How long has The Royal Cork Yacht Club trained on the Lee?

I'm not sure.

What did moving Shandon BC to Crosshaven help improve?

I'm not sure.

What city is Naomhoga Chorcai located in?

I'm not sure.

What title does Naomhoga Chorcai hold as the oldest?

I'm not sure.

What city has Cork Week been moved to since 2005?

I'm not sure.


The most notable cricket club in Cork is Cork County Cricket Club, which was formed in 1874. Although located within the Munster jurisdiction, the club plays in the Leinster Senior League. The club plays at the Mardyke, a ground which has hosted three first-class matches in 1947, 1961 and 1973. All three involved Ireland playing Scotland. The Cork Cricket Academy operates within the city, with the stated aim of introducing the sport to schools in the city and county. Cork's other main cricket club, Harlequins Cricket Club, play close to Cork Airport.

What's the most famous cricket club in Cork?

Cork County Cricket Club

When was the Cork County Cricket Club established?

Which league does the Cork County Cricket Club belong to?

Leinster Senior League

Which first-class matches were hosted at Mardyke?

1947, 1961 and 1973

Which teams played in the three first class matches?

Ireland playing Scotland

What Cricket club was formed in the 18th century?

I'm not sure.

When did The Cricket club host matches?

I'm not sure.

In what year was Harlequins Cricket Club formed?

I'm not sure.

What jurisdiction is the Harlequins Cricket Club located in?

I'm not sure.

What league does the Harlequins Cricket Club play in?

I'm not sure.

In what years were first class matches held close to Cork Airport?

I'm not sure.

Where does the Harlequins Cricket Club want to introduce the sport to?

I'm not sure.


The city is also the home of road bowling, which is played in the north-side and south-west suburbs. There are also boxing and martial arts clubs (including Brazilian jiu-jitsu, Karate, Muay Thai and Taekwondo) within the city. Cork Racing, a motorsport team based in Cork, has raced in the Irish Formula Ford Championship since 2005. Cork also hosts one of Ireland's most successful Australian Rules Football teams, the Leeside Lions, who have won the Australian Rules Football League of Ireland Premiership four times (in 2002, 2003, 2005 and 2007). There are also inline roller sports, such as hockey and figure skating, which transfer to the ice over the winter season.[citation needed]

Which Australian Rules Football team is Cork home to?

Leeside Lions

How many times have the Leeside Lions won the Australian Rules Football League of Ireland Premiership?

four

When did the Leeside Lions win the Australian Rules Football League of Ireland Premiership?

2002, 2003, 2005 and 2007

Which inline roller sports translate well to winter in Cork?

hockey and figure skating

What Martial Arts can be found within Cork?

Brazilian jiu-jitsu, Karate, Muay Thai and Taekwondo

what is played in the east suburbs?

I'm not sure.

How many times have the Leeside Lions lost the Australian Rules Football League?

I'm not sure.

When did he Leeside Lions loose the Australian Rules Football League

I'm not sure.

Who raced the Formula Ford Championship until 2005?

I'm not sure.

In what area is hockey played in Cork?

I'm not sure.

How many times has the Muay Thai club won the Ireland Premiership?

I'm not sure.

In what years did the Muay Thai club win the Ireland Premiership?

I'm not sure.

How long has road bowling been played in Cork?

I'm not sure.

During what season is road bowling played inside?

I'm not sure.


Galicia (English i/ɡəˈlɪsiə/, /ɡəˈlɪʃə/; Galician: [ɡaˈliθja] ( listen), [ħaˈliθja], or [ħaˈlisja]; Spanish: [ɡaˈliθja]; Galician and Portuguese: Galiza, [ɡaˈliθa] ( listen), [ħaˈliθa] or [ħaˈlisa]) is an autonomous community of Spain and historic nationality under Spanish law. Located in the North-West of the Iberian Peninsula, it comprises the provinces of A Coruña, Lugo, Ourense and Pontevedra, being bordered by Portugal to the south, the Spanish autonomous communities of Castile and León and Asturias to the east, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west and the north. It had a population of 2,765,940 in 2013 and has a total area of 29,574 km2 (11,419 sq mi). Galicia has over 1,660 km (1,030 mi) of coastline, including its offshore islands and islets, among them Cíes Islands, Ons, Sálvora, Cortegada, and—the largest and most populated—A Illa de Arousa.

Which country is Galicia in?

Spain

Where is its geographic location?

North-West of the Iberian Peninsula

Which large body of water does Galicia border?

Atlantic Ocean

What is its largest island?

Arousa


The area now called Galicia was first inhabited by humans during the Middle Paleolithic period, and it takes its name from the Gallaeci, the Celtic peoples living north of the Douro river during the last millennium BC, in a region largely coincidental with that of the Iron Age local Castro culture. Galicia was incorporated into the Roman Empire at the end of the Cantabrian Wars in 19 BC, being turned into a Roman province in the 3rd century AD. In 410, the Germanic Suebi established a kingdom with its capital in Braga (Portugal) which was incorporated into that of the Visigoths in 585. In 711, the Arabs invaded the Iberian Peninsula, taking the Visigoth kingdom, but soon in 740 Galicia was incorporated into the Christian kingdom of Asturias. During the Middle Ages, the kingdom of Galicia was occasionally ruled by its own kings, but most of the time it was leagued to the kingdom of Leon and later to that of Castile, while maintaining its own legal and customary practices and personality. From the 13th century on, the kings of Castile, as kings of Galicia, appointed an Adiantado-mór, whose attributions passed to the Governor and Captain General of the Kingdom of Galiza from the last years of the 15th century. The Governor also presided the Real Audiencia do Reino de Galicia, a royal tribunal and government body. From the 16th century, the representation and voice of the kingdom was held by an assembly of deputies and representatives of the cities of the kingdom, the Cortes or Junta of the Kingdom of Galicia, an institution which was forcibly discontinued in 1833 when the kingdom was divided into four administrative provinces with no legal mutual links. During the 19th and 20th centuries, demand grew for self-government and for the recognition of the personality of Galicia, a demand which led to the frustrated Statute of Autonomy of 1936, and to the Statute of Autonomy of 1981, currently in force.

During which period did humans first inhabit Galicia?

Middle Paleolithic

Where does its name come from?

Gallaeci, the Celtic peoples

Which empire turned Galicia into one of its provinces the 3rd century AD?

Roman Empire

What was the name of the assembly of representatives that began in the 16th century?

the Cortes or Junta

Which year was the current Statute of Autonomy enacted?


The interior of Galicia is characterized by its hilly landscape, although mountain ranges rise to 2,000 m (6,600 ft) in the east and south. The coastal areas are mostly an alternate series of rías (submerged valleys where the sea penetrates tens of kilometres inland) and cliffs. The climate of Galicia is temperate and rainy, but it is also markedly drier in the summer, being usually classified as Oceanic in the west and north, and Mediterranean in the southeast. Its topographic and climatic conditions have made animal husbandry and farming the primary source of Galicia's wealth for most of its history. With the exception of shipbuilding and food processing, Galicia was largely a semi-subsistence farming and fishing economy and did not experience significant industrialization until after the mid-20th century. In 2012, the gross domestic product at purchasing power parity was €56,000 million, with a nominal GDP per capita of €20,700. The population is largely concentrated in two coastal areas: from Ferrol to A Coruña in the northwest and from Pontevedra to Vigo in the southwest. To a lesser extent, there are smaller populations around the interior cities of Lugo, Ourense and Santiago de Compostela. The political capital is Santiago de Compostela, in the province of A Coruña. Vigo, in the province of Pontevedra, is the most populous municipality with 294,997 (2014), while A Coruña is the most populous city with 215.227 (2014).

How high does Galicia's mountain ranges rise?

2,000 m (6,600 ft)

What have been its two primary sources of wealth?

animal husbandry and farming

Name its northwestern coastal area.

Ferrol to A Coruña

Name its political capital.

Santiago de Compostela

Which province is this capital in?

A Coruña


The name evolved during the Middle Ages from Gallaecia, sometimes written Galletia, to Gallicia. In the 13th century, with the written emergence of the Galician language, Galiza became the most usual written form of the name of the country, being replaced during the 15th and 16th centuries by the current form, Galicia, which coincides with the Castilian Spanish name. The historical denomination Galiza became popular again during the end of the 19th and the first three-quarters of the 20th century, being still used with some frequency today, although not by the Xunta de Galicia, the local devolved government. The Royal Galician Academy, the institution responsible for regulating the Galician language, whilst recognizing it as a legitimate current denomination, has stated that the only official name of the country is Galicia.

What is one variation of Gallicia's name used during the Middle Ages?

Galletia

Which spelling was the most common spelling during the 13th century?

Galiza

When did it get its modern spelling?

15th and 16th centuries

What is the name of the local government?

Xunta de Galicia

Which group regulates the Galician language?

The Royal Galician Academy


Although the etymology of the name has been studied since the 7th century by authors like Isidore of Seville —who wrote that "Galicians are called so, because of their fair skin, as the Gauls", relating the name to the Greek word for milk—, currently scholars derive the name of the ancient Callaeci either from Proto-Indo-European *kal-n-eH2 'hill', through a local relational suffix -aik-, so meaning 'the hill (people)'; or either from Proto-Celtic *kallī- 'forest', so meaning 'the forest (people)'. In any case, Galicia, being per se a derivation of the ethnic name Kallaikói, would mean 'the land of the Galicians'.

Which author wrote that "Galicians are called so, because of their fair skin, as the Gauls"?

Isidore

Which original ethnic name is "Galicia" derived from?

Kallaikói

What does Galicia's name mean?

the land of the Galicians


The oldest attestation of human presence in Galicia has been found in the Eirós Cave, in the municipality of Triacastela, which has preserved animal remains and Neanderthal stone objects from the Middle Paleolithic. The earliest culture to have left significant architectural traces is the Megalithic culture which expanded along the western European coasts during the Neolithic and Calcolithic eras. Thousands of Megalithic tumuli are distributed throughout the country, but mostly along the coastal areas. Within each tumulus is a stone burial chamber known locally as anta (dolmen), frequently preceded by a corridor. Galicia was later fully affected by the Bell Beaker culture. While its rich mineral deposits - tin and gold - led to the development of Bronze Age metallurgy, and to the commerce of bronze and gold items all along the Atlantic façade of Western Europe, where a common elite's culture evolved during the Atlantic Bronze Age.

Where in Galicia has the oldest evidence of humans been found?

Eirós Cave

Which municipality is this in?

Triacastela

What is the oldest culture whose structures have been found?

Megalithic

Which two minerals found in abundance in Galicia were used during Bronze Age?

tin and gold


The Castro culture ('Culture of the Castles') developed during the Iron Age, and flourished during the second half of the first millennium BC. It is usually considered a local evolution of the Atlantic Bronze Age, with later developments and influences and overlapping into the Roman era. Geographically, it corresponds to the people Roman called Gallaeci, which were composed by a large series of nations or tribes, among them the Artabri, Bracari, Limici, Celtici, Albiones and Lemavi. They were capable fighters: Strabo described them as the most difficult foes the Romans encountered in conquering Lusitania, while Appian mentions their warlike spirit, noting that the women bore their weapons side by side with their men, frequently preferring death to captivity. According to Pomponius Mela all the inhabitants of the coastal areas were Celtic people.

What does the Castro culture's name mean?

Culture of the Castles

When did the Castro culture flourish?

second half of the first millennium BC.

Who mentioned the ancient Galician's "warlike spirit"?

Appian

Who was it that described people living on the coast as "Celtic"?

Pomponius Mela


Gallaeci lived in castros. These were usually annular forts, with one or more concentric earthen or stony walls, with a trench in front of each one. They were frequently located at hills, or in seashore cliffs and peninsulas. Some well known castros can be found, in the seashore, at Fazouro, Santa Tegra, Baroña and O Neixón, and inland at San Cibrao de Lás, Borneiro, Castromao, and Viladonga. Some other distinctive features, such as temples, baths, reservoirs, warrior statues and decorative carvings have been found associated to this culture, together with rich gold and metalworking traditions.

What were the forts that the Gallaeci lived in called?

castros

Where were these forts commonly built?

hills

Where is one place where one of the inland forts can be found?

Borneiro

Statues have been made in whose likeness?

warrior


Later the Muslims invaded Spain (711), but the Arabs and Moors never managed to have any real control over Galicia, which was later incorporated into the expanding Christian Kingdom of Asturias, usually known as Gallaecia or Galicia (Yillīqiya and Galīsiya) by Muslim Chroniclers, as well as by many European contemporaries. This era consolidated Galicia as a Christian society which spoke a Romance language. During the next century Galician noblemen took northern Portugal, conquering Coimbra in 871, thus freeing what were considered the southernmost city of ancient Galicia.

Though the Muslims couldn't take full control of Galicia, when was it that they invaded Spain?

Which kingdom did Galicia later become a part of?

Asturias

As a result, what became the religion of Galician society?

Christian

Ancient Galicians took control of which city in northern Portugal?

Coimbra


The Roman legions first entered the area under Decimus Junius Brutus in 137–136 BC, but the country was only incorporated into the Roman Empire by the time of Augustus (29 BC – 19 BC). The Romans were interested in Galicia mainly for its mineral resources, most notably gold. Under Roman rule, most Galician hillforts began to be – sometimes forcibly – abandoned, and Gallaeci served frequently in the Roman army as auxiliary troops. Romans brought new technologies, new travel routes, new forms of organizing property, and a new language; latin. The Roman Empire established its control over Galicia through camps (castra) as Aquis Querquennis, Ciadella camp or Lucus Augusti (Lugo), roads (viae) and monuments as the lighthouse known as Tower of Hercules, in Corunna, but the remoteness and lesser interest of the country since the 2nd century of our era, when the gold mines stopped being productive, led to a lesser degree of Romanization. In the 3rd century it was made a province, under the name Gallaecia, which included also northern Portugal, Asturias, and a large section of what today is known as Castile and León.

Under whom did Roman legions first enter Galicia?

Decimus Junius Brutus

Galicia was incorporated into the Roman Empire under whose rule?

Augustus

Which mineral found in Galicia were the Romans interested in?

gold

Which language did the Romans introduce to Galicia?

latin

The Romans used which lighthouse located in Corunna as part of its effort to establish control the area?

Tower of Hercules


In the early 5th century, the deep crisis suffered by the Roman Empire allowed different tribes of Central Europe (Suebi, Vandals and Alani) to cross the Rhine and penetrate into the rule on 31 December 406. Its progress towards the Iberian Peninsula forced the Roman authorities to establish a treaty (foedus) by which the Suebi would settle peacefully and govern Galicia as imperial allies. So, from 409 Galicia was taken by the Suebi, forming the first medieval kingdom to be created in Europe, in 411, even before the fall of the Roman Empire, being also the first Germanic kingdom to mint coinage in Roman lands. During this period a Briton colony and bishopric (see Mailoc) was established in Northern Galicia (Britonia), probably as foederati and allies of the Suebi. In 585, the Visigothic King Leovigild invaded the Suebic kingdom of Galicia and defeated it, bringing it under Visigoth control.

At the end of which year did Central Europe tribes invade the Roman Empire?

Which tribe did the Romans subsequently make a treaty with?

Suebi

What was the name of the Briton colony formed in Northern Galicia?

Britonia

Which Visigothic king took over control of Galicia from the Suebi?

Leovigild

In which year did this happen?


In the 9th century, the rise of the cult of the Apostle James in Santiago de Compostela gave Galicia a particular symbolic importance among Christians, an importance it would hold throughout the Reconquista. As the Middle Ages went on, Santiago became a major pilgrim destination and the Way of Saint James (Camiño de Santiago) a major pilgrim road, a route for the propagation of Romanesque art and the words and music of the troubadors. During the 10th and 11th centuries, a period during which Galician nobility become related to the royal family, Galicia was at times headed by its own native kings, while Vikings (locally known as Leodemanes or Lordomanes) occasionally raided the coasts. The Towers of Catoira (Pontevedra) were built as a system of fortifications to prevent and stop the Viking raids on Santiago de Compostela.

Which cult arose in Galicia during the 9th century?

Apostle James

Where was this cult based in?

Santiago de Compostela

Name the road that lead there.

Way of Saint James

What did Galicians call the Vikings?

Leodemanes or Lordomanes

To stop the Vikings from raiding, what did the Galicians build as a defense system?

Towers of Catoira


In 1063, Ferdinand I of Castile divided his realm among his sons, and the Kingdom of Galicia was granted to Garcia II of Galicia. In 1072, it was forcibly annexed by Garcia's brother Alfonso VI of León; from that time Galicia was united with the Kingdom of León under the same monarchs. In the 13th century Alfonso X of Castile standardized the Castilian language and made it the language of court and government. Nevertheless, in his Kingdom of Galicia the Galician language was the only language spoken, and the most used in government and legal uses, as well as in literature.

Who was it that in 1063 gave rule over Galicia to his son?

Ferdinand I

What was the name of this son?

Garcia II

Who was the brother who later took control for himself?

Alfonso VI

Galicia then became part of which Kingdom?

Kingdom of León

Who standardized Castillan and made it the government's official language?

Alfonso X


On the other hand, the lack of an effective royal justice system in the Kingdom led to the social conflict known as the Guerras Irmandiñas ('Wars of the brotherhoods'), when leagues of peasants and burghers, with the support of a number of knights, noblemen, and under legal protection offered by the remote king, toppled many of the castles of the Kingdom and briefly drove the noblemen into Portugal and Castile. Soon after, in the late 15th century, in the dynastic conflict between Isabella I of Castile and Joanna La Beltraneja, part of the Galician aristocracy supported Joanna. After Isabella's victory, she initiated an administrative and political reform which the chronicler Jeronimo Zurita defined as "doma del Reino de Galicia": 'It was then when the taming of Galicia began, because not just the local lords and knights, but all the people of that nation were the ones against the others very bold and warlike'. These reforms, while establishing a local government and tribunal (the Real Audiencia del Reino de Galicia) and bringing the nobleman under submission, also brought most Galician monasteries and institutions under Castilian control, in what has been criticized as a process of centralisation. At the same time the kings began to call the Xunta or Cortes of the Kingdom of Galicia, an assembly of deputies or representatives of the cities of the Kingdom, to ask for monetary and military contributions. This assembly soon developed into the voice and legal representation of the Kingdom, and the depositary of its will and laws.

Social turmoil led to conflict?

Guerras Irmandiñas

Which two royals were part of the dynastic conflict of the 15th century?

Isabella I of Castile and Joanna La Beltraneja

The subsequent reforms were coined as "doma del Reino de Galicia" by who?

Jeronimo Zurita

What was the name of the local government and tribunal?

Real Audiencia del Reino de Galicia


The modern period of the kingdom of Galicia began with the murder or defeat of some of the most powerful Galician lords, such as Pedro Álvarez de Sotomayor, called Pedro Madruga, and Rodrigo Henriquez Osorio, at the hands of the Castilian armies sent to Galicia between the years 1480 and 1486. Isabella I of Castile, considered a usurper by many Galician nobles, eradicated all armed resistance and definitively established the royal power of the Castilian monarchy. Fearing a general revolt, the monarchs ordered the banishing of the rest of the great lords like Pedro de Bolaño, Diego de Andrade or Lope Sánchez de Moscoso, among others.

Castillan armies invaded Galicia between which years?

1480 and 1486

Which powerful Galician lords did they murder?

Pedro Madruga, and Rodrigo Henriquez Osorio

Which Castillan ruler then consolidated control over Galicia?

Isabella I


The establishment of the Santa Hermandad in 1480, and of the Real Audiencia del Reino de Galicia in 1500—a tribunal and executive body directed by the Governor-Captain General as a direct representative of the King—implied initially the submission of the Kingdom to the Crown, after a century of unrest and fiscal insubordination. As a result, from 1480 to 1520 the Kingdom of Galicia contributed more than 10% of the total earnings of the Crown of Castille, including the Americas, well over its economic relevance. Like the rest of Spain, the 16th century was marked by population growth up to 1580, when the simultaneous wars with the Netherlands, France and England hampered Galicia's Atlantic commerce, which consisted mostly in the exportation of sardines, wood, and some cattle and wine.

Which government body was formed in 1480?

Santa Hermandad

Which body was formed in 1500?

Real Audiencia del Reino de Galicia

What percentage of Castille's total earnings was Galicia responsible for?

Which other countries was Spain at war with during the 16 century?

Netherlands, France and England

In spite of these wars, which exports did Galicia's Atlantic trade consist of?

sardines, wood, and some cattle and wine


From that moment Galicia, which participated to a minor extent in the American expansion of the Spanish Empire, found itself at the center of the Atlantic wars fought by Spain against the French and the Protestant powers of England and the Netherlands, whose privateers attacked the coastal areas, but major assaults were not common as the coastline was difficult and the harbors easily defended. The most famous assaults were upon the city of Vigo by Sir Francis Drake in 1585 and 1589, and the siege of A Coruña in 1589 by the English Armada. Galicia also suffered occasional slave raids by Barbary pirates, but not as frequently as the Mediterranean coastal areas. The most famous Barbary attack was the bloody sack of the town of Cangas in 1617. At the time, the king's petitions for money and troops became more frequent, due to the human and economic exhaustion of Castile; the Junta of the Kingdom of Galicia (the local Cortes or representative assembly) was initially receptive to these petitions, raising large sums, accepting the conscription of the men of the kingdom, and even commissioning a new naval squadron which was sustained with the incomes of the Kingdom.

Where did Sir Francis Drake attack in 1585 and again in 1589?

Vigo

Who attacked Cangas in 1617?

Barbary pirates


After the rupture of the wars with Portugal and Catalonia, the Junta changed its attitude, this time due to the exhaustion of Galicia, now involved not just in naval or oversea operations, but also in an exhausting war with the Portuguese, war which produced thousands of casualties and refugees and was heavily disturbing to the local economy and commerce. So, in the second half of the 17th century the Junta frequently denied or considerably reduced the initial petitions of the monarch, and though the tension didn't rise to the levels experienced in Portugal or Catalonia, there were frequent urban mutinies and some voices even asked for the secession of the Kingdom of Galicia.

War broke out with which other countries?

Portugal and Catalonia

When did the Galician Junta more often stand up to requests from the monarch?

second half of the 17th century

In what way was the tension between the monarch and Galicia similar to the wars it was fighting?

there were frequent urban mutinies


In the early 20th century came another turn toward nationalist politics with Solidaridad Gallega (1907–1912) modeled on Solidaritat Catalana in Catalonia. Solidaridad Gallega failed, but in 1916 Irmandades da Fala (Brotherhood of the Language) developed first as a cultural association but soon as a full-blown nationalist movement. Vicente Risco and Ramón Otero Pedrayo were outstanding cultural figures of this movement, and the magazine Nós ('Us'), founded 1920, its most notable cultural institution, Lois Peña Novo the outstanding political figure.

Which nationalist movement arose in the early 20th century?

Solidaridad Gallega

Which other movement was it modeled after?

Solidaritat Catalana

Which political group arose in 1916?

Irmandades da Fala

Which magazine advocated for Galician nationalism?

Nós


Galicia was spared the worst of the fighting in that war: it was one of the areas where the initial coup attempt at the outset of the war was successful, and it remained in Nationalist (Franco's army's) hands throughout the war. While there were no pitched battles, there was repression and death: all political parties were abolished, as were all labor unions and Galician nationalist organizations as the Seminario de Estudos Galegos. Galicia's statute of autonomy was annulled (as were those of Catalonia and the Basque provinces once those were conquered). According to Carlos Fernández Santander, at least 4,200 people were killed either extrajudicially or after summary trials, among them republicans, communists, Galician nationalists, socialists and anarchists. Victims included the civil governors of all four Galician provinces; Juana Capdevielle, the wife of the governor of A Coruña; mayors such as Ánxel Casal of Santiago de Compostela, of the Partido Galeguista; prominent socialists such as Jaime Quintanilla in Ferrol and Emilio Martínez Garrido in Vigo; Popular Front deputies Antonio Bilbatúa, José Miñones, Díaz Villamil, Ignacio Seoane, and former deputy Heraclio Botana); soldiers who had not joined the rebellion, such as Generals Rogelio Caridad Pita and Enrique Salcedo Molinuevo and Admiral Antonio Azarola; and the founders of the PG, Alexandre Bóveda and Víctor Casas, as well as other professionals akin to republicans and nationalists, as the journalist Manuel Lustres Rivas or physician Luis Poza Pastrana. Many others were forced to escape into exile, or were victims of other reprisals and removed from their jobs and positions.

Along with Galicia's, which other two province's autonomy was annulled?

Catalonia and the Basque provinces

Under the control of whose army was Galicia under during this war?

Franco's

Which prominent journalist was victim of the killings?

Manuel Lustres Rivas

Which admiral who hadn't joined the rebellion was also a victim?

Antonio Azarola


General Francisco Franco — himself a Galician from Ferrol — ruled as dictator from the civil war until his death in 1975. Franco's centralizing regime suppressed any official use of the Galician language, including the use of Galician names for newborns, although its everyday oral use was not forbidden. Among the attempts at resistance were small leftist guerrilla groups such as those led by José Castro Veiga ("El Piloto") and Benigno Andrade ("Foucellas"), both of whom were ultimately captured and executed. In the 1960s, ministers such as Manuel Fraga Iribarne introduced some reforms allowing technocrats affiliated with Opus Dei to modernize administration in a way that facilitated capitalist economic development. However, for decades Galicia was largely confined to the role of a supplier of raw materials and energy to the rest of Spain, causing environmental havoc and leading to a wave of migration to Venezuela and to various parts of Europe. Fenosa, the monopolistic supplier of electricity, built hydroelectric dams, flooding many Galician river valleys.

Francisco Franco was himself a Galician from which city?

Ferrol

When did his reign end?

What was Guerrilla fighter José Castro Veiga's nickname?

El Piloto

And what was Benigno Andrade's?

Foucellas


As part of the transition to democracy upon the death of Franco in 1975, Galicia regained its status as an autonomous region within Spain with the Statute of Autonomy of 1981, which begins, "Galicia, historical nationality, is constituted as an Autonomous Community to access to its self-government, in agreement with the Spanish Constitution and with the present Statute (...)". Varying degrees of nationalist or independentist sentiment are evident at the political level. The Bloque Nacionalista Galego or BNG, is a conglomerate of left-wing parties and individuals that claims Galician political status as a nation.

Which form of government did Galicia start using in 1975

democracy

Which modern group now works to attain Galicia status as a nation?

Bloque Nacionalista Galego


From 1990 to 2005, Manuel Fraga, former minister and ambassador in the Franco dictature, presided over the Galician autonomous government, the Xunta de Galicia. Fraga was associated with the Partido Popular ('People's Party', Spain's main national conservative party) since its founding. In 2002, when the oil tanker Prestige sank and covered the Galician coast in oil, Fraga was accused by the grassroots movement Nunca Mais ("Never again") of having been unwilling to react. In the 2005 Galician elections, the 'People's Party' lost its absolute majority, though remaining (barely) the largest party in the parliament, with 43% of the total votes. As a result, power passed to a coalition of the Partido dos Socialistas de Galicia (PSdeG) ('Galician Socialists' Party'), a federal sister-party of Spain's main social-democratic party, the Partido Socialista Obrero Español (PSOE, 'Spanish Socialist Workers Party') and the nationalist Bloque Nacionalista Galego (BNG). As the senior partner in the new coalition, the PSdeG nominated its leader, Emilio Perez Touriño, to serve as Galicia's new president, with Anxo Quintana, the leader of BNG, as its vice president.

Which former minister under Franco's rule headed the autonomous government  from 1990 to 2005?

Manuel Fraga

Which political party did he belong to?

Partido Popular

The sinking of which oil tanker precipitated the downfall of that party's rule?

Prestige

Power then passed a political coalition headed by who?

Anxo Quintana


Galicia has a surface area of 29,574 square kilometres (11,419 sq mi). Its northernmost point, at 43°47′N, is Estaca de Bares (also the northernmost point of Spain); its southernmost, at 41°49′N, is on the Portuguese border in the Baixa Limia-Serra do Xurés Natural Park. The easternmost longitude is at 6°42′W on the border between the province of Ourense and the Castilian-Leonese province of Zamora) its westernmost at 9°18′W, reached in two places: the A Nave Cape in Fisterra (also known as Finisterre), and Cape Touriñán, both in the province of A Coruña.

What is Galicia's surface area in sq/km?

What is its northernmost point?

Estaca de Bares

And its southernmost?

Baixa Limia-Serra do Xurés


Topographically, a remarkable feature of Galicia is the presence of many firth-like inlets along the coast, estuaries that were drowned with rising sea levels after the ice age. These are called rías and are divided into the smaller Rías Altas ("High Rías"), and the larger Rías Baixas ("Low Rías"). The Rías Altas include Ribadeo, Foz, Viveiro, Barqueiro, Ortigueira, Cedeira, Ferrol, Betanzos, A Coruña, Corme e Laxe and Camariñas. The Rías Baixas, found south of Fisterra, include Corcubión, Muros e Noia, Arousa, Pontevedra and Vigo. The Rías Altas can sometimes refer only to those east of Estaca de Bares, with the others being called Rías Medias ("Intermediate Rías").

What are estuaries called in Galicia?

rías

What does Rías Altas mean?

High Rías

WWhat does Rías Baixas mean?

Low Rías


All along the Galician coast are various archipelagos near the mouths of the rías. These archipelagos provide protected deepwater harbors and also provide habitat for seagoing birds. A 2007 inventory estimates that the Galician coast has 316 archipelagos, islets, and freestanding rocks. Among the most important of these are the archipelagos of Cíes, Ons, and Sálvora. Together with Cortegada Island, these make up the Atlantic Islands of Galicia National Park. Other significant islands are Islas Malveiras, Islas Sisargas, and, the largest and holding the largest population, Arousa Island.

The Galician coast is estimated to have about how many archipelagos, islets, and freestanding rocks?

Which island is part of Atlantic Islands of Galicia National Park?

Cortegada


Galicia is quite mountainous, a fact which has contributed to isolate the rural areas, hampering communications, most notably in the inland. The main mountain range is the Macizo Galaico (Serra do Eixe, Serra da Lastra, Serra do Courel), also known as Macizo Galaico-Leonés, located in the eastern parts, bordering with Castile and León. Noteworthy mountain ranges are O Xistral (northern Lugo), the Serra dos Ancares (on the border with León and Asturias), O Courel (on the border with León), O Eixe (the border between Ourense and Zamora), Serra de Queixa (in the center of Ourense province), O Faro (the border between Lugo and Pontevedra), Cova da Serpe (border of Lugo and A Coruña), Montemaior (A Coruña), Montes do Testeiro, Serra do Suído, and Faro de Avión (between Pontevedra and Ourense); and, to the south, A Peneda, O Xurés and O Larouco, all on the border of Ourense and Portugal.

What is Galicia's main mountain range?

Macizo Galaico

Its southern mountain ranges are on the border with which country?

Portugal


Galicia is poetically known as the "country of the thousand rivers" ("o país dos mil ríos"). The largest and most important of these rivers is the Minho, known as O Pai Miño (Father Minho), 307.5 km (191.1 mi) long and discharging 419 m3 (548 cu yd) per second, with its affluent the Sil, which has created a spectacular canyon. Most of the rivers in the inland are tributaries of this fluvial system, which drains some 17,027 km2 (6,574 sq mi). Other rivers run directly into the Atlantic Ocean as Lérez or the Cantabrian Sea, most of them having short courses. Only the Navia, Ulla, Tambre, and Limia have courses longer than 100 km (62 mi).

What is Galicia is poetically known as?

country of the thousand rivers

What is its longest river?

Minho


Deforestation and forest fires are a problem in many areas, as is the continual spread of the eucalyptus tree, a species imported from Australia, actively promoted by the paper industry since the mid-20th century. Galicia is one of the more forested areas of Spain, but the majority of Galicia's plantations, usually growing eucalyptus or pine, lack any formal management. Massive eucalyptus, especially Eucalyptus globulus plantation, began in the Francisco Franco era, largely on behalf of the paper company Empresa Nacional de Celulosas de España (ENCE) in Pontevedra, which wanted it for its pulp. Wood products figure significantly in Galicia's economy. Apart from tree plantations Galicia is also notable for the extensive surface occupied by meadows used for animal husbandry, especially cattle , an important activity. Hydroelectric development in most rivers has been a serious concern for local conservationists during the last decades.

Which tree species has become a problem for Galicia?

eucalyptus tree

What kind of development on rivers are conservationists concerned about?

Hydroelectric


The animals most often thought of as being "typical" of Galicia are the livestock raised there. The Galician horse is native to the region, as is the Galician Blond cow and the domestic fowl known as the galiña de Mos. The latter is an endangered species, although it is showing signs of a comeback since 2001. Galicia's woodlands and mountains are home to rabbits, hares, wild boars, and roe deer, all of which are popular with hunters. Several important bird migration routes pass through Galicia, and some of the community's relatively few environmentally protected areas are Special Protection Areas (such as on the Ría de Ribadeo) for these birds. From a domestic point of view, Galicia has been credited for author Manuel Rivas as the "land of one million cows". Galician Blond and Holstein cattle coexist on meadows and farms.

Which cow species is native to Galicia?

Galician Blond

Which fowl species is native to the area?

galiña de Mos

One of the Special Protection Areas for birds is in which area?

Ría de Ribadeo


Being located on the Atlantic coastline, Galicia has a very mild climate for the latitude and the marine influence affects most of the province to various degrees. In comparison to similar latitudes on the other side of the Atlantic, winters are exceptionally mild, with consistently heavy rainfall. Snow is rare due to temperatures rarely dropping below freezing. The warmest coastal station of Pontevedra has a yearly mean temperature of 14.8 °C (58.6 °F). Ourense located somewhat inland is only slightly warmer with 14.9 °C (58.8 °F). Due to its exposed north-westerly location, the climate is still very cool by Spanish standards. In coastal areas summers are temperered, averaging around 25 °C (77 °F) in Vigo. Temperatures are further cooler in A Coruña, with a subdued 22.8 °C (73.0 °F) normal. Temperatures do however soar in inland areas such as Ourense, where days above 30 °C (86 °F) are very regular.

Where is Galicia's warmest coastal station?

Pontevedra

What about inland?

Ourense


The lands of Galicia are ascribed to two different areas in the Köppen climate classification: a south area (roughly, the province of Ourense and Pontevedra) with tendencies to have some summer drought, classified as a warm-summer Mediterranean climate (Csb), with mild temperatures and rainfall usual throughout the year; and the western and northern coastal regions, the provinces of Lugo and A Coruña, which are characterized by their Oceanic climate (Cfb), with a more uniform precipitation distribution along the year, and milder summers. However, precipitation in southern coastal areas are often classified as oceanic since the averages remain significantly higher than a typical mediterranean climate.

What is the southern area's climate classified as?

Mediterranean

What about the climate of its coastal areas?

Oceanic


As an example, Santiago de Compostela, the political capital city, has an average of 129 rainy days and 1,362 millimetres (53.6 in) per year (with just 17 rainy days in the three summer months) and 2,101 sunlight hours per year, with just 6 days with frosts per year. But the colder city of Lugo, to the east, has an average of 1,759 sunlight hours per year, 117 days with precipitations (> 1 mm) totalling 901.54 millimetres (35.5 in), and 40 days with frosts per year. The more mountainous parts of the provinces of Ourense and Lugo receive significant snowfall during the winter months. The sunniest city is Pontevedra with 2,223 sunny hours per year.

What is the political capital city?

Santiago de Compostela

How many rainy days does it typically have?

How many days with frosts?

A colder city like Lugo has how many days with frosts?

Its sunniest city, Pontevedra, gets how may hours of sunlight per year?


Galicia is further divided into 53 comarcas, 315 municipalities (93 in A Coruña, 67 in Lugo, 92 in Ourense, 62 in Pontevedra) and 3,778 parishes. Municipalities are divided into parishes, which may be further divided into aldeas ("hamlets") or lugares ("places"). This traditional breakdown into such small areas is unusual when compared to the rest of Spain. Roughly half of the named population entities of Spain are in Galicia, which occupies only 5.8 percent of the country's area. It is estimated that Galicia has over a million named places, over 40,000 of them being communities.

How many comarcas does Galicia consist of?

How many municipalities?

How many parishes?

How many of its numerous named locations are communities?


In comparison to the other regions of Spain, the major economic benefit of Galicia is its fishing Industry. Galicia is a land of economic contrast. While the western coast, with its major population centers and its fishing and manufacturing industries, is prosperous and increasing in population, the rural hinterland — the provinces of Ourense and Lugo — is economically dependent on traditional agriculture, based on small landholdings called minifundios. However, the rise of tourism, sustainable forestry and organic and traditional agriculture are bringing other possibilities to the Galician economy without compromising the preservation of the natural resources and the local culture.

Which industry is Galicia's main money maker?

fishing

What are the landholdings that the farming industry uses called?

minifundios


Galicia was late to catch the tourism boom that has swept Spain in recent decades, but the coastal regions (especially the Rías Baixas and Santiago de Compostela) are now significant tourist destinations and are especially popular with visitors from other regions in Spain, where the majority of tourists come from. In 2007, 5.7 million tourists visited Galicia, an 8% growth over the previous year, and part of a continual pattern of growth in this sector. 85% of tourists who visit Galicia visit Santiago de Compostela. Tourism constitutes 12% of Galician GDP and employs about 12% of the regional workforce.

Which two coastal regions are now major tourist destinations?

Rías Baixas and Santiago de Compostela

How many tourists visited Galicia in 2007?

5.7 million

What percentage of its GDP is tourism responsible for?


The most important Galician fishing port is the Port of Vigo; It is one of the world's leading fishing ports, second only to Tokyo, with an annual catch worth 1,500 million euros. In 2007 the port took in 732,951 metric tons (721,375 long tons; 807,940 short tons) of fish and seafood, and about 4,000,000 metric tons (3,900,000 long tons; 4,400,000 short tons) of other cargoes. Other important ports are Ferrol, A Coruña, and the smaller ports of Marín and Vilagarcía de Arousa, as well as important recreational ports in Pontevedra and Burela. Beyond these, Galicia has 120 other organized ports.

Which port is Galicia's most important?

Vigo

Which Japanese fishing port is Galicia's second to?

Tokyo

Aside from the larger ports, roughly how many other organized ports are there?


Within Galicia are the Autopista AP-9 from Ferrol to Vigo and the Autopista AP-53 (also known as AG-53, because it was initially built by the Xunta de Galicia) from Santiago to Ourense. Additional roads under construction include Autovía A-54 from Santiago de Compostela to Lugo, and Autovía A-56 from Lugo to Ourense. The Xunta de Galicia has built roads connecting comarcal capitals, such as the aforementioned AG-53, Autovía AG-55 connecting A Coruña to Carballo or AG-41 connecting Pontevedra to Sanxenxo.

The Autopista AP-53 was originally built by whom?

Xunta de Galicia

Name another road they responsible for.


The first railway line in Galicia was inaugurated 15 September 1873. It ran from O Carril, Vilagarcía de Arousa to Cornes, Conxo, Santiago de Compostela. A second line was inaugurated in 1875, connecting A Coruña and Lugo. In 1883, Galicia was first connected by rail to the rest of Spain, by way of O Barco de Valdeorras. Galicia today has roughly 1,100 kilometres (680 mi) of rail lines. Several 1,668 mm (5 ft 5 21⁄32 in) Iberian gauge lines operated by Adif and Renfe Operadora connect all the important Galician cities. A 1,000 mm (3 ft 3 3⁄8 in) metre gauge line operated by FEVE connects Ferrol to Ribadeo and Oviedo. The only electrified line is the Ponferrada-Monforte de Lemos-Ourense-Vigo line. Several high-speed rail lines are under construction. Among these are the Olmedo-Zamora-Galicia high-speed rail line that opened partly in 2011, and the AVE Atlantic Axis route, which will connect all of the major Galician Atlantic coast cities A Coruña, Santiago de Compostela, Pontevedra and Vigo to Portugal. Another projected AVE line will connect Ourense to Pontevedra and Vigo.

In which year did Galicia's first railway line open?

What is the name of its only electrified railway?

Ponferrada-Monforte de Lemos-Ourense-Vigo


The rapid increase of population of A Coruña, Vigo and to a lesser degree other major Galician cities, like Ourense, Pontevedra or Santiago de Compostela during the years that followed the Spanish Civil War during the mid-20th century occurred as the rural population declined: many villages and hamlets of the four provinces of Galicia disappeared or nearly disappeared during the same period. Economic development and mechanization of agriculture resulted in the fields being abandoned, and most of the population has moving to find jobs in the main cities. The number of people working in the Tertiary and Quaternary sectors of the economy has increased significantly.

A rapid population growth after occurred after which war?

Spanish Civil War

What are two reasons for which Galicia's rural areas have been largely abandoned?

Economic development and mechanization of agriculture


Spanish was nonetheless the only official language in Galicia for more than four centuries. Over the many centuries of Castilian domination, Galician faded from day-to-day use in urban areas. The period since the re-establishment of democracy in Spain—in particular since the Lei de Normalización Lingüística ("Law of Linguistic Normalization", Ley 3/1983, 15 June 1983)—represents the first time since the introduction of mass education that a generation has attended school in Galician (Spanish is also still taught in Galician schools).

For how long was Spanish the official language of Galicia?

more than four centuries

In modern times, from which year have children attended school in Galician?

What was the name of the law that enacted this?

Lei de Normalización Lingüística ("Law of Linguistic Normalization"


Nowadays, Galician is resurgent, though in the cities it remains a "second language" for most. According to a 2001 census, 99.16 percent of the populace of Galicia understand the language, 91.04 percent speak it, 68.65 percent read it and 57.64 percent write it. The first two numbers (understanding and speaking) remain roughly the same as a decade earlier; the latter two (reading and writing) both show enormous gains: a decade earlier, only 49.3 percent of the population could read Galician, and only 34.85 percent could write it. This fact can be easily explained because of the impossibility of teaching Galician during the Francisco Franco era, so older people speak the language but have no written competence. Galician is the highest-percentage spoken language in its region among the regional languages of Spain.

Roughly what percentage of the population actually speaks Galician?

What percentage read it?

What percentage write it?


The earliest known document in Galician-Portuguese dates from 1228. The Foro do bo burgo do Castro Caldelas was granted by Alfonso IX of León to the town of Burgo, in Castro Caldelas, after the model of the constitutions of the town of Allariz. A distinct Galician Literature emerged during the Middle Ages: In the 13th century important contributions were made to the romance canon in Galician-Portuguese, the most notable those by the troubadour Martín Codax, the priest Airas Nunes, King Denis of Portugal and King Alfonso X of Castile, Alfonso O Sabio ("Alfonso the Wise"), the same monarch who began the process of establishing the hegemony of Castilian. During this period, Galician-Portuguese was considered the language of love poetry in the Iberian Romance linguistic culture. The names and memories of Codax and other popular cultural figures are well preserved in modern Galicia and, despite the long period of Castilian linguistic domination, these names are again household words.

The earliest Galician-Portuguese documents date back to which year?

During what era did Galician literature emerge?

Middle Ages


Christianity is the most widely practised religion in Galicia, as it has been since its introduction in Late Antiquity, although it lived alongside the old Gallaeci religion for a few centuries. Today about 73% of Galicians identify themselves as Christians. The largest form of Christianity practised in the present day is Catholicism, though only 20% of the population described themselves as active members. The Catholic Church in Galicia has had its primatial seat in Santiago de Compostela since the 12th century.

What is Galicia's most widespread religion?

Christianity

What percentage of Galicians identify with this religion?


Since the Middle Ages, the Galician Catholic Church has been organized into five ecclesiastical dioceses (Lugo, Ourense, Santiago de Compostela, Mondoñedo-Ferrol and Tui-Vigo). While these may have coincided with contemporary 15th-century civil provinces, they no longer have the same boundaries as the modern civil provincial divisions. The church is led by one archbishop and four bishops. Moreover, of five dioceses, Galicia is divided between 163 districts and 3,792 parishes, a few of which are governed by administrators, the remainder by parish priests.

Which church has had a large influence over Galicia since the Middle Ages?

Catholic Church

Which five positions are held by church leaders?

one archbishop and four bishops


Hundreds of ancient standing stone monuments like dolmens, menhirs and megalithics Tumulus were erected during the prehistoric period in Galicia, amongst the best-known are the dolmens of Dombate, Corveira, Axeitos of Pedra da Arca, menhirs like the "Lapa de Gargñáns". From the Iron Age, Galicia has a rich heritage based mainly on a great number of Hill forts, few of them excavated like Baroña, Sta. Tegra, San Cibrao de Lás and Formigueiros among others. With the introduction of Ancient Roman architecture there was a development of basilicas, castra, city walls, cities, villas, Roman temples, Roman roads, and the Roman bridge of Ponte Vella. It was the Romans who founded some of the first cities in Galicia like Lugo and Ourense. Perhaps the best-known examples are the Roman Walls of Lugo and the Tower of Hercules in A Coruña.

Which civilization was it that founded some of the first Galician cities?

Romans

Name two of these cities.

Lugo and Ourense


The patron saint of Galicia is Saint James the Greater, whose body was discovered – according to the Catholic tradition – in 814 near Compostela. After that date, the relics of Saint James became an extraordinary centre of pilgrimage and from the 9th century have been kept in the heart of the church – the modern-day cathedral – dedicated to him. There are many other Galician and associated saints; some of the best-known are: Saint Ansurius, Saint Rudesind, Saint Mariña of Augas Santas, Saint Senorina, Trahamunda and Froilan.

Who is Galicia's patron saint?

Saint James the Greater

Name another saint associated with Galicia.

Saint Senorina


In northern Galicia, the A Coruña-Ferrol metropolitan area has become increasingly dominant in terms of population. The population of the city of A Coruña in 1900 was 43,971. The population of the rest of the province including the City and Naval Station of nearby Ferrol and Santiago de Compostela was 653,556. A Coruña's growth occurred after the Spanish Civil War at the same speed as other major Galician cities, but it was the arrival of democracy in Spain after the death of Francisco Franco when A Coruña left all the other Galician cities behind.

Which metro area is largest in terms of population?

A Coruña-Ferrol

What was it's total population back in 1900?


Galicia's inhabitants are known as Galicians (Galician: galegos, Spanish: gallegos). For well over a century Galicia has grown more slowly than the rest of Spain, due largely to emigration to Latin America and to other parts of Spain. Sometimes Galicia has lost population in absolute terms. In 1857, Galicia had Spain's densest population and constituted 11.5% of the national population. As of 2007, only 6.1% of the Spanish population resides in the autonomous community. This is due to an exodus of Galician people since the 19th century, first to South America and later to Central Europe.

What to Galician's call themselves in their language?

galegos

Aside from Spain, where have Galicians emigrated to?

Latin America


The Galician road network includes autopistas and autovías connecting the major cities, as well as national and secondary roads to the rest of the municipalities. The Autovía A-6 connects A Coruña and Lugo to Madrid, entering Galicia at Pedrafita do Cebreiro. The Autovía A-52 connects O Porriño, Ourense and Benavente, and enters Galicia at A Gudiña. Two more autovías are under construction. Autovía A-8 enters Galicia on the Cantabrian coast, and ends in Baamonde (Lugo province). Autovía A-76 enters Galicia in Valdeorras; it is an upgrade of the existing N-120 to Ourense and Vigo.

Which Spanish city does the Autovía A-6 lead to?

Madrid

The Autovía A-8 enters Galicia on which coast?

Cantabrian


USB was designed to standardize the connection of computer peripherals (including keyboards, pointing devices, digital cameras, printers, portable media players, disk drives and network adapters) to personal computers, both to communicate and to supply electric power. It has become commonplace on other devices, such as smartphones, PDAs and video game consoles. USB has effectively replaced a variety of earlier interfaces, such as serial and parallel ports, as well as separate power chargers for portable devices.

What was designed to standardize the connection of computer peripherals?

USB

USB has become what on other devices?

commonplace

What has USB effectively replaced?

a variety of earlier interfaces


Unlike other data cables (e.g., Ethernet, HDMI), each end of a USB cable uses a different kind of connector; a Type-A or a Type-B. This kind of design was chosen to prevent electrical overloads and damaged equipment, as only the Type-A socket provides power. There are cables with Type-A connectors on both ends, but they should be used carefully. Therefore, in general, each of the different "sizes" requires four different connectors; USB cables have the Type-A and Type-B plugs, and the corresponding receptacles are on the computer or electronic device. In common practice, the Type-A connector is usually the full size, and the Type-B side can vary as needed.

What are the different kinds of USB connectors?

Type-A or a Type-B

Why were the designs for different USB connectors made?

to prevent electrical overloads and damaged equipment

The Type-A connector is usually what size?

the Type-A connector is usually the full size

What size is the Type-B connector?

the Type-B side can vary as needed


Counter-intuitively, the "micro" size is the most durable from the point of designed insertion lifetime. The standard and mini connectors were designed for less than daily connections, with a design lifetime of 1,500 insertion-removal cycles. (Improved mini-B connectors have reached 5,000-cycle lifetimes.) Micro connectors were designed with frequent charging of portable devices in mind; not only is design lifetime of the connector improved to 10,000 cycles, but it was also redesigned to place the flexible contacts, which wear out sooner, on the easily replaced cable, while the more durable rigid contacts are located in the micro-USB receptacles. Likewise, the springy part of the retention mechanism (parts that provide required gripping force) were also moved into plugs on the cable side.

What size is the most durable from the point of designed insertion lifetime?

the "micro" size

What was designed for less daily connections?

The standard and mini connectors

What has reached 5,000-cycle lifetimes?

Improved mini-B connectors

What was designed with frequent charging of portable devices in mind?

Micro connectors


USB connections also come in five data transfer modes, in ascending order: Low Speed (1.0), Full Speed (1.0), High Speed (2.0), SuperSpeed (3.0), and SuperSpeed+ (3.1). High Speed is supported only by specifically designed USB 2.0 High Speed interfaces (that is, USB 2.0 controllers without the High Speed designation do not support it), as well as by USB 3.0 and newer interfaces. SuperSpeed is supported only by USB 3.0 and newer interfaces, and requires a connector and cable with extra pins and wires, usually distinguishable by the blue inserts in connectors.

USB connections come in what?

five data transfer modes

What is High Speed only supported by?

specifically designed USB 2.0 High Speed interfaces

SuperSpeed is only supported by?

USB 3.0 and newer interfaces


A group of seven companies began the development of USB in 1994: Compaq, DEC, IBM, Intel, Microsoft, NEC, and Nortel. The goal was to make it fundamentally easier to connect external devices to PCs by replacing the multitude of connectors at the back of PCs, addressing the usability issues of existing interfaces, and simplifying software configuration of all devices connected to USB, as well as permitting greater data rates for external devices. A team including Ajay Bhatt worked on the standard at Intel; the first integrated circuits supporting USB were produced by Intel in 1995.

When did the seven companies begin developing USB's?

How many companies developed USB's?

seven

What was the goal for USB's?

to make it fundamentally easier to connect external devices to PCs

Who was included in a team that worked on the standard at Intel?

Ajay Bhatt


The original USB 1.0 specification, which was introduced in January 1996, defined data transfer rates of 1.5 Mbit/s "Low Speed" and 12 Mbit/s "Full Speed". Microsoft Windows 95, OSR 2.1 provided OEM support for the devices. The first widely used version of USB was 1.1, which was released in September 1998. The 12 Mbit/s data rate was intended for higher-speed devices such as disk drives, and the lower 1.5 Mbit/s rate for low data rate devices such as joysticks. Apple Inc.'s iMac was the first mainstream product with USB and the iMac's success popularized USB itself. Following Apple's design decision to remove all legacy ports from the iMac, many PC manufacturers began building legacy-free PCs, which led to the broader PC market using USB as a standard.

When was the original USB 1.0 Specification introduced?

January 1996

How fast was the slowest data transfer rate of the USB 1.0?

1.5 Mbit/s "Low Speed"

What was the fastest data transfer rate of the USB 1.0?

12 Mbit/s "Full Speed"

1.1 was the first widely used version of what?

USB

When was the first widely used version of USB released?

September 1998


The new SuperSpeed bus provides a fourth transfer mode with a data signaling rate of 5.0 Gbit/s, in addition to the modes supported by earlier versions. The payload throughput is 4 Gbit/s[citation needed] (due to the overhead incurred by 8b/10b encoding), and the specification considers it reasonable to achieve around 3.2 Gbit/s (0.4 GB/s or 400 MB/s), which should increase with future hardware advances. Communication is full-duplex in SuperSpeed transfer mode; in the modes supported previously, by 1.x and 2.0, communication is half-duplex, with direction controlled by the host.

What provides a fourth transfer mode?

The new SuperSpeed bus

How fast is the new SuperSpeed bus data signaling rate?

5.0 Gbit/s

What is full-duplex in SuperSpeed transfer mode?

Communication


As with previous USB versions, USB 3.0 ports come in low-power and high-power variants, providing 150 mA and 900 mA respectively, while simultaneously transmitting data at SuperSpeed rates. Additionally, there is a Battery Charging Specification (Version 1.2 – December 2010), which increases the power handling capability to 1.5 A but does not allow concurrent data transmission. The Battery Charging Specification requires that the physical ports themselves be capable of handling 5 A of current[citation needed] but limits the maximum current drawn to 1.5 A.

What are the power variants in USB 3.0 ports?

low-power and high-power

What do the power variants provide?

150 mA and 900 mA respectively

What does the Battery Charging Specification do?

increases the power handling capability to 1.5 A

What is a downfall of the Battery Charging Specification?

does not allow concurrent data transmission


A January 2013 press release from the USB group revealed plans to update USB 3.0 to 10 Gbit/s. The group ended up creating a new USB version, USB 3.1, which was released on 31 July 2013, introducing a faster transfer mode called SuperSpeed USB 10 Gbit/s, putting it on par with a single first-generation Thunderbolt channel. The new mode's logo features a "Superspeed+" caption (stylized as SUPERSPEED+). The USB 3.1 standard increases the data signaling rate to 10 Gbit/s in the USB 3.1 Gen2 mode, double that of USB 3.0 (referred to as USB 3.1 Gen1) and reduces line encoding overhead to just 3% by changing the encoding scheme to 128b/132b. The first USB 3.1 implementation demonstrated transfer speeds of 7.2 Gbit/s.

When were the plans to update USB 3.0 to 10 Gbit/s revealed?

January 2013

What actually happened whenever USB 3.0 was updated?

The group ended up creating a new USB version

When was USB 3.1 released?

31 July 2013

What does the USB 3.1 standard increase?

the data signaling rate to 10 Gbit/s in the USB 3.1 Gen2 mode


Developed at roughly the same time as the USB 3.1 specification, but distinct from it, the USB Type-C Specification 1.0 was finalized in August 2014 and defines a new small reversible-plug connector for USB devices. The Type-C plug connects to both hosts and devices, replacing various Type-A and Type-B connectors and cables with a standard meant to be future-proof, similar to Apple Lightning and Thunderbolt. The 24-pin double-sided connector provides four power/ground pairs, two differential pairs for USB 2.0 data bus (though only one pair is implemented in a Type-C cable), four pairs for high-speed data bus, two "sideband use" pins, and two configuration pins for cable orientation detection, dedicated biphase mark code (BMC) configuration data channel, and VCONN +5 V power for active cables. Type-A and Type-B adaptors and cables are required for older devices to plug into Type-C hosts. Adapters and cables with a Type-C receptacle are not allowed.[citation needed]

When was the Type-C Specification 1.0 finalized?

August 2014

What defined a new reversible-plug connector for USB devices?

USB Type-C Specification 1.0

What does Type-C connect to?

both hosts and devices

What connector provides four power/ground pairs?

The 24-pin double-sided connector


Full-featured USB Type-C cables are active, electronically marked cables that contain a chip with an ID function based on the configuration data channel and vendor-defined messages (VDMs) from the USB Power Delivery 2.0 specification. USB Type-C devices also support power currents of 1.5 A and 3.0 A over the 5 V power bus in addition to baseline 900 mA; devices can either negotiate increased USB current through the configuration line, or they can support the full Power Delivery specification using both BMC-coded configuration line and legacy BFSK-coded VBUS line.

What kind of cables does the fully featured USB Type-C contain?

active, electronically marked cables

Electronically marked cables have a chip that contains what?

an ID function based on the configuration data channel and vendor-defined messages

What is the shortened version of vendor-defined messages?

(VDMs)


The design architecture of USB is asymmetrical in its topology, consisting of a host, a multitude of downstream USB ports, and multiple peripheral devices connected in a tiered-star topology. Additional USB hubs may be included in the tiers, allowing branching into a tree structure with up to five tier levels. A USB host may implement multiple host controllers and each host controller may provide one or more USB ports. Up to 127 devices, including hub devices if present, may be connected to a single host controller. USB devices are linked in series through hubs. One hub—built into the host controller—is the root hub.

The design of USB is asymmetrical in what?

its topology

How many devices may be connected to a host controller?

127 devices

How are USB devices linked?

in series through hubs

What HUB is built into the host controller?

the root hub

The design of the USB is asymmetrical in its what?

topology

How many devices can be connected to a host controller?

Up to 127 devices

What hub is built into the host controller?

the root hub

A USB host may implement how many host controllers?

multiple

How many USB ports may a host controller provide?

one or more USB ports


A physical USB device may consist of several logical sub-devices that are referred to as device functions. A single device may provide several functions, for example, a webcam (video device function) with a built-in microphone (audio device function). This kind of device is called a composite device. An alternative to this is compound device, in which the host assigns each logical device a distinctive address and all logical devices connect to a built-in hub that connects to the physical USB cable.

What are logical sub-devices referred to as?

device functions

A single device can provide an audio device function such as?

built-in microphone

A single device can provide a video device function such as?

a webcam


USB device communication is based on pipes (logical channels). A pipe is a connection from the host controller to a logical entity, found on a device, and named an endpoint. Because pipes correspond 1-to-1 to endpoints, the terms are sometimes used interchangeably. A USB device could have up to 32 endpoints (16 IN, 16 OUT), though it's rare to have so many. An endpoint is defined and numbered by the device during initialization (the period after physical connection called "enumeration") and so is relatively permanent, whereas a pipe may be opened and closed.

What is a pipe?

a connection from the host controller to a logical entity

A USB connection is based on what?

pipes (logical channels)

What is a pipe named at?

an endpoint

Where do pipes correspond?

1-to-1 to endpoints

How many endpoints can a USB device have?

up to 32 endpoints


An endpoint of a pipe is addressable with a tuple (device_address, endpoint_number) as specified in a TOKEN packet that the host sends when it wants to start a data transfer session. If the direction of the data transfer is from the host to the endpoint, an OUT packet (a specialization of a TOKEN packet) having the desired device address and endpoint number is sent by the host. If the direction of the data transfer is from the device to the host, the host sends an IN packet instead. If the destination endpoint is a uni-directional endpoint whose manufacturer's designated direction does not match the TOKEN packet (e.g. the manufacturer's designated direction is IN while the TOKEN packet is an OUT packet), the TOKEN packet is ignored. Otherwise, it is accepted and the data transaction can start. A bi-directional endpoint, on the other hand, accepts both IN and OUT packets.

If the direction of the data transfer is from the device to the host, what does the host send?

the host sends an IN packet

What does a bi-directional endpoint accept?

both IN and OUT packets

What is sent if the direction of the data transfer is from host to endpoint?

an OUT packet


When a USB device is first connected to a USB host, the USB device enumeration process is started. The enumeration starts by sending a reset signal to the USB device. The data rate of the USB device is determined during the reset signaling. After reset, the USB device's information is read by the host and the device is assigned a unique 7-bit address. If the device is supported by the host, the device drivers needed for communicating with the device are loaded and the device is set to a configured state. If the USB host is restarted, the enumeration process is repeated for all connected devices.

What is started when a USB is first connected to a host?

enumeration process

What does the enumeration process start by doing?

sending a reset signal to the USB device

What id the data rate determined during?

the reset signaling

When is the device assigned a unique 7-bit address?

After reset

What happens whenever a USB host is restarted?

the enumeration process is repeated for all connected devices.


High-speed USB 2.0 hubs contain devices called transaction translators that convert between high-speed USB 2.0 buses and full and low speed buses. When a high-speed USB 2.0 hub is plugged into a high-speed USB host or hub, it operates in high-speed mode. The USB hub then uses either one transaction translator per hub to create a full/low-speed bus routed to all full and low speed devices on the hub, or uses one transaction translator per port to create an isolated full/low-speed bus per port on the hub.

What do transaction translators do?

convert between high-speed USB 2.0 buses and full and low speed buses

When does a USB 2.0 hub operate in high speed mode?

When a high-speed USB 2.0 hub is plugged into a high-speed USB host or hub

What kind of devices do High speed USB 2.0's contain?

transaction translators


USB implements connections to storage devices using a set of standards called the USB mass storage device class (MSC or UMS). This was at first intended for traditional magnetic and optical drives and has been extended to support flash drives. It has also been extended to support a wide variety of novel devices as many systems can be controlled with the familiar metaphor of file manipulation within directories. The process of making a novel device look like a familiar device is also known as extension. The ability to boot a write-locked SD card with a USB adapter is particularly advantageous for maintaining the integrity and non-corruptible, pristine state of the booting medium.

What do USB's implement connections to?

storage devices

What are the standards called that implement connections to storage devices?

the USB mass storage device class (MSC or UMS)

What is the process of making a novel device look like a familiar device?

extension

Why is the ability to boot write-locked SD cards with a USB adapter advantageous for?

maintaining the integrity and non-corruptible, pristine state of the booting medium.


Though most computers since mid-2004 can boot from USB mass storage devices, USB is not intended as a primary bus for a computer's internal storage. Buses such as Parallel ATA (PATA or IDE), Serial ATA (SATA), or SCSI fulfill that role in PC class computers. However, USB has one important advantage, in that it is possible to install and remove devices without rebooting the computer (hot-swapping), making it useful for mobile peripherals, including drives of various kinds (given SATA or SCSI devices may or may not support hot-swapping).

Since when can most computers boot from USB mass storage devices?

since mid-2004

What is USB not intended for?

a primary bus for a computer's internal storage

What is an important advantage of USB?

it is possible to install and remove devices without rebooting the computer

Buses such as Parallel ATA fulfill what role in PC computers?

a computer's internal storage


Firstly conceived and still used today for optical storage devices (CD-RW drives, DVD drives, etc.), several manufacturers offer external portable USB hard disk drives, or empty enclosures for disk drives. These offer performance comparable to internal drives, limited by the current number and types of attached USB devices, and by the upper limit of the USB interface (in practice about 30 MB/s for USB 2.0 and potentially 400 MB/s or more for USB 3.0). These external drives typically include a "translating device" that bridges between a drive's interface to a USB interface port. Functionally, the drive appears to the user much like an internal drive. Other competing standards for external drive connectivity include eSATA, ExpressCard, FireWire (IEEE 1394), and most recently Thunderbolt.

Several manufacturers offer what?

external portable USB hard disk drives

What do external portable USB hard drive disks offer?

performance comparable to internal drives

What is the most recent standard for external drive connectivity?

Thunderbolt

What do the external drives typically include?

a "translating device"


Media Transfer Protocol (MTP) was designed by Microsoft to give higher-level access to a device's filesystem than USB mass storage, at the level of files rather than disk blocks. It also has optional DRM features. MTP was designed for use with portable media players, but it has since been adopted as the primary storage access protocol of the Android operating system from the version 4.1 Jelly Bean as well as Windows Phone 8 (Windows Phone 7 devices had used the Zune protocol which was an evolution of MTP). The primary reason for this is that MTP does not require exclusive access to the storage device the way UMS does, alleviating potential problems should an Android program request the storage while it is attached to a computer. The main drawback is that MTP is not as well supported outside of Windows operating systems.

Media Transfer Protocol was designed by who?

Microsoft

Why was Media Transfer Protocol designed?

to give higher-level access to a device's filesystem

What was MTP originally designed for?

use with portable media players

Why has MTP become the primary storage access protocol of the Android operating system?

MTP does not require exclusive access to the storage device the way UMS does


USB mice and keyboards can usually be used with older computers that have PS/2 connectors with the aid of a small USB-to-PS/2 adapter. For mice and keyboards with dual-protocol support, an adaptor that contains no logic circuitry may be used: the hardware in the USB keyboard or mouse is designed to detect whether it is connected to a USB or PS/2 port, and communicate using the appropriate protocol. Converters also exist that connect PS/2 keyboards and mice (usually one of each) to a USB port. These devices present two HID endpoints to the system and use a microcontroller to perform bidirectional data translation between the two standards.

What do older computers have to have in order for USB mice and keyboards to be used?

PS/2 connectors with the aid of a small USB-to-PS/2 adapter

What is the hardware designed to detect in USB mice and keyboards?

whether it is connected to a USB or PS/2 port

USB keyboards and mice may communicate using what?

appropriate protocol

What connects PS/2 keyboards and mice to a USB port?

Converters

What performs bidirectional data translation between two standards?

a microcontroller


By design, it is difficult to insert a USB plug into its receptacle incorrectly. The USB specification states that the required USB icon must be embossed on the "topside" of the USB plug, which "...provides easy user recognition and facilitates alignment during the mating process." The specification also shows that the "recommended" "Manufacturer's logo" ("engraved" on the diagram but not specified in the text) is on the opposite side of the USB icon. The specification further states, "The USB Icon is also located adjacent to each receptacle. Receptacles should be oriented to allow the icon on the plug to be visible during the mating process." However, the specification does not consider the height of the device compared to the eye level height of the user, so the side of the cable that is "visible" when mated to a computer on a desk can depend on whether the user is standing or kneeling.

What is difficult to do with a USB plug?

to insert a USB plug into its receptacle incorrectly

The USB specification states that the required USB icon must be what?

embossed on the "topside" of the USB plug

How is the USB icon located to each receptacle?

adjacent

Receptacles should be oriented to allow the icon on the plug to what?

to be visible during the mating process


The standard connectors were deliberately intended to enforce the directed topology of a USB network: Type-A receptacles on host devices that supply power and Type-B receptacles on target devices that draw power. This prevents users from accidentally connecting two USB power supplies to each other, which could lead to short circuits and dangerously high currents, circuit failures, or even fire. USB does not support cyclic networks and the standard connectors from incompatible USB devices are themselves incompatible.

What do Type-A receptacles do on host devices?

supply power

What do Type-b receptacles do on target devices?

draw power

What do the receptacles prevent user from doing?

from accidentally connecting two USB power supplies to each other

What networks do USB not support?

cyclic networks


The standard connectors were designed to be robust. Because USB is hot-pluggable, the connectors would be used more frequently, and perhaps with less care, than other connectors. Many previous connector designs were fragile, specifying embedded component pins or other delicate parts that were vulnerable to bending or breaking. The electrical contacts in a USB connector are protected by an adjacent plastic tongue, and the entire connecting assembly is usually protected by an enclosing metal sheath.

Standard connectors were designed to be what?

robust

Why were standard connectors designed to be so robust?

the connectors would be used more frequently

What as a drawback of previous connectors?

Many previous connector designs were fragile

How are the electrical contents of a USB connector protected?

by an adjacent plastic tongue

How is the entire connecting assembly of a USB connector protected?

by an enclosing metal sheath


The connector construction always ensures that the external sheath on the plug makes contact with its counterpart in the receptacle before any of the four connectors within make electrical contact. The external metallic sheath is typically connected to system ground, thus dissipating damaging static charges. This enclosure design also provides a degree of protection from electromagnetic interference to the USB signal while it travels through the mated connector pair (the only location when the otherwise twisted data pair travels in parallel). In addition, because of the required sizes of the power and common connections, they are made after the system ground but before the data connections. This type of staged make-break timing allows for electrically safe hot-swapping.

Where is the external metallic sheet connected?

typically connected to system ground

What provides a degree of protection from interference with the USB signal?

This enclosure design

This type of stage make-break timing allows for what?

electrically safe hot-swapping.


The newer micro-USB receptacles are designed for a minimum rated lifetime of 10,000 cycles of insertion and removal between the receptacle and plug, compared to 1,500 for the standard USB and 5,000 for the mini-USB receptacle. Features intended to accomplish include, a locking device was added and the leaf-spring was moved from the jack to the plug, so that the most-stressed part is on the cable side of the connection. This change was made so that the connector on the less expensive cable would bear the most wear instead of the more expensive micro-USB device. However the idea that these changes did in fact make the connector more durable in real world use has been widely disputed, with many contending that they are in fact, much less durable.

What are the newer micro-USB receptacles designed for?

a minimum rated lifetime of 10,000 cycles of insertion

What is the minimum rated lifetime for the standard USB receptacle?

After a leaf-spring was moved from jack to the plug, the most stressed part was found where?

on the cable side of the connection

Why was the change made for the USB device?

so that the connector on the less expensive cable would bear the most wear