Some topological spaces may be endowed with a group law. In order for the group law and the topology to interweave well, the group operations must be continuous functions, that is, g • h, and g−1 must not vary wildly if g and h vary only little. Such groups are called topological groups, and they are the group objects in the category of topological spaces. The most basic examples are the reals R under addition, (R ∖ {0}, ·), and similarly with any other topological field such as the complex numbers or p-adic numbers. All of these groups are locally compact, so they have Haar measures and can be studied via harmonic analysis. The former offer an abstract formalism of invariant integrals. Invariance means, in the case of real numbers for example:

What group operations must occur for group law and topology to integrate well?

continuous functions

What is the most simple example of topological groups?

reals R under addition, (R ∖ {0}, ·),

What variables do locally compact groups share that can be studied by harmonic analysis?

Haar measures

What allows group law and group operations to interweave?

I'm not sure.

What is group law endowed with?

I'm not sure.

What are harmonic analyses studied using?

I'm not sure.

What are topological spaces categorized by?

I'm not sure.

How are groups that are not locally compact studied?

I'm not sure.


for any constant c. Matrix groups over these fields fall under this regime, as do adele rings and adelic algebraic groups, which are basic to number theory. Galois groups of infinite field extensions such as the absolute Galois group can also be equipped with a topology, the so-called Krull topology, which in turn is central to generalize the above sketched connection of fields and groups to infinite field extensions. An advanced generalization of this idea, adapted to the needs of algebraic geometry, is the étale fundamental group.

What concepts are fundamental to number theory?

adele rings and adelic algebraic groups

What group uses infinite field extensions with topology?

the absolute Galois group

What is used to generalize the connection of fields and groups to infinite field extensions?

Krull topology

What group is an advanced observation of infinite field extensions and groups that is adapted for the needs of algebraic geometry?

the étale fundamental group

What is basic to adele rings?

I'm not sure.

Which Galois group does not use topology?

I'm not sure.

What form of topology do Matrix groups use?

I'm not sure.

The Galois group is adapted to the needs of what form of geometry?

I'm not sure.

What is algebraic geometry adapted to the needs of?

I'm not sure.


Lie groups are of fundamental importance in modern physics: Noether's theorem links continuous symmetries to conserved quantities. Rotation, as well as translations in space and time are basic symmetries of the laws of mechanics. They can, for instance, be used to construct simple models—imposing, say, axial symmetry on a situation will typically lead to significant simplification in the equations one needs to solve to provide a physical description.v[›] Another example are the Lorentz transformations, which relate measurements of time and velocity of two observers in motion relative to each other. They can be deduced in a purely group-theoretical way, by expressing the transformations as a rotational symmetry of Minkowski space. The latter serves—in the absence of significant gravitation—as a model of space time in special relativity. The full symmetry group of Minkowski space, i.e. including translations, is known as the Poincaré group. By the above, it plays a pivotal role in special relativity and, by implication, for quantum field theories. Symmetries that vary with location are central to the modern description of physical interactions with the help of gauge theory.

What concept is of basic importance in modern physics?

Lie groups

What connects continuous symmetries to conserved quantities?

Noether's theorem

What term describes the basic symmetries of the laws of mechanics?

Rotation

What concept relates measurements of time and velocity of two observers in motion relative to each other?

Lorentz transformations

What describe the complete symmetry group of Minkowski space including translations?

Poincaré group

What is important to Lie groups?

I'm not sure.

What connects Lie groups with conserved quantities?

I'm not sure.

What are basic laws of mechanics?

I'm not sure.

What measures the time and velocity of two observers?

I'm not sure.

What are the translations in a group of Minkowski space called?

I'm not sure.


In abstract algebra, more general structures are defined by relaxing some of the axioms defining a group. For example, if the requirement that every element has an inverse is eliminated, the resulting algebraic structure is called a monoid. The natural numbers N (including 0) under addition form a monoid, as do the nonzero integers under multiplication (Z ∖ {0}, ·), see above. There is a general method to formally add inverses to elements to any (abelian) monoid, much the same way as (Q ∖ {0}, ·) is derived from (Z ∖ {0}, ·), known as the Grothendieck group. Groupoids are similar to groups except that the composition a • b need not be defined for all a and b. They arise in the study of more complicated forms of symmetry, often in topological and analytical structures, such as the fundamental groupoid or stacks. Finally, it is possible to generalize any of these concepts by replacing the binary operation with an arbitrary n-ary one (i.e. an operation taking n arguments). With the proper generalization of the group axioms this gives rise to an n-ary group. The table gives a list of several structures generalizing groups.

What product is created if the requirement that every element has an inverse is eliminated?

monoid

What type of numbers under addition form a monoid?

natural numbers N (including 0)

What method formally adds inverses to elements to any monoid?

the Grothendieck group

What can be replaced to simplify abstract algebra concepts?

the binary operation

Axioms are defined by relaxing what?

I'm not sure.

What is the inverse of every element called?

I'm not sure.

What is derived from (Q \ [0],-)?

I'm not sure.

What needs to be defined in Groupoids for a and b?

I'm not sure.

What does generalizing an n-ary group give rise to?

I'm not sure.


The Central African Republic (CAR; Sango: Ködörösêse tî Bêafrîka; French: République centrafricaine  pronounced: [ʁepyblik sɑ̃tʁafʁikɛn], or Centrafrique [sɑ̃tʀafʁik]) is a landlocked country in Central Africa. It is bordered by Chad to the north, Sudan to the northeast, South Sudan to the east, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Republic of the Congo to the south and Cameroon to the west. The CAR covers a land area of about 620,000 square kilometres (240,000 sq mi) and had an estimated population of around 4.7 million as of 2014[update].

Where is the Central African Republic located?

Central Africa

What country borders CAR in the North?

Chad

What Country borders CAR in the South?

the Republic of the Congo

What Country borders CAR in the West?

Cameroon

What is the population of CAR approximately?

4.7 million

In what part of Africa is Chad landlocked?

I'm not sure.

What is the land area of Chad?

I'm not sure.

What is the population of Sudan?

I'm not sure.

What country is bordered by Cameroon to the north?

I'm not sure.

What is the population of Cameroon as of 2014?

I'm not sure.


What is today the Central African Republic has been inhabited for millennia; however, the country's current borders were established by France, which ruled the country as a colony starting in the late 19th century. After gaining independence from France in 1960, the Central African Republic was ruled by a series of autocratic leaders; by the 1990s, calls for democracy led to the first multi-party democratic elections in 1993. Ange-Félix Patassé became president, but was later removed by General François Bozizé in the 2003 coup. The Central African Republic Bush War began in 2004 and, despite a peace treaty in 2007 and another in 2011, fighting broke out between various factions in December 2012, leading to ethnic and religious cleansing of the Muslim minority and massive population displacement in 2013 and 2014.

Who established CAR's borders?

France

What country ruled CAR as a colony?

France

When did CAR become independent?

in 1960

Who was the first democratically elected President?

Ange-Félix Patassé

What religion is a minority in CAR?

Muslim minority

When was General Francois Bozize removed in a coup?

I'm not sure.

In what year did the Ange-Felix Patasse war begin?

I'm not sure.

What did the muslim minority establish in the Central Africal Republic?

I'm not sure.

At what time did various factions begin to rule the ACR as a colony?

I'm not sure.

In what year did the ACR gain independence from General Francois Bozize?

I'm not sure.


Approximately 10,000 years ago, desertification forced hunter-gatherer societies south into the Sahel regions of northern Central Africa, where some groups settled and began farming as part of the Neolithic Revolution. Initial farming of white yam progressed into millet and sorghum, and before 3000 BC the domestication of African oil palm improved the groups' nutrition and allowed for expansion of the local populations. Bananas arrived in the region and added an important source of carbohydrates to the diet; they were also used in the production of alcoholic beverages.[when?] This Agricultural Revolution, combined with a "Fish-stew Revolution", in which fishing began to take place, and the use of boats, allowed for the transportation of goods. Products were often moved in ceramic pots, which are the first known examples of artistic expression from the region's inhabitants.

How long ago did people start living in the area?

Approximately 10,000 years ago

What agricultural job did people settling in the area perform?

farming

What vegetation helped populations expand?

African oil palm

What was an imported food that provided most of the carbohydrates?

Bananas

What important protein helped with expansion of the inhabitants?

Fish

How long ago did farming force hunter-gatherer societies south?

I'm not sure.

What did dedertification allow for the expansion of?

I'm not sure.

What is production of alcoholic beverages an example of?

I'm not sure.

What did a Fish-stew revolution do to the group's eating habits?

I'm not sure.

What did farming of white yam allow for the transportation of?

I'm not sure.


During the 16th and 17th centuries slave traders began to raid the region as part of the expansion of the Saharan and Nile River slave routes. Their captives were slaved and shipped to the Mediterranean coast, Europe, Arabia, the Western Hemisphere, or to the slave ports and factories along the West and North Africa or South the Ubanqui and Congo rivers. In the mid 19th century, the Bobangi people became major slave traders and sold their captives to the Americas using the Ubangi river to reach the coast. During the 18th century Bandia-Nzakara peoples established the Bangassou Kingdom along the Ubangi River.

When did the slave trade hit the CAR region?

16th and 17th centuries

What is one area where captive slaves were sent?

Europe

Which people were major slave traders in the 19th century?

Bobangi people

Who did the Bobangi sell slave to?

the Americas

What river saw the establishment of a new Kingdom?

Ubangi River

During the 16th and 17th centures what group began to raid the region?

I'm not sure.

What did the Bobangi people establish in the 18th century along the Ubangi River?

I'm not sure.

Why did the Bandia-Nzakara raid the region in the 16th and 17th centuries?

I'm not sure.

What are some areas where the Bobangi were shipped along the slave routes?

I'm not sure.

Where were the Bandia-Nzakara slave ports and factories located?

I'm not sure.


In 1920 French Equatorial Africa was established and Ubangi-Shari was administered from Brazzaville. During the 1920s and 1930s the French introduced a policy of mandatory cotton cultivation, a network of roads was built, attempts were made to combat sleeping sickness and Protestant missions were established to spread Christianity. New forms of forced labor were also introduced and a large number of Ubangians were sent to work on the Congo-Ocean Railway. Many of these forced laborers died of exhaustion, illness, or the poor conditions which claimed between 20% and 25% of the 127,000 workers.

When was Equatorial Africa established?

Where was Equatorial African ran from?

Brazzaville

What plant was mandated to be grown by the French?

cotton

What important infrastructure was built in the 1920s.

a network of roads

What religion was spread through CAR?

Christianity

What country was established during the 1920's and 1930's?

I'm not sure.

Where was the Congo-Ocean Railway run from?

I'm not sure.

What were Christians forced to work on?

I'm not sure.

How many workers established Protestant missions?

I'm not sure.

What conditions did the Ubangi-Shari suffer from?

I'm not sure.


In September 1940, during the Second World War, pro-Gaullist French officers took control of Ubangi-Shari and General Leclerc established his headquarters for the Free French Forces in Bangui. In 1946 Barthélémy Boganda was elected with 9,000 votes to the French National Assembly, becoming the first representative for CAR in the French government. Boganda maintained a political stance against racism and the colonial regime but gradually became disheartened with the French political system and returned to CAR to establish the Movement for the Social Evolution of Black Africa (MESAN) in 1950.

During what war did French officers setup headquarters in CAR?

Second World War

Who was elected in 1946 as the first representative?

Barthélémy Boganda

How many votes did Boganda get?

9,000 votes

What was Bogandas platform that he ran for?

political stance against racism

What caused Boganda to leave his elected post?

disheartened with the French political system

Where did the Ubangi-Shari establish their headquarters?

I'm not sure.

Who was elected in 1950 to become the first CAR representative in the French government?

I'm not sure.

How many votes did General Leclerc get in the election?

I'm not sure.

What was the political position of General Leclerc?

I'm not sure.

What did Barthelemy Boganda establish in September 1940?

I'm not sure.


In the Ubangi-Shari Territorial Assembly election in 1957, MESAN captured 347,000 out of the total 356,000 votes, and won every legislative seat, which led to Boganda being elected president of the Grand Council of French Equatorial Africa and vice-president of the Ubangi-Shari Government Council. Within a year, he declared the establishment of the Central African Republic and served as the country's first prime minister. MESAN continued to exist, but its role was limited. After Boganda's death in a plane crash on 29 March 1959, his cousin, David Dacko, took control of MESAN and became the country's first president after the CAR had formally received independence from France. Dacko threw out his political rivals, including former Prime Minister and Mouvement d'évolution démocratique de l'Afrique centrale (MEDAC), leader Abel Goumba, whom he forced into exile in France. With all opposition parties suppressed by November 1962, Dacko declared MESAN as the official party of the state.

What was the overwhelming amount of votes MESAN captured?

347,000 out of the total 356,000 votes

How many seats did MESAN win?

every legislative seat

Who was elected president of the Grand Council?

Boganda

How did Boganda die?

a plane crash

Who took over after Boganda died?

his cousin, David Dacko

When did David Dacko die in a plane crash?

I'm not sure.

Who was forced into exile in MESAN?

I'm not sure.

When all opposition was suppressed by 1957 what did Dacko do?

I'm not sure.

In what year was the French Assembly election?

I'm not sure.

How many votes did Abel Goumba have in the election?

I'm not sure.


In April 1979, young students protested against Bokassa's decree that all school attendees would need to buy uniforms from a company owned by one of his wives. The government violently suppressed the protests, killing 100 children and teenagers. Bokassa himself may have been personally involved in some of the killings. In September 1979, France overthrew Bokassa and "restored" Dacko to power (subsequently restoring the name of the country to the Central African Republic). Dacko, in turn, was again overthrown in a coup by General André Kolingba on 1 September 1981.

What caused a violent uprising?

young students protested against Bokassa's decree

How many were killed in the April 1979 protests?

100 children and teenagers

Who overthrew Bokassa after this incident?

France

Who did France restore into power?

Dacko

Who eventually overthrew Dacko?

General André Kolingba

Who did General Andre protest against in April 1979?

I'm not sure.

What were French students supposed to buy on Dacko's decree?

I'm not sure.

How many childred and teens died due to France overthrowing Bokassa?

I'm not sure.

In what year was Dacko overthrown by Bokassa?

I'm not sure.

Who was restored to power by Bokassa in September 1979?

I'm not sure.


By 1990, inspired by the fall of the Berlin Wall, a pro-democracy movement arose. Pressure from the United States, France, and from a group of locally represented countries and agencies called GIBAFOR (France, the USA, Germany, Japan, the EU, the World Bank, and the UN) finally led Kolingba to agree, in principle, to hold free elections in October 1992 with help from the UN Office of Electoral Affairs. After using the excuse of alleged irregularities to suspend the results of the elections as a pretext for holding on to power, President Kolingba came under intense pressure from GIBAFOR to establish a "Conseil National Politique Provisoire de la République" (Provisional National Political Council, CNPPR) and to set up a "Mixed Electoral Commission", which included representatives from all political parties.[citation needed]

What was inspired by the fall of the Berlin wall?

a pro-democracy movement

What large country pressured CAR to hold elections?

the United States

When were free elections held?

October 1992

Who helped with the Free Elections?

UN Office of Electoral Affairs

What excuse did Kolingba use to deny the election results?

alleged irregularities

What group led Germany to have free elections in October 1992?

I'm not sure.

What was inspired by the USA?

I'm not sure.

What group helped GIBAFOR to pressure Germany to have free elections?

I'm not sure.

What did Germany do to hold on to power?

I'm not sure.

What did GIBAFOR pressure Germany to establish?

I'm not sure.


When a second round of elections were finally held in 1993, again with the help of the international community coordinated by GIBAFOR, Ange-Félix Patassé won in the second round of voting with 53% of the vote while Goumba won 45.6%. Patassé's party, the Mouvement pour la Libération du Peuple Centrafricain (MLPC) or Movement for the Liberation of the Central African People, gained a simple but not an absolute majority of seats in parliament, which meant Patassé's party required coalition partners.[citation needed]

When was a second democratic election held?

in 1993

Who became the first democratically elected president?

Ange-Félix Patassé

What percentage did Patasse win with?

53% of the vote

What was the winning party?

Mouvement pour la Libération du Peuple Centrafricain

Did Patasse get a majority of the votes?

gained a simple but not an absolute majority

When was a meeting by GIBAFOR held?

I'm not sure.

What did Goumba help to coordinate in 1993?

I'm not sure.

When did Goumba win the election?

I'm not sure.

How much of the vote did Goumba get to win the election?

I'm not sure.

What kind of majority did Goumba's party the MLPC have in parliament?

I'm not sure.


Patassé purged many of the Kolingba elements from the government and Kolingba supporters accused Patassé's government of conducting a "witch hunt" against the Yakoma. A new constitution was approved on 28 December 1994 but had little impact on the country's politics. In 1996–1997, reflecting steadily decreasing public confidence in the government's erratic behaviour, three mutinies against Patassé's administration were accompanied by widespread destruction of property and heightened ethnic tension. During this time (1996) the Peace Corps evacuated all its volunteers to neighboring Cameroon. To date, the Peace Corps has not returned to the Central African Republic. The Bangui Agreements, signed in January 1997, provided for the deployment of an inter-African military mission, to Central African Republic and re-entry of ex-mutineers into the government on 7 April 1997. The inter-African military mission was later replaced by a U.N. peacekeeping force (MINURCA).

When was the new constitution for CAR approved?

28 December 1994

When did a mutiny form against Patasse?

In 1996–1997

The mutinies caused what effects on the country?

widespread destruction of property

Where did the peace corps evacuate to?

Cameroon

What agreement gave the authority for deployment of military intervention?

The Bangui Agreements

What did Yakoma accuse the Kolingba government of doing?

I'm not sure.

What group evacuated its volunteers to Cameroon in January 1997?

I'm not sure.

As of today what group has not returned to Yakoma?

I'm not sure.

What did three mutinies signed in January 1997 provide for?

I'm not sure.

What was the Yakoma later replaced with?

I'm not sure.


In the aftermath of the failed coup, militias loyal to Patassé sought revenge against rebels in many neighborhoods of Bangui and incited unrest including the murder of many political opponents. Eventually, Patassé came to suspect that General François Bozizé was involved in another coup attempt against him, which led Bozizé to flee with loyal troops to Chad. In March 2003, Bozizé launched a surprise attack against Patassé, who was out of the country. Libyan troops and some 1,000 soldiers of Bemba's Congolese rebel organization failed to stop the rebels and Bozizé's forces succeeded in overthrowing Patassé.[citation needed]

The failed coup caused what effects?

murder of many political opponents

Which General was involved in another coup?

General François Bozizé

Where did General Bozize flee to escape?

Chad

When did Bozize finally attempt his coup?

March 2003

Who succeeded in finally overthrowing Patasse?

Bozizé's forces

After the surprise attack what did Libyan troops do in Bangui neighborhoods?

I'm not sure.

Where did Patasse flee with his troops to?

I'm not sure.

What action did Libyan troops take against Patasse when he was out of the country?

I'm not sure.

Who was finally overthrown by troops from Chad?

I'm not sure.

Who were murdered as a result of Bemba fleeing to Chad?

I'm not sure.


In 2004 the Central African Republic Bush War began as forces opposed to Bozizé took up arms against his government. In May 2005 Bozizé won a presidential election that excluded Patassé and in 2006 fighting continued between the government and the rebels. In November 2006, Bozizé's government requested French military support to help them repel rebels who had taken control of towns in the country's northern regions. Though the initially public details of the agreement pertained to logistics and intelligence, the French assistance eventually included strikes by Mirage jets against rebel positions.

What war started in 2004?

Bush War

In what way did Bozize made his rule legitimate?

Bozizé won a presidential election

When did CAR ask for assistance from the French against rebels?

November 2006

How did the French assist against the rebels?

strikes by Mirage jets

What did the rebels take over?

towns in the country's northern regions

What began in 2004 as Mirage jets struck rebel positions?

I'm not sure.

In what year did Patasse win a presidential election?

I'm not sure.

In what year did Patasse request logistics and intellingence to repel rebels?

I'm not sure.

How did Patasse help Bozize against the rebels?

I'm not sure.

What did the French take over in 2006?

I'm not sure.


The Syrte Agreement in February and the Birao Peace Agreement in April 2007 called for a cessation of hostilities, the billeting of FDPC fighters and their integration with FACA, the liberation of political prisoners, integration of FDPC into government, an amnesty for the UFDR, its recognition as a political party, and the integration of its fighters into the national army. Several groups continued to fight but other groups signed on to the agreement, or similar agreements with the government (e.g. UFR on 15 December 2008). The only major group not to sign an agreement at the time was the CPJP, which continued its activities and signed a peace agreement with the government on 25 August 2012.

What agreement called for the stop of Hostilities?

Syrte Agreement

What did the Birao Peace Agreement call for?

the liberation of political prisoners

What major group did not sign the peace agreement immediately?

CPJP

When did the CPJP finally sign the peace agreement?

25 August 2012

When was the Birao Peace Agreement signed?

April 2007

When did the FDPC continue its activities but also sign a peace agreement?

I'm not sure.

What is one thing the UFDR agreement in February called for?

I'm not sure.

What is the name of the agreement that came before the FACA agreement in April 2007?

I'm not sure.

When the CPJP continued to fight, what did other groups do?

I'm not sure.

What is one thing the FACA peace agreement called for when signed in April 2007?

I'm not sure.


Michel Djotodia took over as president and in May 2013 Central African Republic's Prime Minister Nicolas Tiangaye requested a UN peacekeeping force from the UN Security Council and on 31 May former President Bozizé was indicted for crimes against humanity and incitement of genocide. The security situation did not improve during June–August 2013 and there were reports of over 200,000 internally displaced persons (IDPs) as well as human rights abuses and renewed fighting between Séléka and Bozizé supporters.

Who became president in 2013?

Michel Djotodia

What was Bozize indicted for?

crimes against humanity

What mass murder did Bozize commit?

genocide

How many people were displaced in the unrests?

What faction was fighting against the remaining Bozize loyalists?

Séléka

How many peackeeping forces were displaced in 2013?

I'm not sure.

In 2013 what groups committed crimes against humanity?

I'm not sure.

When did President Bozize request a UN peacekeeping force?

I'm not sure.

What were the indictments against Michel Djotokia?

I'm not sure.

During what time did human rights abuses not improve?

I'm not sure.


In the southwest, the Dzanga-Sangha National Park is located in a rain forest area. The country is noted for its population of forest elephants and western lowland gorillas. In the north, the Manovo-Gounda St Floris National Park is well-populated with wildlife, including leopards, lions, cheetahs and rhinos, and the Bamingui-Bangoran National Park is located in the northeast of CAR. The parks have been seriously affected by the activities of poachers, particularly those from Sudan, over the past two decades.[citation needed]

What national part is located in the South West?

Dzanga-Sangha National Park

What large animals reside in the national park?

forest elephants

Which Primate can be found in the national park?

lowland gorillas

What National Park can be found in the North?

Manovo-Gounda St Floris

What has threatened the wildlife in this park?

the activities of poachers

Where in the southwest is the Manovo-Gounda St Floris National Park located?

I'm not sure.

What have animals in the CAR been threatened by ?

I'm not sure.

In the north, what animals is the Dzanga-Sangha National Park populated with in the CAR?

I'm not sure.

Where are poachers located in the rain forest area originally from?

I'm not sure.

What park is located to the northeast of Sudan?

I'm not sure.


There are many missionary groups operating in the country, including Lutherans, Baptists, Catholics, Grace Brethren, and Jehovah's Witnesses. While these missionaries are predominantly from the United States, France, Italy, and Spain, many are also from Nigeria, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and other African countries. Large numbers of missionaries left the country when fighting broke out between rebel and government forces in 2002–3, but many of them have now returned to continue their work.

What religious groups operate in CAR?

missionary groups

Where do most of the missionaries come from?

United States

What caused most of the missionaries to leave the country?

when fighting broke out between rebel and government forces

What African country bordering CAR are some of these missionaries from?

Democratic Republic of the Congo

When did fighting break out in CAR?

During what time did government forces leave the country when there was fighting between rebels and the government?

I'm not sure.

Where are many rebel groups in operation?

I'm not sure.

What type of missionary groups are mostly from Nigeria?

I'm not sure.

What happened while Nigerians continued to work in the country?

I'm not sure.

What have rebel forces done after the fighting in 2002-3?

I'm not sure.


In 2006, due to ongoing violence, over 50,000 people in the country's northwest were at risk of starvation but this was averted due to assistance from the United Nations.[citation needed] On 8 January 2008, the UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-Moon declared that the Central African Republic was eligible to receive assistance from the Peacebuilding Fund. Three priority areas were identified: first, the reform of the security sector; second, the promotion of good governance and the rule of law; and third, the revitalization of communities affected by conflicts. On 12 June 2008, the Central African Republic requested assistance from the UN Peacebuilding Commission, which was set up in 2005 to help countries emerging from conflict avoid devolving back into war or chaos.

Due to fighting, what threatened people in the NorthWest?

risk of starvation

Who assisted in saving the people from starvation?

United Nations

Who headed the UN effort to rebuild CAR?

Secretary-General Ban Ki-Moon

When did CAR request assistance directly to prevent war?

12 June 2008

Who assisted CAR in avoiding war?

UN Peacebuilding Commission

In what year did Ban Ki-Moon request assistance from the UN?

I'm not sure.

In what year was the Central African Republic created?

I'm not sure.

For what purpose was the UN created in 2005?

I'm not sure.

What did the UN Peacebuliding Commission decide on Jan 8, 2008?

I'm not sure.

How many people were saved from conflict?

I'm not sure.


A new government was appointed on 31 March 2013, which consisted of members of Séléka and representatives of the opposition to Bozizé, one pro-Bozizé individual, and a number representatives of civil society. On 1 April, the former opposition parties declared that they would boycott the government. After African leaders in Chad refused to recognize Djotodia as President, proposing to form a transitional council and the holding of new elections, Djotodia signed a decree on 6 April for the formation of a council that would act as a transitional parliament. The council was tasked with electing a president to serve prior to elections in 18 months.

When was the new Government seated in CAR?

31 March 2013

What did the former opposition parties declare?

boycott the government

Who was refused as new president?

Djotodia

Who would rule the country temporarily?

a transitional parliament

How long did the parliament have until the next election?

18 months

What was apponted on April 1?

I'm not sure.

What groups does the transient parliament consist of?

I'm not sure.

What did Djotodia say he would boycott on March 31 2013?

I'm not sure.

Who did members of Seleka refuse to recognize?

I'm not sure.

What was signed by African leaders in Chad on April 6th?

I'm not sure.


The per capita income of the Republic is often listed as being approximately $400 a year, one of the lowest in the world, but this figure is based mostly on reported sales of exports and largely ignores the unregistered sale of foods, locally produced alcoholic beverages, diamonds, ivory, bushmeat, and traditional medicine. For most Central Africans, the informal economy of the CAR is more important than the formal economy.[citation needed] Export trade is hindered by poor economic development and the country's landlocked position.[citation needed]

What is the per capita income in CAR?

$400 a year

How is the per capita income compared to the world?

one of the lowest

What gemstone comes from the CAR?

diamonds

Which item that poachers kill elephants for can be obtained in CAR?

ivory

What hinders export?

country's landlocked position

What is the amount of unregestered sale of foods per year listed as?

I'm not sure.

What does the poor economic development figure ignore?

I'm not sure.

For most people in the CAR what is per capita income more important than?

I'm not sure.

What is the unregistered sale of foods hindered by?

I'm not sure.

How is the informal economy compared to the world?

I'm not sure.


Agriculture is dominated by the cultivation and sale of food crops such as cassava, peanuts, maize, sorghum, millet, sesame, and plantain. The annual real GDP growth rate is just above 3%. The importance of food crops over exported cash crops is indicated by the fact that the total production of cassava, the staple food of most Central Africans, ranges between 200,000 and 300,000 tonnes a year, while the production of cotton, the principal exported cash crop, ranges from 25,000 to 45,000 tonnes a year. Food crops are not exported in large quantities, but still constitute the principal cash crops of the country, because Central Africans derive far more income from the periodic sale of surplus food crops than from exported cash crops such as cotton or coffee.[citation needed] Much of the country is self-sufficient in food crops; however, livestock development is hindered by the presence of the tsetse fly.[citation needed]

What type of agriculture is popular in the CAR?

food crops

The economy grows at what rate in the last few years?

How many tonnes of Cassave is produced per year?

200,000 and 300,000

What product is produced that is exported?

cotton

Which insect hinders livestock development?

tsetse fly

What is the real exported cash crop rate?

I'm not sure.

How  much of the cassava as the principle cash crop is produced in the CAR?

I'm not sure.

What do Central Africans gain more of from selling livestock?

I'm not sure.

How is cassava production hindered?

I'm not sure.

What kind of exported cash crops dominate agriculture?

I'm not sure.


Presently, the Central African Republic has active television services, radio stations, internet service providers, and mobile phone carriers; Socatel is the leading provider for both internet and mobile phone access throughout the country. The primary governmental regulating bodies of telecommunications are the Ministère des Postes and Télécommunications et des Nouvelles Technologies. In addition, the Central African Republic receives international support on telecommunication related operations from ITU Telecommunication Development Sector (ITU-D) within the International Telecommunication Union to improve infrastructure.

What is the major telecommunications provider in CAR?

Socatel

Which body regulated communications?

Ministère des Postes and Télécommunications et des Nouvelles Technologies

What type of access is available?

internet service

Who assists CAR with telecommunications?

ITU Telecommunication Development Sector

What does the CAR get help with with regards to communication from ITU-D?

improve infrastructure

What government body does Socatel regulate in telecommunications?

I'm not sure.

What is a major radio station provider in CAR?

I'm not sure.

What does Socatel get help with from ITU-D?

I'm not sure.

What group helps Socatel with telecommunications?

I'm not sure.

What group is a part of Socatel and helps the CAR with telecommunications?

I'm not sure.


The 2009 Human Rights Report by the United States Department of State noted that human rights in CAR were poor and expressed concerns over numerous government abuses. The U.S. State Department alleged that major human rights abuses such as extrajudicial executions by security forces, torture, beatings and rape of suspects and prisoners occurred with impunity. It also alleged harsh and life-threatening conditions in prisons and detention centers, arbitrary arrest, prolonged pretrial detention and denial of a fair trial, restrictions on freedom of movement, official corruption, and restrictions on workers' rights.

How are the human rights in the CAR?

poor

What concerns are there regarding to human rights?

government abuses

What punishment is a human rights violation per the US state Dept?

extrajudicial executions

How is the prison quality in the CAR?

harsh and life-threatening conditions

What right in a court is denied and considered a human right violation?

arbitrary arrest, prolonged pretrial detention and denial of a fair trial

What is the status of security forces in the CAR?

I'm not sure.

What did a Human Rights Report by CAR show concern over?

I'm not sure.

What actions did CAR mention that happened with impunity?

I'm not sure.

What are prision conditions like according to CAR?

I'm not sure.

What is one action taken against the State Department that is considered a human rights violation?

I'm not sure.


Asthma is thought to be caused by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Environmental factors include exposure to air pollution and allergens. Other potential triggers include medications such as aspirin and beta blockers. Diagnosis is usually based on the pattern of symptoms, response to therapy over time, and spirometry. Asthma is classified according to the frequency of symptoms, forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1), and peak expiratory flow rate. It may also be classified as atopic or non-atopic where atopy refers to a predisposition toward developing a type 1 hypersensitivity reaction.

What two factors cause asthma?

genetic and environmental factors

What are two enviromental factors?

exposure to air pollution and allergens

What medications can also trigger asthma?

aspirin and beta blockers

What patterns are used to diagnose asthma?

the pattern of symptoms, response to therapy over time, and spirometry

How is asthma classified?

according to the frequency of symptoms, forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1), and peak expiratory flow rate

How does usng aspirin activate allergens in others?

I'm not sure.

What are some triggers of spirometry?

I'm not sure.

How do you know if you are affected by spirometry?

I'm not sure.

How do you classify spirometry in people?

I'm not sure.

What two categories can spirometry also be classified into?

I'm not sure.


There is no cure for asthma. Symptoms can be prevented by avoiding triggers, such as allergens and irritants, and by the use of inhaled corticosteroids. Long-acting beta agonists (LABA) or antileukotriene agents may be used in addition to inhaled corticosteroids if asthma symptoms remain uncontrolled. Treatment of rapidly worsening symptoms is usually with an inhaled short-acting beta-2 agonist such as salbutamol and corticosteroids taken by mouth. In very severe cases, intravenous corticosteroids, magnesium sulfate, and hospitalization may be required.

Is there a cure for asthma?

There is no cure for asthma

How can symptoms be prevented?

by avoiding triggers, such as allergens and irritants, and by the use of inhaled corticosteroids

What is taken by mouth to treat rapidly worsening symptoms?

an inhaled short-acting beta-2 agonist such as salbutamol and corticosteroids

What happens in very severe cases of asthma?

intravenous corticosteroids, magnesium sulfate, and hospitalization may be required

Is there a cure for long acting beta agonists?

I'm not sure.

How can symptoms of long acting beta agonists be prevented?

I'm not sure.

How do you treat LABA if it gets worse?

I'm not sure.

What is one thing you need to take if your LABA is severe?

I'm not sure.

What may you need if your LABA is life threatening?

I'm not sure.


Asthma is characterized by recurrent episodes of wheezing, shortness of breath, chest tightness, and coughing. Sputum may be produced from the lung by coughing but is often hard to bring up. During recovery from an attack, it may appear pus-like due to high levels of white blood cells called eosinophils. Symptoms are usually worse at night and in the early morning or in response to exercise or cold air. Some people with asthma rarely experience symptoms, usually in response to triggers, whereas others may have marked and persistent symptoms.

What are the characteristics of asthma?

recurrent episodes of wheezing, shortness of breath, chest tightness, and coughing

When are symptoms of asthma normally worse?

at night and in the early morning or in response to exercise or cold air

What is produced in the lungs by coughing?

Sputum

Is asthma worst during the day or at night time?

worse at night

Does everyone have horrible episodes of asthma?

Some people with asthma rarely experience symptoms, u

What phisical symptoms does eosinophils cause?

I'm not sure.

When do symptoms of eosinophils become worse?

I'm not sure.

What is produced in the lungs by shortness of breath?

I'm not sure.

When do people usually experience eosinophils symptoms in response to?

I'm not sure.

What do some people have due to their eosinophils?

I'm not sure.


A number of other health conditions occur more frequently in those with asthma, including gastro-esophageal reflux disease (GERD), rhinosinusitis, and obstructive sleep apnea. Psychological disorders are also more common, with anxiety disorders occurring in between 16–52% and mood disorders in 14–41%. However, it is not known if asthma causes psychological problems or if psychological problems lead to asthma. Those with asthma, especially if it is poorly controlled, are at high risk for radiocontrast reactions.

Do other health concerns happen less frequently or more frequently with asthma?

more frequently

What are three of the other health conditions that occur more frequently with asthma?

gastro-esophageal reflux disease (GERD), rhinosinusitis, and obstructive sleep apnea

What other type of disorders are frequent in asthma sufferers?

Psychological disorders

What are those with asthma that is poorly controll more susceptable to?

radiocontrast reactions

If GERD is poorly controlled, what does it make you at risk for?

I'm not sure.

What other conditions happen frequently with radiocontrast reactions?

I'm not sure.

What percentage of people with GERD also have anxiety disorders?

I'm not sure.

What percentage of people with radiocontrast reactions have mood disorders?

I'm not sure.

Do we know if GERD causes psychological problems?

I'm not sure.


Many environmental factors have been associated with asthma's development and exacerbation including allergens, air pollution, and other environmental chemicals. Smoking during pregnancy and after delivery is associated with a greater risk of asthma-like symptoms. Low air quality from factors such as traffic pollution or high ozone levels, has been associated with both asthma development and increased asthma severity. Exposure to indoor volatile organic compounds may be a trigger for asthma; formaldehyde exposure, for example, has a positive association. Also, phthalates in certain types of PVC are associated with asthma in children and adults.

What are some of the enviromental factors that have been linked to asthma?

allergens, air pollution, and other environmental chemicals

What two things are associated with a greater risk of asthma-like symptoms?

Smoking during pregnancy and after delivery

What can cause symptoms and asthma serverity to change?

Low air quality from factors such as traffic pollution or high ozone levels

Exposure to what compounds can also trigger asthma?

indoor volatile organic compounds

What envoronmental factors are associated with early delivery when pregnant?

I'm not sure.

What two things are associated with a greater risk of symtoms from phtalates?

I'm not sure.

What can change symptoms of formaldehyde exposure and severity?

I'm not sure.

Exposure to what compounds can also trigger early delivery when pregnant?

I'm not sure.

What other compound is associated with early delivery?

I'm not sure.


The hygiene hypothesis attempts to explain the increased rates of asthma worldwide as a direct and unintended result of reduced exposure, during childhood, to non-pathogenic bacteria and viruses. It has been proposed that the reduced exposure to bacteria and viruses is due, in part, to increased cleanliness and decreased family size in modern societies. Exposure to bacterial endotoxin in early childhood may prevent the development of asthma, but exposure at an older age may provoke bronchoconstriction. Evidence supporting the hygiene hypothesis includes lower rates of asthma on farms and in households with pets.

What hypothesis tries to explain the increased amount of asthma world wide?

The hygiene hypothesis

How does the hygiene hypothesis explain the increase in asthma?

a direct and unintended result of reduced exposure, during childhood, to non-pathogenic bacteria and viruses

What has caused the reduced exposure in childhood?

increased cleanliness and decreased family size in modern societies

What could prevent asthma?

Exposure to bacterial endotoxin in early childhood

What is some of the evidence backing the hygiene hypothesis?

lower rates of asthma on farms and in households with pets.

What hypothesis explains the increased rates of viruses worldwide?

I'm not sure.

How does the hygene hypothesis explain the cause of bronchoconstriction?

I'm not sure.

What can cause bacteria in pets?

I'm not sure.

Why are people less likely to want to live on a farm?

I'm not sure.

What is some evidence used to support the hypothesis on non-pathogenic bacteria?

I'm not sure.


Family history is a risk factor for asthma, with many different genes being implicated. If one identical twin is affected, the probability of the other having the disease is approximately 25%. By the end of 2005, 25 genes had been associated with asthma in six or more separate populations, including GSTM1, IL10, CTLA-4, SPINK5, LTC4S, IL4R and ADAM33, among others. Many of these genes are related to the immune system or modulating inflammation. Even among this list of genes supported by highly replicated studies, results have not been consistent among all populations tested. In 2006 over 100 genes were associated with asthma in one genetic association study alone; more continue to be found.

What else is a risk factor for asthma?

Family history

If one identical twin has asthma, what are the odds of the other twin having asthma?

approximately 25%

How many genes were associated with asthma by the end of 2005?

25 genes

What else are these genes closely related to?

the immune system or modulating inflammation

How many genes were associated with asthma in 2006?

over 100 genes

What is a risk factor for modulating inflammation?

I'm not sure.

What is thought to be the cause of modulating inflammation?

I'm not sure.

In 2006 what percentage of genes were found to contribute to inflammation?

I'm not sure.

How many genes were associated with the immune system in 2006?

I'm not sure.

How many genes were associated with causing GSTM1 in 2005?

I'm not sure.


Asthma is the result of chronic inflammation of the conducting zone of the airways (most especially the bronchi and bronchioles), which subsequently results in increased contractability of the surrounding smooth muscles. This among other factors leads to bouts of narrowing of the airway and the classic symptoms of wheezing. The narrowing is typically reversible with or without treatment. Occasionally the airways themselves change. Typical changes in the airways include an increase in eosinophils and thickening of the lamina reticularis. Chronically the airways' smooth muscle may increase in size along with an increase in the numbers of mucous glands. Other cell types involved include: T lymphocytes, macrophages, and neutrophils. There may also be involvement of other components of the immune system including: cytokines, chemokines, histamine, and leukotrienes among others.

What is asthma the result of?

chronic inflammation of the conducting zone of the airways

What two airways are most effected by asthma?

the bronchi and bronchioles

In what ways do airways change?

an increase in eosinophils and thickening of the lamina reticularis

What other cell types are involced with the changing of airways?

T lymphocytes, macrophages, and neutrophils

What other components of the immune systems are included?

cytokines, chemokines, histamine, and leukotrienes among others

What is neutrophils the result of?

I'm not sure.

What part of the airway is especially effected by neutrophils?

I'm not sure.

How do macrophages change?

I'm not sure.

What chronic changes happen to the macrophages?

I'm not sure.

What other parts of the immune system are changed due to thickening of the neutrophils?

I'm not sure.


While asthma is a well recognized condition, there is not one universal agreed upon definition. It is defined by the Global Initiative for Asthma as "a chronic inflammatory disorder of the airways in which many cells and cellular elements play a role. The chronic inflammation is associated with airway hyper-responsiveness that leads to recurrent episodes of wheezing, breathlessness, chest tightness and coughing particularly at night or in the early morning. These episodes are usually associated with widespread but variable airflow obstruction within the lung that is often reversible either spontaneously or with treatment".

Is there a universal definition of astham?

there is not one universal agreed upon definition

What main components play a role in asthma?

many cells and cellular elements play a role

What is the inflamation a result of?

airway hyper-responsiveness

What does hyper-responsiveness of the airways cause?

episodes of wheezing, breathlessness, chest tightness and coughing

What are two ways to reverse an asthma attack?

spontaneously or with treatment

How is cellular obstruction defined?

I'm not sure.

Is there a universally agreed upon definition of cellular obstruction?

I'm not sure.

What does cellular obstruction cause?

I'm not sure.

How do you stop the symptoms of cellular obstruction?

I'm not sure.

What does hyper-responsiveness at the cellular level cause?

I'm not sure.


There is currently no precise test with the diagnosis typically based on the pattern of symptoms and response to therapy over time. A diagnosis of asthma should be suspected if there is a history of: recurrent wheezing, coughing or difficulty breathing and these symptoms occur or worsen due to exercise, viral infections, allergens or air pollution. Spirometry is then used to confirm the diagnosis. In children under the age of six the diagnosis is more difficult as they are too young for spirometry.

Is there a test to determine asthma in an individual?

There is currently no precise test

What is diagnosis based on typically?

pattern of symptoms and response to therapy over time

When should you suspect asthma?

if there is a history of: recurrent wheezing, coughing or difficulty breathing

What is used to confirm the diagnosis of asthma?

Spirometry

What age is too young to use spirometry to determine asthma?

children under the age of six

Is there a test to diagnose Spirometry?

I'm not sure.

How do you usually diagnose someone with Spirometry?

I'm not sure.

With what symptoms should you suspect a person has Spirometry?

I'm not sure.

When do symptoms of Spirometry get worse?

I'm not sure.

What age makes it harder to be diagnosed as having Spirometry?

I'm not sure.


Spirometry is recommended to aid in diagnosis and management. It is the single best test for asthma. If the FEV1 measured by this technique improves more than 12% following administration of a bronchodilator such as salbutamol, this is supportive of the diagnosis. It however may be normal in those with a history of mild asthma, not currently acting up. As caffeine is a bronchodilator in people with asthma, the use of caffeine before a lung function test may interfere with the results. Single-breath diffusing capacity can help differentiate asthma from COPD. It is reasonable to perform spirometry every one or two years to follow how well a person's asthma is controlled.

What is recommended to help in the diagnosis of asthma?

Spirometry

Why is spirometry so commonly used to diagnose asthma?

It is the single best test for asthma

What helps support the evidence of asthma?

If the FEV1 measured by this technique improves more than 12% following administration of a bronchodilator

What substance can skew the results of an asthma test?

caffeine

What test can tell the difference between asthma and COPD?

Single-breath diffusing capacity

What is recommended for the diagnosis of COPD?

I'm not sure.

Why is spirometry used to diagnose COPD?

I'm not sure.

What is used to support a COPD diagnosis?

I'm not sure.

What can you take that will change the results of a COPD test?

I'm not sure.

How often should you use a bronchodialator to track how well COPD is controlled?

I'm not sure.


Other supportive evidence includes: a ≥20% difference in peak expiratory flow rate on at least three days in a week for at least two weeks, a ≥20% improvement of peak flow following treatment with either salbutamol, inhaled corticosteroids or prednisone, or a ≥20% decrease in peak flow following exposure to a trigger. Testing peak expiratory flow is more variable than spirometry, however, and thus not recommended for routine diagnosis. It may be useful for daily self-monitoring in those with moderate to severe disease and for checking the effectiveness of new medications. It may also be helpful in guiding treatment in those with acute exacerbations.

What is the rate that is used in most of the evidence?

What is more variable than spirometry but not recommended?

. Testing peak expiratory flow

What is not as stable as prednisone for a routine diagnosis?

I'm not sure.

What is one instance when testing with prednisone is useful?

I'm not sure.

When may prednisone also be helpful in spirometry?

I'm not sure.

What percentage of a group think prednisone is helpful for treatment in acute cases?

I'm not sure.

What percentage of people in acute cases use salbutamol?

I'm not sure.


Asthma is clinically classified according to the frequency of symptoms, forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1), and peak expiratory flow rate. Asthma may also be classified as atopic (extrinsic) or non-atopic (intrinsic), based on whether symptoms are precipitated by allergens (atopic) or not (non-atopic). While asthma is classified based on severity, at the moment there is no clear method for classifying different subgroups of asthma beyond this system. Finding ways to identify subgroups that respond well to different types of treatments is a current critical goal of asthma research.

How is asthma clinically classified?

according to the frequency of symptoms, forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1), and peak expiratory flow rate

How else is asthma classified?

as atopic (extrinsic) or non-atopic (intrinsic)

When asthma is caused by allergens that is called what?

atopic

What  is asthma usually classified based on?

severity

What is a important goal of asthma research?

Finding ways to identify subgroups that respond well to different types of treatments

How are allergen subgroups classified?

I'm not sure.

What are two other ways allergen subgroups may be classified?

I'm not sure.

What data is allergen subgroup classification based on?

I'm not sure.

Is there a method for classifying allergen subgroups beyond the existing system?

I'm not sure.

What is the main goal of allergen subgroup research?

I'm not sure.


Although asthma is a chronic obstructive condition, it is not considered as a part of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease as this term refers specifically to combinations of disease that are irreversible such as bronchiectasis, chronic bronchitis, and emphysema. Unlike these diseases, the airway obstruction in asthma is usually reversible; however, if left untreated, the chronic inflammation from asthma can lead the lungs to become irreversibly obstructed due to airway remodeling. In contrast to emphysema, asthma affects the bronchi, not the alveoli.

What kind of condition is asthma?

a chronic obstructive condition

What are examples of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease?

bronchiectasis, chronic bronchitis, and emphysema

Is the airway obstuction reversable in asthma?

asthma is usually reversible

What part of the airway does emphysema affect?

alveoli

What part of the airway does asthma affect?

the bronchi

What type of condition is airway obstruction?

I'm not sure.

What is airway remodeling considered a part of?

I'm not sure.

What does brochiectasis affect instead of the alveoli?

I'm not sure.

What happenes if chronic bronchitis is untreated?

I'm not sure.

What diseases are examples of airway remodeling?

I'm not sure.


Exercise can trigger bronchoconstriction both in people with or without asthma. It occurs in most people with asthma and up to 20% of people without asthma. Exercise-induced bronchoconstriction is common in professional athletes. The highest rates are among cyclists (up to 45%), swimmers, and cross-country skiers. While it may occur with any weather conditions it is more common when it is dry and cold. Inhaled beta2-agonists do not appear to improve athletic performance among those without asthma however oral doses may improve endurance and strength.

Exercise-induced bronchoconstriction is common in what profession?

professional athletes

What professions has the highest rate of Exercise-induced bronchoconstriction?

cyclists (up to 45%), swimmers, and cross-country skiers

What conditions are more likely to cause Exercise-induced bronchoconstriction?

when it is dry and cold

What does not appear to help athletic performance that do not have asthma?

Inhaled beta2-agonists

What does exercise trigger in people who use inhaled beta2 agonists?

I'm not sure.

What percentage of people use inhaled beta2 agonists?

I'm not sure.

What group has the highest rate of inhaled beta2 agonist use?

I'm not sure.

What percentage of cyclists used inhaled beta 2 agonists?

I'm not sure.

What profession is asthma most common in?

I'm not sure.


Asthma as a result of (or worsened by) workplace exposures, is a commonly reported occupational disease. Many cases however are not reported or recognized as such. It is estimated that 5–25% of asthma cases in adults are work–related. A few hundred different agents have been implicated with the most common being: isocyanates, grain and wood dust, colophony, soldering flux, latex, animals, and aldehydes. The employment associated with the highest risk of problems include: those who spray paint, bakers and those who process food, nurses, chemical workers, those who work with animals, welders, hairdressers and timber workers.

Asthma that is the result of or made worse by workplace exposure is reported as what?

occupational disease

What percent of asthma cases in adults are work-related?

It is estimated that 5–25%

What are some of the most common agents?

isocyanates, grain and wood dust, colophony, soldering flux, latex, animals, and aldehydes

What professions normally have the highest risk of problems?

those who spray paint, bakers and those who process food, nurses, chemical workers, those who work with animals, welders, hairdressers and timber workers

What is colophony commonly reported as when caused or made worse by workplace exposure?

I'm not sure.

What happens to many cases of colophony?

I'm not sure.

How many adult colophony cases are work-related?

I'm not sure.

Name a few professions that have the highest risk of colophony?

I'm not sure.

What are two agents that are commonly believed to cause colophony?

I'm not sure.


Many other conditions can cause symptoms similar to those of asthma. In children, other upper airway diseases such as allergic rhinitis and sinusitis should be considered as well as other causes of airway obstruction including: foreign body aspiration, tracheal stenosis or laryngotracheomalacia, vascular rings, enlarged lymph nodes or neck masses. Bronchiolitis and other viral infections may also produce wheezing. In adults, COPD, congestive heart failure, airway masses, as well as drug-induced coughing due to ACE inhibitors should be considered. In both populations vocal cord dysfunction may present similarly.

What is a condition that can cause symptoms of astham in children?

allergic rhinitis and sinusitis

What are some other causes of airway obstruction?

foreign body aspiration, tracheal stenosis or laryngotracheomalacia, vascular rings, enlarged lymph nodes or neck masses

What other conditions can cause wheezing?

Bronchiolitis and other viral infections

In adults, what conditions can cause the symptoms of asthma?

COPD, congestive heart failure, airway masses, as well as drug-induced coughing due to ACE inhibitors

What can cause symptoms of COPD in children?

I'm not sure.

What are other causes of sinusitis?

I'm not sure.

What do COPD and congestive heart failure also produce?

I'm not sure.

How many conditions can cause symptoms of congestive heart failure?

I'm not sure.

What kind of dysfunction can be seen only in adults with COPD?

I'm not sure.


Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease can coexist with asthma and can occur as a complication of chronic asthma. After the age of 65 most people with obstructive airway disease will have asthma and COPD. In this setting, COPD can be differentiated by increased airway neutrophils, abnormally increased wall thickness, and increased smooth muscle in the bronchi. However, this level of investigation is not performed due to COPD and asthma sharing similar principles of management: corticosteroids, long acting beta agonists, and smoking cessation. It closely resembles asthma in symptoms, is correlated with more exposure to cigarette smoke, an older age, less symptom reversibility after bronchodilator administration, and decreased likelihood of family history of atopy.

What is a complication of chronic asthma?

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

If you are 65 years old and have an obstructive airway disesase, you are more likely to have what other conditions?

asthma and COPD

How is COPD differentiated?

by increased airway neutrophils, abnormally increased wall thickness, and increased smooth muscle in the bronchi

Why is this not determined in a patient with COPD?

due to COPD and asthma sharing similar principles of management

What are the principles of management for asthma and COPD?

corticosteroids, long acting beta agonists, and smoking cessation

What is a complication of family history of chronic atopy?

I'm not sure.

If you smoke after 65, what two conditions will you also have?

I'm not sure.

How can you tell who has stopped smoking and who hasn't?

I'm not sure.

What principles of management are used for increased airway neutrophils and smoking cessation?

I'm not sure.

What are two things that make a doctor want to investigate family history of atopy?

I'm not sure.


The evidence for the effectiveness of measures to prevent the development of asthma is weak. Some show promise including: limiting smoke exposure both in utero and after delivery, breastfeeding, and increased exposure to daycare or large families but none are well supported enough to be recommended for this indication. Early pet exposure may be useful. Results from exposure to pets at other times are inconclusive and it is only recommended that pets be removed from the home if a person has allergic symptoms to said pet. Dietary restrictions during pregnancy or when breast feeding have not been found to be effective and thus are not recommended. Reducing or eliminating compounds known to sensitive people from the work place may be effective. It is not clear if annual influenza vaccinations effects the risk of exacerbations. Immunization; however, is recommended by the World Health Organization. Smoking bans are effective in decreasing exacerbations of asthma.

What is weak that is not helping prevent the development of asthma?

The evidence for the effectiveness of measures to prevent

What preventative measures always work to prevent asthma?

none are well supported enough to be recommended for this indication

What has been determined about dietry restrictions during pregnancy and when breast feeding?

have not been found to be effective and thus are not recommended

Why are smoking bans in place?

effective in decreasing exacerbations of asthma

Who recoomends immunizations?

World Health Organization

What's weak and isn't helping prevent the development of the flu?

I'm not sure.

What are some methods that seem promising to prevent workplace allergies?

I'm not sure.

What methods are foolproof to prevent the flu?

I'm not sure.

What group recommends having a smoking ban?

I'm not sure.

Do smoking bans prevent workplace allergies?

I'm not sure.


Avoidance of triggers is a key component of improving control and preventing attacks. The most common triggers include allergens, smoke (tobacco and other), air pollution, non selective beta-blockers, and sulfite-containing foods. Cigarette smoking and second-hand smoke (passive smoke) may reduce the effectiveness of medications such as corticosteroids. Laws that limit smoking decrease the number of people hospitalized for asthma. Dust mite control measures, including air filtration, chemicals to kill mites, vacuuming, mattress covers and others methods had no effect on asthma symptoms. Overall, exercise is beneficial in people with stable asthma. Yoga could provide small improvements in quality of life and symptoms in people with asthma.

What is a key component of control and preventing asthma attacks?

Avoidance of triggers

What are some of the more common triggers?

allergens, smoke (tobacco and other), air pollution, non selective beta-blockers, and sulfite-containing foods

What can reduce the effectiveness of medications?

Cigarette smoking and second-hand smoke

What did law that limit smoking accomplish?

decrease the number of people hospitalized for asthma

What type of exercise can provide small improvements?

Yoga

What is a main way people can prevent reactions to dust mites?

I'm not sure.

The two most common things used with corticosteroids?

I'm not sure.

What do sulfite-containing foods reduce the effectiveness of?

I'm not sure.

What decreases the number of people who are hospitalized for passive smoke exposure?

I'm not sure.

What methods have no effect on smokers quality of life?

I'm not sure.


For those with severe persistent asthma not controlled by inhaled corticosteroids and LABAs, bronchial thermoplasty may be an option. It involves the delivery of controlled thermal energy to the airway wall during a series of bronchoscopies. While it may increase exacerbation frequency in the first few months it appears to decrease the subsequent rate. Effects beyond one year are unknown. Evidence suggests that sublingual immunotherapy in those with both allergic rhinitis and asthma improve outcomes.

What type of person would use bronchial thermoplasty as an option?

For those with severe persistent asthma not controlled by inhaled corticosteroids and LABAs

What does bronchial thermoplasty consist of?

It involves the delivery of controlled thermal energy to the airway wall during a series of bronchoscopies

What effect does bronchial thermoplasty have?

it appears to decrease the subsequent rate.

What treatment helps improve those with allergic rhinitis and asthma?

sublingual immunotherapy

What is an option for someone with LABAs not controlled by corticosteroids?

I'm not sure.

What does inhaling corticosteroids deliver?

I'm not sure.

What does taking corticosteroids increase in the first few months of use?

I'm not sure.

What is decreased when you use sublingual immunotherapy for LABAs?

I'm not sure.

What treatment has evidence that shows an outcome improvement for people with LABAs?

I'm not sure.


The prognosis for asthma is generally good, especially for children with mild disease. Mortality has decreased over the last few decades due to better recognition and improvement in care. Globally it causes moderate or severe disability in 19.4 million people as of 2004 (16 million of which are in low and middle income countries). Of asthma diagnosed during childhood, half of cases will no longer carry the diagnosis after a decade. Airway remodeling is observed, but it is unknown whether these represent harmful or beneficial changes. Early treatment with corticosteroids seems to prevent or ameliorates a decline in lung function.

What is the prognosis for asthma?

generally good

What has caused the mortality rate to decrease?

due to better recognition and improvement in care

Worldwide, how many people suffer from asthma?

19.4 million people as of 2004

How many cases that are diagnosed in childhood make it past 10 years with asthma?

half of cases will no longer carry the diagnosis after a decade

What is the prognosis after treating airway remodeling?

I'm not sure.

Why has airway remodeling decreased in children over the last few decades?

I'm not sure.

How many people will no longer be diagnosed with decline in lung function after 2004?

I'm not sure.

Is treatment with corticosteroids harmful or beneficial?

I'm not sure.

What is used to treat airway remodeling?

I'm not sure.


As of 2011, 235–330 million people worldwide are affected by asthma, and approximately 250,000–345,000 people die per year from the disease. Rates vary between countries with prevalences between 1 and 18%. It is more common in developed than developing countries. One thus sees lower rates in Asia, Eastern Europe and Africa. Within developed countries it is more common in those who are economically disadvantaged while in contrast in developing countries it is more common in the affluent. The reason for these differences is not well known. Low and middle income countries make up more than 80% of the mortality.

By 2011, how many people were affected by asthma?

235–330 million people worldwide are affected by asthma

How many people die per year from asthma?

250,000–345,000 people

What countries is asthma more commonly seen?

It is more common in developed than developing countries

Why are different countries effected differently?

The reason for these differences is not well known

How many people were affected by asthma in Asia as of 2011?

I'm not sure.

How many people died in 2011 in Europe from asthma?

I'm not sure.

What percentage of people in developing countries are affluent?

I'm not sure.

What percentage of people in Eastern Europe are affluent?

I'm not sure.

Is it known why developing countries are economically disadvantaged?

I'm not sure.


From 2000 to 2010, the average cost per asthma-related hospital stay in the United States for children remained relatively stable at about $3,600, whereas the average cost per asthma-related hospital stay for adults increased from $5,200 to $6,600. In 2010, Medicaid was the most frequent primary payer among children and adults aged 18–44 years in the United States; private insurance was the second most frequent payer. Among both children and adults in the lowest income communities in the United States there is a higher rates of hospital stays for asthma in 2010 than those in the highest income communities.

How much was the average cost of hospital stays for asthma-related issues for children??

about $3,600

How much was the average cost of hospital stays for asthma-related issues for adults?

from $5,200 to $6,600

Who was the most frequent primary payer amount children and adults?

Medicaid

Who was more likely to seek hospital help in the US for asthma reasons?

the lowest income communities

What was the average cost per hospital stay for high income communites in 2010?

I'm not sure.

How much did the cost increase for a child to be hospitalized for asthma in 2000?

I'm not sure.

Who was the primary payer for low income communities from 2000 to 2010?

I'm not sure.

What group with adults 18-44 had higher stays in the hospital in 2000 instead of higher income communities?

I'm not sure.

What group was covered by private insurance  in 2000?

I'm not sure.


In 1873, one of the first papers in modern medicine on the subject tried to explain the pathophysiology of the disease while one in 1872, concluded that asthma can be cured by rubbing the chest with chloroform liniment. Medical treatment in 1880, included the use of intravenous doses of a drug called pilocarpin. In 1886, F.H. Bosworth theorized a connection between asthma and hay fever. Epinephrine was first referred to in the treatment of asthma in 1905. Oral corticosteroids began to be used for this condition in the 1950s while inhaled corticosteroids and selective short acting beta agonist came into wide use in the 1960s.

When was the first paper written about asthma?

In 1873

What was first used as a cure for asthma?

by rubbing the chest with chloroform liniment

In 1880 what was used intraveniously for asthma?

pilocarpin

When did inhaled corticosteroids and short acting beta agonist start being used?

in the 1960s

What did the paper written in 1886 mention about an asthma cure?

I'm not sure.

What treatment was used for asthma in 1873?

I'm not sure.

In 1950 what connection was theorized by F.H. Bosworth?

I'm not sure.

What two medications were widely used to treat asthma in 1905?

I'm not sure.

What condition was epinephrine connected to the treatment of in 1873?

I'm not sure.


Although the format was capable of offering higher-quality video and audio than its consumer rivals, the VHS and Betamax videocassette systems, LaserDisc never managed to gain widespread use in North America, largely due to high costs for the players and video titles themselves and the inability to record TV programming. It also remained a largely obscure format in Europe and Australia. By contrast, the format was much more popular in Japan and in the more affluent regions of Southeast Asia, such as Hong Kong, Singapore, and Malaysia, being the prevalent rental video medium in Hong Kong during the 1990s. Its superior video and audio quality did make it a somewhat popular choice among videophiles and film enthusiasts during its lifespan.

Did LaserDisks offer higher or lower quality sound and picture than VHS?

higher-quality

Why didn't LaserDisk gain popularity in North America?

high costs for the players and video titles themselves and the inability to record TV programming

With whom was LaserDisk a popular choice for it's picture and sound quality?

videophiles and film enthusiasts

In what city was LaserDisk used as a popular rental medium in the 1990s?

Hong Kong


LaserDisc was first available on the market, in Atlanta, Georgia, on December 15, 1978, two years after the introduction of the VHS VCR, and four years before the introduction of the CD (which is based on laser disc technology). Initially licensed, sold, and marketed as MCA DiscoVision (also known as simply "DiscoVision") in North America in 1978, the technology was previously referred to internally as Optical Videodisc System, Reflective Optical Videodisc, Laser Optical Videodisc, and Disco-Vision (with a dash), with the first players referring to the format as "Video Long Play".

Where was LaserDisc first available?

Atlanta, Georgia

How many years after VHS was LaserDisk released?

two years

Under what name was LaserDisc originally marketed?

MCA DiscoVision

How did the first viewers refer to the media?

"Video Long Play"


Pioneer Electronics later purchased the majority stake in the format and marketed it as both LaserVision (format name) and LaserDisc (brand name) in 1980, with some releases unofficially referring to the medium as "Laser Videodisc". Philips produced the players while MCA produced the discs. The Philips-MCA cooperation was not successful, and discontinued after a few years. Several of the scientists responsible for the early research (Richard Wilkinson, Ray Dakin and John Winslow) founded Optical Disc Corporation (now ODC Nimbus).

Who purchased the majority stake and re-marketed the product in 1980?

Pioneer Electronics

Was Laserdisk officially or unofficially reffered to as "Laser Videodisc"?

unofficially

Did MCA produce the disc or the players after being bought out?

discs

Who were the scientists that worked on the early research for Laserdiscs?

Richard Wilkinson, Ray Dakin and John Winslow

What company did the early Laserdisc researchers later found?

Optical Disc Corporation (now ODC Nimbus)


By the early 2000s, LaserDisc was completely replaced by DVD in the North American retail marketplace, as neither players nor software were then produced. Players were still exported to North America from Japan until the end of 2001. The format has retained some popularity among American collectors, and to a greater degree in Japan, where the format was better supported and more prevalent during its life. In Europe, LaserDisc always remained an obscure format. It was chosen by the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) for the BBC Domesday Project in the mid-1980s, a school-based project to commemorate 900 years since the original Domesday Book in England. From 1991 up until the early 2000s, the BBC also used LaserDisc technology to play out the channel idents.

What product replaced LaserDisc in North America by the early 2000s?

DVD

Who chose LaserFisc for their Domesday Project in the mid-1980s?

British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC)

What was the BBC Domesday Project?

a school-based project to commemorate 900 years since the original Domesday Book in England

Which country still exported players to North America until 2001?

Japan


The standard home video LaserDisc was 30 cm (12 in) in diameter and made up of two single-sided aluminum discs layered in plastic. Although appearing similar to compact discs or DVDs, LaserDiscs used analog video stored in the composite domain (having a video bandwidth approximately equivalent to the 1-inch (25 mm) C-Type VTR format) with analog FM stereo sound and PCM digital audio. The LaserDisc at its most fundamental level was still recorded as a series of pits and lands much like CDs, DVDs, and even Blu-ray Discs are today. However, while the encoding is of a binary nature, the information is encoded as analog pulse width modulation with a 50% duty cycle, where the information is contained in the lengths and spacing of the pits. In true digital media the pits, or their edges, directly represent 1s and 0s of a binary digital information stream. Early LaserDiscs featured in 1978 were entirely analog but the format evolved to incorporate digital stereo sound in CD format (sometimes with a TOSlink or coax output to feed an external DAC), and later multi-channel formats such as Dolby Digital and DTS.

How large was a standard LaserDisc?

30 cm (12 in) in diameter

What numbers are used in Binary information coding?

1s and 0s

Were the ealiest LaserDiscs in 1978 analog or digitally formatted?

analog


As Pioneer introduced Digital Audio to LaserDisc in 1985, they further refined the CAA format. CAA55 was introduced in 1985 with a total playback capacity per side of 55 minutes 5 seconds, reducing the video capacity to resolve bandwidth issues with the inclusion of Digital Audio. Several titles released between 1985 and 1987 were analog audio only due to the length of the title and the desire to keep the film on one disc (e.g., Back to the Future). By 1987, Pioneer had overcome the technical challenges and was able to once again encode in CAA60, allowing a total of 60 minutes 5 seconds. Pioneer further refined CAA, offering CAA45, encoding 45 minutes of material, but filling the entire playback surface of the side. Used on only a handful of titles, CAA65 offered 65 minutes 5 seconds of playback time per side. There are a handful of titles pressed by Technidisc that used CAA50. The final variant of CAA is CAA70, which could accommodate 70 minutes of playback time per side. There are not any known uses of this format on the consumer market.

What was the length capacity of the CAA55 format?

55 minutes 5 seconds

Why was Back to the Future released with analog sound?

due to the length of the title and the desire to keep the film on one disc

What was the maximum length of the CAA60 format?

60 minutes 5 seconds

How many works were released to the public with the CAA70 format?

There are not any known uses of this format on the consumer market


Sound could be stored in either analog or digital format and in a variety of surround sound formats; NTSC discs could carry two analog audio tracks, plus two uncompressed PCM digital audio tracks, which were (EFM, CIRC, 16-bit and 44.056 kHz sample rate). PAL discs could carry one pair of audio tracks, either analog or digital and the digital tracks on a PAL disc were 16-bit 44.1 kHz as on a CD; in the UK, the term "LaserVision" is used to refer to discs with analog sound, while "LaserDisc" is used for those with digital audio. The digital sound signal in both formats are EFM-encoded as in CD. Dolby Digital (also called AC-3) and DTS—which are now common on DVD titles—first became available on LaserDisc, and Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace (1999) which was released on LaserDisc in Japan, is among the first home video releases ever to include 6.1 channel Dolby Digital EX Surround. Unlike DVDs, which carry Dolby Digital audio in digital form, LaserDiscs store Dolby Digital in a frequency modulated form within a track normally used for analog audio. Extracting Dolby Digital from a LaserDisc required a player equipped with a special "AC-3 RF" output and an external demodulator in addition to an AC-3 decoder. The demodulator was necessary to convert the 2.88 MHz modulated AC-3 information on the disc into a 384 kbit/s signal that the decoder could handle. DTS audio, when available on a disc, replaced the digital audio tracks; hearing DTS sound required only an S/PDIF compliant digital connection to a DTS decoder.

What was the difference between LaserDisc and LaserVision in the UK?

"LaserVision" is used to refer to discs with analog sound, while "LaserDisc" is used for those with digital audio

The Phantom Menace was one of the first home videos to use what sound format?

6.1 channel Dolby Digital EX Surround.

What sound formatting do DVDs use?

Dolby Digital audio in digital form


In the mid to late 1990s many higher-end AV receivers included the demodulator circuit specifically for the LaserDisc players RF modulated Dolby Digital AC-3 signal. By the late 1990s with LaserDisc players and disc sales declining due to DVD's growing popularity the AV receiver manufacturers removed the demodulator circuit. Although DVD players were capable of playing Dolby Digital tracks, the signal out of DVD player were not in a modulated form and not compatible with the inputs designed for LaserDisc AC-3. Outboard demodulators were available for a period that convert the AC-3 signal to standard Dolby Digital signal that was compatible with the standard Dolby Digital/PCM inputs on capable AV receivers. Another type marketed by Onkyo and others converted the RF AC-3 signal to 6-channel analog audio.

What competition caused LaserDisc sales to decline?

DVD's growing popularity

Did all AV receivers carry the demodulator circuits necessary for LaserDiscs, or only high-end models?

higher-end

What did the Onkyo outboard demodulator covert the RF AC-2 signal to?

6-channel analog audio


At least where the digital audio tracks were concerned, the sound quality was unsurpassed at the time compared to consumer videotape, but the quality of the analog soundtracks varied greatly depending on the disc and, sometimes, the player. Many early and lower-end LD players had poor analog audio components, and many early discs had poorly mastered analog audio tracks, making digital soundtracks in any form most desirable to serious enthusiasts. Early DiscoVision and LaserDisc titles lacked the digital audio option, but many of those movies received digital sound in later re-issues by Universal, and the quality of analog audio tracks generally got far better as time went on. Many discs that had originally carried old analog stereo tracks received new Dolby Stereo and Dolby Surround tracks instead, often in addition to digital tracks, helping boost sound quality. Later analog discs also applied CX Noise Reduction, which improved the signal-noise ratio of their audio.

Was sound quality from disc to disc and between players consistent or varied?

varied greatly

Was analog or digital formatting more popular with enthusiasts?

digital

What result did adding CX Noise Reduction have on analog discs?

improved the signal-noise ratio of their audio

Which company added digital sound option when re-releasing movies?

Universal


Both AC-3 and DTS surround audio were clumsily implemented on LaserDiscs, leading to some interesting player- and disc-dependent issues. A disc that included AC-3 audio forfeited the right analog audio channel to the modulated AC-3 RF stream. If the player did not have an AC-3 output available, the next most attractive playback option would be the digital Dolby Surround or stereo audio tracks. The reason for this is the RF signal needs to bypass the audio circuitry in order to be properly processed by the demodulator. If either the player did not support digital audio tracks (common in older players), or the disc did not include digital audio tracks at all (uncommon for a disc which is mastered with an AC-3 track), the only remaining option was to fall back to a monophonic presentation of the left analog audio track. However, many older analog-only players not only failed to output AC-3 streams correctly, but were not even aware of their potential existence. Such a player will happily play the analog audio tracks verbatim, resulting in garbage (static) output in the right channel.

Which channel would not work in conjunction with AC-3 audio?

right analog audio channel

What audio playback options were available if an AC-3 output was not present?

digital Dolby Surround or stereo audio tracks

What happens to the right channel in a player that doesn't recognize AC-3?

garbage (static) output


Only one 5.1 surround sound option exists on a given LaserDisc (either Dolby Digital or DTS), so if surround sound is desired, the disc must be matched to the capabilities of the playback equipment (LD Player and Receiver/Decoder) by the purchaser. A fully capable LaserDisc playback system includes a newer LaserDisc player that is capable of playing digital tracks, has a digital optical output for digital PCM and DTS audio, is aware of AC-3 audio tracks, and has an AC-3 coaxial output; an external or internal AC-3 RF demodulator and AC-3 decoder; and a DTS decoder. Many 1990s A/V receivers combine the AC-3 decoder and DTS decoder logic, but an integrated AC-3 demodulator is rare both in LaserDisc players and in later A/V receivers.

Are integrated AC-3 demodulators common in LaserDisc players or a rare find?

rare

How many 5.1 surround sound options exist in LaserDiscs?

Only one

What type of decoder logic is common in 1990s A/V receivers?

DTS


PAL LaserDiscs have a slightly longer playing time than NTSC discs, but have fewer audio options. PAL discs only have two audio tracks, consisting of either two analog-only tracks on older PAL LDs, or two digital-only tracks on newer discs. In comparison, later NTSC LDs are capable of carrying four tracks (two analog and two digital). On certain releases, one of the analog tracks is used to carry a modulated AC-3 signal for 5.1 channel audio (for decoding and playback by newer LD players with an "AC-3 RF" output). However, older NTSC LDs made before 1984 (such as the original DiscoVision discs) only have two analog audio tracks.

Which has a longer playing time: PAL LaserDiscs or NTSC discs?

PAL LaserDiscs

How many audio tracks do PAL LaserDiscs have?

two

Which two audio options are available on PAL LaserDiscs?

two analog-only tracks on older PAL LDs, or two digital-only tracks on newer discs


In March 1984, Pioneer introduced the first consumer player with a solid-state laser, the LD-700. It was also the first LD player to load from the front and not the top. One year earlier Hitachi introduced an expensive industrial player with a laser diode, but the player, which had poor picture quality due to an inadequate dropout compensator, was made only in limited quantities. After Pioneer released the LD-700, gas lasers were no longer used in consumer players, despite their advantages, although Philips continued to use gas lasers in their industrial units until 1985.

What was the name of the first solid-state laser consumer LaserDisc player?

Besides a solid-state laser, what else was unique about the LD-700?

first LD player to load from the front and not the top

When did Pioneer release the LD-700?

March 1984

Which company continued to use gas-lasers in industrial models of LD players although they were no longer used in consumer models?

Philips


During its development, MCA, which co-owned the technology, referred to it as the Optical Videodisc System, "Reflective Optical Videodisc" or "Laser Optical Videodisc", depending on the document; changing the name once in 1969 to Disco-Vision and then again in 1978 to DiscoVision (without the hyphen), which became the official spelling. Technical documents and brochures produced by MCA Disco-Vision during the early and mid-'70s also used the term "Disco-Vision Records" to refer to the pressed discs. MCA owned the rights to the largest catalog of films in the world during this time, and they manufactured and distributed the DiscoVision releases of those films under the "MCA DiscoVision" software and manufacturing label; consumer sale of those titles began on December 15, 1978, with the aforementioned Jaws.

Which three names did MCA use for LaserDisc technology during its development?

Optical Videodisc System, "Reflective Optical Videodisc" or "Laser Optical Videodisc"

To what did MCA change the name to in 1969?

Disco-Vision

When did MCA remove the hyphen from the name Disco-Vision?

Which company owned the rights to the world's largest collection of films during the 1970s?

MCA

Consumer sales of MCA films began in 1978 with what movie?

Jaws


Philips' preferred name for the format was "VLP", after the Dutch words Video Langspeel-Plaat ("Video long-play disc"), which in English-speaking countries stood for Video Long-Play. The first consumer player, the Magnavox VH-8000 even had the VLP logo on the player. For a while in the early and mid-1970s, Philips also discussed a compatible audio-only format they called "ALP", but that was soon dropped as the Compact Disc system became a non-compatible project in the Philips corporation. Until early 1980, the format had no "official" name. The LaserVision Association, made up of MCA, Universal-Pioneer, IBM, and Philips/Magnavox, was formed to standardize the technical specifications of the format (which had been causing problems for the consumer market) and finally named the system officially as "LaserVision".

What did VLP stand for in English-speaking countries?

Video Long-Play

What was the first consumer VLP player?

Magnavox VH-8000

Which group officially chose the name "Laservision"?

The LaserVision Association

The Laservision Association was comprised of which companies?

MCA, Universal-Pioneer, IBM, and Philips/Magnavox


Pioneer Electronics also entered the optical disc market in 1977 as a 50/50 joint-venture with MCA called Universal-Pioneer and manufacturing MCA designed industrial players under the MCA DiscoVision name (the PR-7800 and PR-7820). For the 1980 launch of the first Universal-Pioneer player, the VP-1000 was noted as a "laser disc player", although the "LaserDisc" logo displayed clearly on the device. In 1981, "LaserDisc" was used exclusively for the medium itself, although the official name was "LaserVision" (as seen at the beginning of many LaserDisc releases just before the start of the film). However, as Pioneer reminded numerous video magazines and stores in 1984, LaserDisc was a trademarked word, standing only for LaserVision products manufactured for sale by Pioneer Video or Pioneer Electronics. A 1984 Ray Charles ad for the LD-700 player bore the term "Pioneer LaserDisc brand videodisc player". From 1981 until the early 1990s, all properly licensed discs carried the LaserVision name and logo, even Pioneer Artists titles.

Which company joined a 50/50 partnership with MCA in 1977?

Pioneer Electronics

In what year was the first Universal-Pioneer player released?

What was the name of the first Universal-Pioneer player?

the VP-1000

Which singer did an ad for the LD-700 player in 1984?

Ray Charles


During the early years, MCA also manufactured discs for other companies including Paramount, Disney and Warner Bros. Some of them added their own names to the disc jacket to signify that the movie was not owned by MCA. After Discovision Associates shut down in early 1982, Universal Studio's videodisc software label, called MCA Videodisc until 1984, began reissuing many DiscoVision titles. Unfortunately, quite a few, such as Battlestar Galactica and Jaws, were time-compressed versions of their CAV or CLV Disco Vision originals. The time-compressed CLV re-issue of Jaws no longer had the original soundtrack, having had incidental background music replaced for the video disc version due to licensing cost (the music would not be available until the THX LaserDisc box set was released in 1995). One Universal/Columbia co-production issued by MCA Disco Vision in both CAV and CLV versions, The Electric Horseman, is still not available in any other home video format with its original score intact; even the most recent DVD release has had substantial music replacements of both instrumental score and Willie Nelson's songs. An MCA release of Universal's Howard the Duck, sees only the start credits shown in widescreen before changing to 4:3 for the rest of the film. For many years this was the only disc-based release of the film, until widescreen DVD formats were released with extras. Also, the LaserDisc release of E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial is the only format to include the cut scene of Harrison Ford playing the part of the school headmaster telling off Elliott for letting the frogs free in the biology class.

What other companies did MCA manufacture discs for?

Paramount, Disney and Warner Bros

What quirk is present in MCA's release of Howard the Duck?

only the start credits shown in widescreen before changing to 4:3 for the rest of the film

What is unique about the LaserDisc release of E.T.?

only format to include the cut scene of Harrison Ford playing the part of the school headmaster

Which film is only available with its original score in LD format , even today?

The Electric Horseman


LaserDisc had a number of advantages over VHS. It featured a far sharper picture with a horizontal resolution of 425 TVL lines for NTSC and 440 TVL lines for PAL discs, while VHS featured only 240 TVL lines with NTSC. It could handle analog and digital audio where VHS was mostly analog only (VHS can have PCM audio in professional applications but is uncommon), and the NTSC discs could store multiple audio tracks. This allowed for extras like director's commentary tracks and other features to be added onto a film, creating "Special Edition" releases that would not have been possible with VHS. Disc access was random and chapter based, like the DVD format, meaning that one could jump to any point on a given disc very quickly. By comparison, VHS would require tedious rewinding and fast-forwarding to get to specific points.

How many horizontal TVL lines did LaserDisc have in comparison to VHS's 240?

Which medium was chapter based like DVD format, Laserdisc or VHS?

LaserDisc

Which medium allowed for multiple audio tracks, Laserdisc or VHS?

LaserDisc


LaserDiscs were initially cheaper than videocassettes to manufacture, because they lacked the moving parts and plastic outer shell that are necessary for VHS tapes to work, and the duplication process was much simpler. A VHS cassette has at least 14 parts including the actual tape while LaserDisc has one part with five or six layers. A disc can be stamped out in a matter of seconds whereas duplicating videotape required a complex bulk tape duplication mechanism and was a time-consuming process. However, by the end of the 1980s, average disc-pressing prices were over $5.00 per two-sided disc, due to the large amount of plastic material and the costly glass-mastering process needed to make the metal stamper mechanisms. Due to the larger volume of demand, videocassettes quickly became much cheaper to duplicate, costing as little as $1.00 by the beginning of the 1990s.

Were Laserdiscs initially cheaper or more costly to produce than their VHS counterparts?

cheaper

How many parts does a VHS tape have that must be manufactured?

at least 14

How much did LaserDiscs cost to produce by the end of the 1980s?

$5.00 per two-sided disc

How much did VHS cost to produce by the 1990s?

as little as $1.00