Hokkien dialects are analytic; in a sentence, the arrangement of words is important to its meaning. A basic sentence follows the subject–verb–object pattern (i.e. a subject is followed by a verb then by an object), though this order is often violated because Hokkien dialects are topic-prominent. Unlike synthetic languages, seldom do words indicate time, gender and plural by inflection. Instead, these concepts are expressed through adverbs, aspect markers, and grammatical particles, or are deduced from the context. Different particles are added to a sentence to further specify its status or intonation.

In Hokkien dialects, the arrangent of words is important to what?

meaning

What pattern does a basic Hokkien sentence follow?

subject–verb–object

Being topic prominant, what basic sentence pattern is often not used?

subject–verb–object

Unlike synthetic languages, what do Hokkien sentences not indicate?

time, gender and plural

What is added to sentences to specify status or tone?

Different particles

How are synthetic languages analytic?

I'm not sure.

What pattern do basic concept languages follow?

I'm not sure.

How do grammatical particles violate the usual pattern?

I'm not sure.

What is added to a sentence to specify plural by inflection?

I'm not sure.

With aspect markers, what is word arrangement important to?

I'm not sure.


The existence of literary and colloquial readings (文白異讀), called tha̍k-im (讀音), is a prominent feature of some Hokkien dialects and indeed in many Sinitic varieties in the south. The bulk of literary readings (文讀, bûn-tha̍k), based on pronunciations of the vernacular during the Tang Dynasty, are mainly used in formal phrases and written language (e.g. philosophical concepts, surnames, and some place names), while the colloquial (or vernacular) ones (白讀, pe̍h-tha̍k) are basically used in spoken language and vulgar phrases. Literary readings are more similar to the pronunciations of the Tang standard of Middle Chinese than their colloquial equivalents.

What are literary and colloquial readings called?

tha̍k-im

What is another name for colloquial?

vernacular)

Literary readings are usually used where?

formal phrases and written language

colloquial reading are usually used where?

spoken language and vulgar phrases

What is another term for philosophical concepts that are prominent in Hokkien dialects as well as Sinitic varieties?

I'm not sure.

What are Sinitic and philosophical concepts called?

I'm not sure.

To what standard are Hokken dialects similar to?

I'm not sure.

What is a prominent feature of the Tang standard and also in Sinitic varieties?

I'm not sure.

What are the bulk of surnames based on?

I'm not sure.


The pronounced divergence between literary and colloquial pronunciations found in Hokkien dialects is attributed to the presence of several strata in the Min lexicon. The earliest, colloquial stratum is traced to the Han dynasty (206 BCE - 220 CE); the second colloquial one comes from the period of the Southern and Northern Dynasties (420 - 589 CE); the third stratum of pronunciations (typically literary ones) comes from the Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE) and is based on the prestige dialect of Chang'an (modern day Xi'an), its capital.

Colloquial stratum can be traced to several strata in what lexicon?

Min

The earliest colloquial stratum can be traced to what?

Han dynasty

When was the Han Dynasty?

206 BCE - 220 CE

When were the Southern and Northern Dynasties?

420 - 589 CE

When was the Tang Dynasty?

618–907 CE

In what era did the earliest divergence between literary pronunciations begin?

I'm not sure.

When did the second prestige dialect appear?

I'm not sure.

During the Tang Dynasty, in what year did the earliest stratum appear?

I'm not sure.

What lexicon can the prestige dialect be traced to?

I'm not sure.

What period does the earliest Min Lexicon come from?

I'm not sure.


Quite a few words from the variety of Old Chinese spoken in the state of Wu (where the ancestral language of Min and Wu dialect families originated and which was likely influenced by the Chinese spoken in the state of Chu which itself was not founded by Chinese speakers),[citation needed] and later words from Middle Chinese as well, have retained the original meanings in Hokkien, while many of their counterparts in Mandarin Chinese have either fallen out of daily use, have been substituted with other words (some of which are borrowed from other languages while others are new developments), or have developed newer meanings. The same may be said of Hokkien as well, since some lexical meaning evolved in step with Mandarin while others are wholly innovative developments.

Where did the language of Min and Wu dialects originate?

in the state of Wu

Chinese spoken in Wu was influenced by Chinese spoken where?

the state of Chu

Many middle chinese words have retained their meanings in Hokkein but not in what?

Mandarin Chinese

What location did the language of Mandarin Chinese originate?

I'm not sure.

What state was not founded by Hokkien?

I'm not sure.

What is one thing that has happened to the Old Chinese counterparts?

I'm not sure.

What changes have happened to Wu compared to Mandarin?

I'm not sure.

Many lexical meaning words have stayed the same in Hokkien but not in what language?

I'm not sure.


Hokkien originated from Quanzhou. After the Opium War in 1842, Xiamen (Amoy) became one of the major treaty ports to be opened for trade with the outside world. From mid-19th century onwards, Xiamen slowly developed to become the political and economical center of the Hokkien-speaking region in China. This caused Amoy dialect to gradually replace the position of dialect variants from Quanzhou and Zhangzhou. From mid-19th century until the end of World War II, western diplomats usually learned Amoy Hokkien as the preferred dialect if they were to communicate with the Hokkien-speaking populace in China or South-East Asia. In the 1940s and 1950s, Taiwan also held Amoy Hokkien as its standard and tended to incline itself towards Amoy dialect.

Where did Hokkein originate?

Quanzhou

What year was the Opium war?

What is another name for Xiamen?

Amoy

What port became one of the major treaty ports after the Opium War?

Xiamen

What dialect did western diplomats learn to communicate with the Hokkien speaking people in China?

Amoy Hokkien

After the 1940's and 1950's Opium War, what became a major treaty port?

I'm not sure.

What did Zhangzhou slowly develop into?

I'm not sure.

In the 1940's and 1950's what did Quanzhou use as its standard dialect?

I'm not sure.

In what year was South-East Asia war?

I'm not sure.

Where did Taiwan originate from?

I'm not sure.


In the 1990s, marked by the liberalization of language development and mother tongue movement in Taiwan, Taiwanese Hokkien had undergone a fast pace in its development. In 1993, Taiwan became the first region in the world to implement the teaching of Taiwanese Hokkien in Taiwanese schools. In 2001, the local Taiwanese language program was further extended to all schools in Taiwan, and Taiwanese Hokkien became one of the compulsory local Taiwanese languages to be learned in schools. The mother tongue movement in Taiwan even influenced Xiamen (Amoy) to the point that in 2010, Xiamen also began to implement the teaching of Hokkien dialect in its schools. In 2007, the Ministry of Education in Taiwan also completed the standardization of Chinese characters used for writing Hokkien and developed Tai-lo as the standard Hokkien pronunciation and romanization guide. A number of universities in Taiwan also offer Hokkien degree courses for training Hokkien-fluent talents to work for the Hokkien media industry and education. Taiwan also has its own Hokkien literary and cultural circles whereby Hokkien poets and writers compose poetry or literature in Hokkien on a regular basis.

When did Taiwanese Hokkien have a fast change in development?

In the 1990s

What year did Taiwan begin teaching Hokkien in schools?

What year did it become mandatory to teach Hokkien in Taiwan schools?

What is the name of the standard Hokkien pronunciation and romanization guide?

Tai-lo

What year did the Ministry of Education develope tai-lo?

When did Tai-lo develop at a fast pace?

I'm not sure.

In what year did Taiwan begin teaching poetry in Taiwanese schools?

I'm not sure.

When did Xiamen become compulsory in schools?

I'm not sure.

Who offers poetry or literature courses for training Hokkien-fluent talents?

I'm not sure.

Where was Tai-lo extended to in 2001?

I'm not sure.


Hokkien dialects are typically written using Chinese characters (漢字, Hàn-jī). However, the written script was and remains adapted to the literary form, which is based on classical Chinese, not the vernacular and spoken form. Furthermore, the character inventory used for Mandarin (standard written Chinese) does not correspond to Hokkien words, and there are a large number of informal characters (替字, thè-jī or thòe-jī; 'substitute characters') which are unique to Hokkien (as is the case with Cantonese). For instance, about 20 to 25% of Taiwanese morphemes lack an appropriate or standard Chinese character.

Hokkien is usually written using what characters?

Chinese

Written Hokkein is based on what?

classical Chinese

What is another name for standard written chinese?

Mandarin

Approximately what percentage of Chinese morphemes lack a standard chinese character?

20 to 25%

What percentage of written Chinese lacks a standard Chinese character?

I'm not sure.

How is Cantonese usually written?

I'm not sure.

What is used for Mandarin but doesn't correspond to Taiwanese words?

I'm not sure.

What is written Cantonese based on?

I'm not sure.

What is adapted to the spoken form of Chinese?

I'm not sure.


While most Hokkien morphemes have standard designated characters, they are not always etymological or phono-semantic. Similar-sounding, similar-meaning or rare characters are commonly borrowed or substituted to represent a particular morpheme. Examples include "beautiful" (美 bí is the literary form), whose vernacular morpheme suí is represented by characters like 媠 (an obsolete character), 婎 (a vernacular reading of this character) and even 水 (transliteration of the sound suí), or "tall" (高 ko is the literary form), whose morpheme kôan is 懸. Common grammatical particles are not exempt; the negation particle m̄ (not) is variously represented by 毋, 呣 or 唔, among others. In other cases, characters are invented to represent a particular morpheme (a common example is the character 𪜶 in, which represents the personal pronoun "they"). In addition, some characters have multiple and unrelated pronunciations, adapted to represent Hokkien words. For example, the Hokkien word bah ("meat") has been reduced to the character 肉, which has etymologically unrelated colloquial and literary readings (he̍k and jio̍k, respectively). Another case is the word 'to eat,' chia̍h, which is often transcribed in Taiwanese newspapers and media as 呷 (a Mandarin transliteration, xiā, to approximate the Hokkien term), even though its recommended character in dictionaries is 食.

Most Hokkein morphemes have what type of characters?

standard designated

In some cases, charcters are invented to represent what?

a particular morpheme

Hokkien morphemes are not always what?

etymological or phono-semantic

What are often borrowed to represent a particular morpheme?

Similar-sounding, similar-meaning or rare characters

What are borrowed in Taiwanese to represent a certain morpheme?

I'm not sure.

What do some literary readings have to represent Hokkien words?

I'm not sure.

What type of characters do most colloquial mophemes have?

I'm not sure.

What characteristic do personal pronouns not always have?

I'm not sure.

What are invented to represent a multiple and unrelated pronunciation?

I'm not sure.


Hokkien, especially Taiwanese, is sometimes written in the Latin script using one of several alphabets. Of these the most popular is Pe̍h-ōe-jī (traditional Chinese: 白話字; simplified Chinese: 白话字; pinyin: Báihuàzì). POJ was developed first by Presbyterian missionaries in China and later by the indigenous Presbyterian Church in Taiwan; use of this alphabet has been actively promoted since the late 19th century. The use of a mixed script of Han characters and Latin letters is also seen, though remains uncommon. Other Latin-based alphabets also exist.

Hokkien is sometimes written in what script?

Latin

What is the name of the traditional Chinese alphabet?

Pe̍h-ōe-jī

What is another name for POJ?

Pe̍h-ōe-jī

Who developed POJ?

Presbyterian missionaries in China

POJ alphabet has been used since late in what century?

What is the traditional Latin alphabet called?

I'm not sure.

Who first developed a mixed script of Han characters?

I'm not sure.

What is another name for Latin script?

I'm not sure.

How long has the mixed script been actively used?

I'm not sure.

What is written in the simplified Chinese script using one of several alphabets?

I'm not sure.


Min Nan texts, all Hokkien, can be dated back to the 16th century. One example is the Doctrina Christiana en letra y lengua china, presumably written after 1587 by the Spanish Dominicans in the Philippines. Another is a Ming Dynasty script of a play called Romance of the Lychee Mirror (1566), supposedly the earliest Southern Min colloquial text. Xiamen University has also developed an alphabet based on Pinyin, which has been published in a dictionary called the Minnan Fangyan-Putonghua Cidian (閩南方言普通話詞典) and a language teaching book, which is used to teach the language to foreigners and Chinese non-speakers. It is known as Pumindian.

When can Min Nan texts be dated back to?

the 16th century

What is an example of the Min Nan Texts?

Doctrina Christiana en letra y lengua china

What year was Doctrina Christiana en letra y lengua china written?

after 1587

Who wrote Doctrina Christiana en letra y lengua china?

Spanish Dominicans in the Philippines

What is the name of the earliest Southern Min colloquial text?

Romance of the Lychee Mirror

Who has developed an alphabet based on Pumindian?

I'm not sure.

Where has the alphabet based on the Ming Dynasty script been published?

I'm not sure.

What is an example of the Pumindian texts?

I'm not sure.

After 1587 who wrote the Pumindian?

I'm not sure.

When was the play Minnan Fangyan-Putonghua Cidian written?

I'm not sure.


All Latin characters required by Pe̍h-ōe-jī can be represented using Unicode (or the corresponding ISO/IEC 10646: Universal Character Set), using precomposed or combining (diacritics) characters. Prior to June 2004, the vowel akin to but more open than o, written with a dot above right, was not encoded. The usual workaround was to use the (stand-alone; spacing) character Interpunct (U+00B7, ·) or less commonly the combining character dot above (U+0307). As these are far from ideal, since 1997 proposals have been submitted to the ISO/IEC working group in charge of ISO/IEC 10646—namely, ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2—to encode a new combining character dot above right. This is now officially assigned to U+0358 (see documents N1593, N2507, N2628, N2699, and N2713). Font support is expected to follow.

What is another name for unicode?

the corresponding ISO/IEC 10646: Universal Character Set

Using precomposed or combining characters is called what?

diacritics

All LAtin characters required by POJ can be represented by what?

Unicode

What is another term for interpunct?

I'm not sure.

What was not encoded before 1997?

I'm not sure.

Before June 2004, what proposal has been made to the ISO/IEC?

I'm not sure.

What can all vowels required by POJ be represented by?

I'm not sure.

What is expected to follow using diacritics?

I'm not sure.


In 2002, the Taiwan Solidarity Union, a party with about 10% of the Legislative Yuan seats at the time, suggested making Taiwanese a second official language. This proposal encountered strong opposition not only from Mainlander groups but also from Hakka and Taiwanese aboriginal groups who felt that it would slight their home languages, as well as others including Hoklo who objected to the proposal on logistical grounds and on the grounds that it would increase ethnic tensions. Because of these objections, support for this measure was lukewarm among moderate Taiwan independence supporters, and the proposal did not pass.

What party wanted to make Taiwanese a second official language?

Taiwan Solidarity Union

What year was it proposed to make Taiwanese the second official language?

How was the proposal taken from mainland and aboriginal groups?

This proposal encountered strong opposition

Hoklo objected to the proposal because it would increase what tensions?

ethnic

What was the fate of the proposal to make Taiwanese the second official language?

the proposal did not pass

What did Mainlander groups suggest in 2002?

I'm not sure.

How many seats in the legislature did Taiwanese aboriginal groups have in 2002?

I'm not sure.

What groups suggested making Taiwanese a second official language?

I'm not sure.

What would increase according to Taiwan independence supporters who strongly opposed the proposal?

I'm not sure.

What happened to the proposal about the Legislative Yuan seats?

I'm not sure.


Professional wrestling (colloquially abbreviated to pro wrestling or wrestling) is an athletic form of entertainment based on a portrayal of a combat sport. Taking the form of live events held by touring promotions, it portrays a unique style of combat based on a combination of adopted styles, which include classical wrestling, catch wrestling and various forms of martial arts, as well as an innovative style based on grappling (holds/throws), striking, and aerialism. Various forms of weaponry are sometimes used.

What is professional wrestling abbreviated as?

pro wrestling

What are a couple of styles of combat based on?

classical wrestling, catch wrestling

Who are live events held by?

touring promotions

What is professional wrestling?

an athletic form of entertainment based on a portrayal of a combat sport

What kind of style does wrestling show?

it portrays a unique style of combat based on a combination of adopted styles, which include classical wrestling


The content including match outcomes is choreographed and the combative actions and reactions are executed in special manners designed to both protect from, yet simulate, pain. These facts were once kept highly secret, but they are now openly declared as the truth. By and large, the true nature of the content is ignored by the performing promotion in official media in order to sustain and promote the willing suspension of disbelief for the audience by maintaining an aura of verisimilitude. Fan communications by individual wrestlers and promotions through outside media (i.e., interviews) will often directly acknowledge the fictional nature of the spectacle.

How are the actions conducted?

the combative actions and reactions are executed in special manners designed to both protect from, yet simulate, pain

What are the fan encouraged to do?

willing suspension of disbelief for the audience

How is the end result of the match planned out?

match outcomes is choreographed

What do wrestlers have to say about the realness or fakeness of the matches?

will often directly acknowledge the fictional nature of the spectacle.


Originating as a popular form of entertainment in 19th-century Europe and later as a sideshow exhibition in North American traveling carnivals and vaudeville halls, professional wrestling grew into a standalone genre of entertainment with many diverse variations in cultures around the globe, and is now considered a multimillion-dollar entertainment industry. While it has greatly declined in Europe, in North America it has experienced several different periods of prominent cultural popularity during its century and a half of existence. The advent of television gave professional wrestling a new outlet, and wrestling (along with boxing) was instrumental in making pay-per-view a viable method of content delivery.

What part of the world has wrestling become less popular in?

it has greatly declined in Europe

Where did wrestling originally come from?

Originating as a popular form of entertainment in 19th-century Europe

Where was wrestling later showcased in North America?

later as a sideshow exhibition in North American traveling carnivals and vaudeville halls

What is wrestling now thought to be?

is now considered a multimillion-dollar entertainment industry

What did television do for wrestling?

The advent of television gave professional wrestling a new outlet


Although professional wrestling started out as petty acts in sideshows, traveling circuses and carnivals, today it is a billion-dollar industry. Revenue is drawn from live event ticket sales, network television broadcasts, pay-per-view broadcasts, personal appearances by performers, branded merchandise and home video. Particularly since the 1950s, pro wrestling events have frequently been responsible for sellout crowds at large arenas, including Madison Square Garden, as well as football stadiums, by promotions including the WWE, the NWA territory system, WCW, and AWA. Pro wrestling was also instrumental in making pay-per-view a viable method of content delivery. Annual shows such as WrestleMania, SummerSlam, Royal Rumble, and formerly Bash at the Beach, Halloween Havoc and Starrcade are among the highest-selling pay-per-view programming each year. In modern day, internet programming has been utilized by a number of companies to air web shows, internet pay-per-views (iPPVs) or on-demand content, helping to generate internet-related revenue earnings from the evolving World Wide Web.

Where does the money made from wrestling come from?

live event ticket sales, network television broadcasts, pay-per-view broadcasts, personal appearances by performers, branded merchandise and home video

Where large places are some of the major wrestling shows held at?

Madison Square Garden, as well as football stadiums

What has the internet been utilized for in wrestling?

to air web shows, internet pay-per-views (iPPVs) or on-demand content

what wrestling shows occur yearly?

WrestleMania, SummerSlam, Royal Rumble, and formerly Bash at the Beach, Halloween Havoc and Starrcade

In which decade did wrestling start becoming very popular?

Particularly since the 1950s, pro wrestling events have frequently been responsible for sellout crowds at large arenas


Due to its persistent cultural presence and to its novelty within the performing arts, wrestling constitutes a recurring topic in both academia and the media. Several documentaries have been produced looking at professional wrestling, most notably, Beyond the Mat directed by Barry W. Blaustein, and Wrestling with Shadows featuring wrestler Bret Hart and directed by Paul Jay. There have also been many fictional depictions of wrestling; the 2008 film The Wrestler received several Oscar nominations and began a career revival for star Mickey Rourke.

What is one popular wrestling film?

2008 film The Wrestler

What award was The Wrestler nominated for?

several Oscar nominations

What are the names of a couple wrestling documentaries?

Beyond the Mat directed by Barry W. Blaustein, and Wrestling with Shadows

Where does wrestling keep coming up as a subject?

in both academia and the media


Currently, the largest professional wrestling company worldwide is the United States-based WWE, which bought out many smaller regional companies in the late 20th century, as well as its primary US competitors WCW and Extreme Championship Wrestling (ECW) in early 2001. Other prominent professional wrestling companies worldwide include the US-based Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA) and Ring of Honor (ROH), Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (CMLL) and Asistencia Asesoría y Administración (AAA) in Mexico, and the Japanese New Japan Pro Wrestling (NJPW), All Japan Pro Wrestling (AJPW), and Pro Wrestling Noah (NOAH) leagues.

What is the biggest wrestling company?

the United States-based WWE

Which companies are some of WWE's competition?

WCW and Extreme Championship Wrestling (ECW)

What are some other major wrestling companies?

Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA) and Ring of Honor (ROH), Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (CMLL) and Asistencia Asesoría y Administración (AAA)

What is the name of a Japanese wrestling company?

Japanese New Japan Pro Wrestling (NJPW)


Gradually, the predetermined nature of professional wrestling became an open secret, as prominent figures in the wrestling business (including WWE owner Vince McMahon) began to publicly admit that wrestling was entertainment, not competition. This public reveal has garnered mixed reactions from the wrestling community, as some feel that exposure ruins the experience to the spectators as does exposure in illusionism. Despite the public admission of the theatrical nature of professional wrestling, many U.S. states still regulate professional wrestling as they do other professional competitive sports. For example, New York State still regulates "professional wrestling" through the New York State Athletic Commission (SAC).

Who confessed that wrestling was not competition?

prominent figures in the wrestling business (including WWE owner Vince McMahon)

How have people reacted to the revelation that wrestling is purely entertainment?

This public reveal has garnered mixed reactions from the wrestling community

How do many U.S. states handle wrestling?

many U.S. states still regulate professional wrestling as they do other professional competitive sports


Professional wrestling shows can be considered a form of theatre in the round, with the ring, ringside area, and entryway comprising a thrust stage. However, there is a much more limited concept of a fourth wall than in most theatric performances. The audience is recognized and acknowledged by the performers as spectators to the sporting event being portrayed, and are encouraged to interact as such. This leads to a high level of audience participation; in fact, their reactions can dictate how the performance unfolds. Often, individual matches will be part of a longer storyline conflict between "babyfaces" (often shortened to just "faces") and "heels". "Faces" (the "good guys") are those whose actions are intended to encourage the audience to cheer, while "heels" (the "bad guys") act to draw the spectators' ire.

How do the wrestlers treat the audience?

The audience is recognized and acknowledged by the performers as spectators

How does the audience being acknowledged by the wrestlers impact the show?

This leads to a high level of audience participation

What can the audience do during a show?

their reactions can dictate how the performance unfolds.

What kind of conflict can arise during a show?

Often, individual matches will be part of a longer storyline conflict between "babyfaces" (often shortened to just "faces") and "heels".

Which of the wrestlers are the bad guys?

"heels" (the "bad guys")


Most wrestling matches last for a set number of falls, with the first side to achieve the majority number of pinfalls, submissions, or countouts being the winner. Historically, matches were wrestled to 3 falls ("best 2 out of 3") or 5 falls ("best 3 out of 5"). The standard for modern matches is one fall. However, even though it is now standard, many announcers will explicitly state this (e.g. "The following contest is set for one fall with a 20-minute time limit"). These matches are given a time limit; if not enough falls are scored by the end of the time limit, the match is declared a draw. Modern matches are generally given a 10- to 30-minute time limit for standard matches; title matches can go for up to one hour. British wrestling matches held under Admiral-Lord Mountevans rules are 2 out of 3 falls.

Who wins in a wrestling match?

the first side to achieve the majority number of pinfalls, submissions, or countouts being the winner.

How could a wrestler win in the past?

Historically, matches were wrestled to 3 falls ("best 2 out of 3") or 5 falls ("best 3 out of 5").

How can a wrestler win in modern times?

The standard for modern matches is one fall.

In what instance will a match be declared a draw?

if not enough falls are scored by the end of the time limit, the match is declared a draw.

How long can a title match be?

title matches can go for up to one hour


In matches with multiple competitors, an elimination system may be used. Any wrestler who has a fall scored against them is forced out of the match, and the match continues until only one remains. However, it is much more common when more than two wrestlers are involved to simply go one fall, with the one scoring the fall, regardless of who they scored it against, being the winner. In championship matches, this means that, unlike one-on-one matches (where the champion can simply disqualify themselves or get themselves counted out to retain the title via the "champion's advantag"), the champion does not have to be pinned or involved in the decision to lose the championship. However, heel champions often find advantages, not in champion's advantage, but in the use of weapons and outside interference, as these poly-sided matches tend to involve no holds barred rules.

What happens when a wrestler has a fall against them?

is forced out of the match

What kind of rules does a poly-sided match usually have?

no holds barred rules

What usually happens when two or more wrestlers are involved?

to simply go one fall, with the one scoring the fall, regardless of who they scored it against, being the winner.

How can a champion lose a championship?

does not have to be pinned or involved in the decision to lose the championship.


Many modern specialty matches have been devised, with unique winning conditions. The most common of these is the ladder match. In the basic ladder match, the wrestlers or teams of wrestlers must climb a ladder to obtain a prize that is hoisted above the ring. The key to winning this match is that the wrestler or team of wrestlers must try to incapacitate each other long enough for one wrestler to climb the ladder and secure that prize for their team. As a result, the ladder can be used as a weapon. The prizes include – but are not limited to any given championship belt (the traditional prize), a document granting the winner the right to a future title shot, or any document that matters to the wrestlers involved in the match (such as one granting the winner a cash prize). Another common specialty match is known as the battle royal. In a battle royal, all the wrestlers enter the ring to the point that there are 20-30 wrestlers in the ring at one time. When the match begins, the simple objective is to throw the opponent over the top rope and out of the ring with both feet on the floor in order to eliminate that opponent. The last wrestler standing is declared the winner. A variant on this type of match is the WWE's Royal Rumble where two wrestlers enter the ring to start the match and other wrestlers follow in 90 second intervals (previously 2 minutes) until 30-40 wrestlers have entered the ring. All other rules stay the same. For more match types, see Professional wrestling match types.

What is the most common of the special matches?

The most common of these is the ladder match

What must the wrestlers do in a ladder match?

In the basic ladder match, the wrestlers or teams of wrestlers must climb a ladder to obtain a prize that is hoisted above the ring.

How does one win a ladder match?

the wrestler or team of wrestlers must try to incapacitate each other long enough for one wrestler to climb the ladder and secure that prize for their team.

What is a common prize in a ladder match?

championship belt

How many wrestlers are in a standard battle royal match?

20-30 wrestlers


Due to the legitimate role that referees play in wrestling of serving as liaison between the bookers backstage and the wrestlers in the ring (the role of being a final arbitrator is merely kayfabe), the referee is present, even in matches that do not at first glance appear to require a referee (such as a ladder match, as it is no holds barred, and the criteria for victory could theoretically be assessed from afar). Although their actions are also frequently scripted for dramatic effect, referees are subject to certain general rules and requirements in order to maintain the theatrical appearance of unbiased authority. The most basic rule is that an action must be seen by a referee to be declared for a fall or disqualification. This allows for heel characters to gain a scripted advantage by distracting or disabling the referee in order to perform some ostensibly illegal maneuver on their opponent. Most referees are unnamed and essentially anonymous, though the WWE has let their officials reveal their names.

What determines how the referee acts?

their actions are also frequently scripted for dramatic effect

What is a common rule about referees?

The most basic rule is that an action must be seen by a referee to be declared for a fall or disqualification.

What are referees called?

Most referees are unnamed and essentially anonymous, though the WWE has let their officials reveal their names.

How can a wrestler gain an advantage by using a referee?

distracting or disabling the referee in order to perform some ostensibly illegal maneuver on their opponent.


Special guest referees may be used from time to time; by virtue of their celebrity status, they are often scripted to dispense with the appearance of neutrality and use their influence to unfairly influence the outcome of the match for added dramatic impact. Face special referees will often fight back against hostile heel wrestlers, particularly if the special referee is either a wrestler themselves or a famous martial artist (such as Tito Ortiz in the main event at TNA's THard Justice in 2005). They also have the power to eject from ringside any of the heel wrestler's entourage/stable, who may otherwise interfere with the match.

What kind of referees are occasionally used?

Special guest referees may be used from time to time;

What are famous referees directed to do?

often scripted to dispense with the appearance of neutrality and use their influence to unfairly influence the outcome of the match for added dramatic impact. F

What do special referees have the ability to do?

They also have the power to eject from ringside any of the heel wrestler's entourage/stable, who may otherwise interfere with the match.


Matches are held within a wrestling ring, an elevated square canvas mat with posts on each corner. A cloth apron hangs over the edges of the ring. Three horizontal ropes or cables surround the ring, suspended with turnbuckles which are connected to the posts. For safety, the ropes are padded at the turnbuckles and cushioned mats surround the floor outside the ring. Guardrails or a similar barrier enclose this area from the audience. Wrestlers are generally expected to stay within the confines of the ring, though matches sometimes end up outside the ring, and even in the audience, to add excitement.

What material is within a wrestling ring?

an elevated square canvas mat with posts on each corner.

What is used for protection in the ring?

For safety, the ropes are padded at the turnbuckles and cushioned mats surround the floor outside the ring.

What is around the ring?

Three horizontal ropes or cables surround the ring,


In some team matches, only one entrant from each team may be designated as the "legal" or "active" wrestler at any given moment. Two wrestlers must make physical contact (typically palm-to-palm) in order to transfer this legal status. This is known as a "tag", with the participants "tagging out" and "tagging in". Typically the wrestler who is tagging out has a 5-second count to leave the ring, whereas the one tagging in can enter the ring at any time, resulting in heels legally double-teaming a face.

What does a "tag" entail?

Two wrestlers must make physical contact (typically palm-to-palm) in order to transfer this legal status.

What are two things that can be done with tagging?

"tagging out" and "tagging in".

How long does a wrestler have to leave the ring once they are tagged out?

has a 5-second count to leave the ring

How much time does a wrestler have once they tag in?

the one tagging in can enter the ring at any time, resulting in heels legally double-teaming a face.


Sometimes, poly-sided matches that pit every one for themselves will incorporate tagging rules. Outside of kayfabe, this is done to give wrestlers a break from the action (as these matches tend to go on for long periods of time), and to make the action in the ring easier to choreograph. One of the most mainstream examples of this is the four-corner match, the most common type of match in the WWE before it was replaced with its equivalent fatal four-way; four wrestlers, each for themselves, fight in a match, but only two wrestlers can be in the match at any given time. The other two are positioned in the corner, and tags can be made between any two wrestlers.

Why are tagging rules made?

this is done to give wrestlers a break from the action

What happens in a fatal four-way?

four wrestlers, each for themselves, fight in a match, but only two wrestlers can be in the match at any given time.

In a fatal four-way, who can make tags?

tags can be made between any two wrestlers.

What was the most common type of match before the fatal four-way?

four-corner match


A count may be started at any time that a wrestler's shoulders are down (both shoulders touching the mat), back-first and any part of the opponent's body is lying over the wrestler. This often results in pins that can easily be kicked out of, if the defensive wrestler is even slightly conscious. For example, an attacking wrestler who is half-conscious may simply drape an arm over an opponent, or a cocky wrestler may place their foot gently on the opponent's body, prompting a three-count from the referee.

At what point can a count be started?

any time that a wrestler's shoulders are down (both shoulders touching the mat), back-first and any part of the opponent's body is lying over the wrestler.

What can happen to an arrogant wrestler?

a cocky wrestler may place their foot gently on the opponent's body, prompting a three-count from the referee.

What might a partially conscious wrestler do?

wrestler who is half-conscious may simply drape an arm over an opponent


However, although almost any scenario where one wrestler is covering another prone, back-first wrestler can be considered a pin attempt, there is one important exception to that rule: Pin attempts broken up by other wrestlers. In matches involving multiple wrestlers (such as triple threat matches or tag team matches), wrestlers who see a pin attempt that, if successful, would result in them losing the match are expected to run in and break the pin attempt by performing some sort of offensive maneuver on the wrestler attempting the pin. The most common attacks for breaking pins are a stomp to the back and an elbow to the back of the head, as they are simple to pull off in the spur of the moment. However, these moves, simple as they are, still leave the pinning wrestler on top of the pinned wrestler. Despite the pinning wrestler still technically being on top of the pinned wrestler, the referee will still consider the pin attempt to be broken.

What happens during a pin attempt?

one wrestler is covering another prone, back-first wrestler can be considered a pin attempt

What is a common offensive move to break a pin attack?

a stomp to the back and an elbow to the back of the head

What can the referee consider a pin attempt to be, even if the attacker is still on top of the pinned wrester?

broken


Illegal pinning methods include using the ropes for leverage and hooking the opponent's clothing, which are therefore popular cheating methods for heels, unless certain stipulations make such an advantage legal. Such pins as these are rarely seen by the referee (as they have to see if their shoulders are down) and are subsequently often used by heels and on occasion by cheating faces to win matches. Even if it is noticed, it is rare for such an attempt to result in a disqualification (see below), and instead it simply results in nullification of the pin attempt, so the heel wrestler rarely has anything to lose for trying it, anyway.

What is a pinning method that isn't allowed?

using the ropes for leverage and hooking the opponent's clothing,

How often are illegal pinning methods seen by the referee?

Such pins as these are rarely seen by the referee

What are the illegal pinning methods called?

cheating

Can illegal pinning methods result in being disqualified?

it is rare for such an attempt to result in a disqualification

What happens with an illegal pinning move when it is seen by a referee?

results in nullification of the pin attempt,


A wrestler may voluntarily submit by verbally informing the referee (usually used in moves such as the Mexican Surfboard, where all four limbs are incapacitated, making tapping impossible). Also, since Ken Shamrock (a legitimate UFC competitor in its early days) popularized it in 1997, a wrestler can indicate a voluntary submission by "tapping out", that is, tapping a free hand against the mat or against an opponent. Occasionally, a wrestler will reach for a rope (see rope breaks below), only to put their hand back on the mat so they can crawl towards the rope some more; this is not a submission, and the referee decides what their intent is.

How can a wrestler willingly submit?

verbally informing the referee

What is the move called where all limbs are incapicitated?

Mexican Surfboard

What can a wrestler do to show a willing submission?

tapping out


Submission was initially a large factor in professional wrestling, but following the decline of the submission-oriented catch-as-catch-can style from mainstream professional wrestling, the submission largely faded until the rise of the legitimate sport of mixed martial arts. Despite this, some wrestlers, such as Chris Jericho, The Undertaker, Ric Flair, Bret Hart, Kurt Angle, Ken Shamrock, Dean Malenko, Chris Benoit, and Tazz, became famous for winning matches via submission. A wrestler with a signature submission technique is portrayed as better at applying the hold, making it more painful or more difficult to get out of than others who use it, or can be falsely credited as inventing the hold (such as when Tazz popularized the kata ha jime judo choke in pro wrestling as the "Tazzmission").

Several well-known wrestlers were famous for winning with a move called what?

submission

What move did Tazz make popular?

Tazzmission

What legitimate sport related to wrestling began to become popular?

mixed martial arts


Since all contact between the wrestlers must cease if any part of the body is touching, or underneath, the ropes, many wrestlers will attempt to break submission holds by deliberately grabbing the bottom ropes. This is called a "rope break", and it is one of the most common ways to break a submission hold. Most holds leave an arm or leg free, so that the person can tap out if they want. Instead, they use these free limbs to either grab one of the ring ropes (the bottom one is the most common, as it is nearest the wrestlers, though other ropes sometimes are used for standing holds such as Chris Masters' Master Lock) or drape their foot across, or underneath one. Once this has been accomplished, and the accomplishment is witnessed by the referee, the referee will demand that the offending wrestler break the hold, and start counting to five if the wrestler does not. If the referee reaches the count of five, and the wrestler still does not break the hold, they are disqualified.

Many holds will leave what body parts free?

an arm or leg

When must contact stop between wrestlers?

if any part of the body is touching, or underneath, the ropes,

How might a wrestler attempt to break a submission hold?

by deliberately grabbing the bottom ropes

How long does a wrestler have to get themselves free of the hold?

the count of five

What happens if the wrestler doesn't break a hold?

they are disqualified


A wrestler can win by knockout (sometimes referred to as a referee stoppage) if they do not resort to submission holds, but stills pummels their opponent to the point that they are unconscious or are unable to intelligently defend themselves. To check for a knockout in this manner, a referee will wave their hand in front of the wrestler's face; if the wrestler does not react in any way, the referee will award the victory to the other wrestler. If all the active wrestlers in a match are down inside the ring at the same time, the referee will begin a count (usually ten seconds, twenty in Japan). If nobody rises to their feet by the end of the count, the match is ruled a draw. Any participant who stands up in time will end the count for everyone else. In a Last Man Standing match, this form of a knockout is the only way that the match can end, so the referee will count when one or more wrestlers are down, and one wrestler standing up before the 10-count doesn't stop the count for another wrestler who is still down.

How does a referee check for a knockout?

a referee will wave their hand in front of the wrestler's face

What happens if all wrestlers are down?

If nobody rises to their feet by the end of the count, the match is ruled a draw.

If all wrestlers are down, how long do they have to rise?

usually ten seconds, twenty in Japan

What kind of match has to end in a knockout?

Last Man Standing

What is another name for a knockout?

referee stoppage


A referee may stop the match when they or official ring physician decides that a wrestler cannot safely continue the match. This may be decided if the wrestler cannot continue the match due to an injury. At the Great American Bash in 2008, Chris Jericho was declared the winner of a match against Shawn Michaels when Michaels could not defend himself due to excessive blood loss and impaired vision. At NXT TakeOver: Rival in 2015, the referee stopped the match when Sami Zayn could not defend himself due to an injury sustained against Kevin Owens for the NXT Championship.

In what case can a referee choose to end the match?

when they or official ring physician decides that a wrestler cannot safely continue the match

What is one reason that a wrestler may not be able to continue?

an injury

Why couldn't Shawn Michaels defend himself?

due to excessive blood loss and impaired vision

Where did Chris Jericho win in 2008?

Great American Bash


A countout (alternatively "count-out" or "count out") happens when a wrestler is out of the ring long enough for the referee to count to ten (twenty in some promotions) and thus disqualified. The count is broken and restarted when a wrestler in the ring exits the ring. Playing into this, some wrestlers will "milk" the count by sliding in the ring, and immediately sliding back out. As they were technically inside the ring for a split second before exiting again, it is sufficient to restart the count. This is often referred to by commentators as "breaking the count." Heels often use this tactic in order to buy themselves more time to catch their breath, or to attempt to frustrate their babyface opponents.

What are a couple other ways to write countout?

"count-out" or "count out"

What happens during a countout?

when a wrestler is out of the ring long enough for the referee to count to ten

What will some wrestlers do to take advantage of the countout?

sliding in the ring, and immediately sliding back out

What is the trick of sliding in and then back out of the ring called?

breaking the count.


Disqualification (sometimes abbreviated as "DQ") occurs when a wrestler violates the match's rules, thus losing automatically. Although a countout can technically be considered a disqualification (as it is, for all intents and purposes, an automatic loss suffered as a result of violating a match rule), the two concepts are often distinct in wrestling. A no disqualification match can still end by countout (although this is rare); typically, a match must be declared a "no holds barred" match, a "street fight" or some other term, in order for both disqualifications and countouts to be waived.[citation needed]

What else is disqualification called?

DQ

How can a wrestler be disqualified?

wrestler violates the match's rules, thus losing automatically

In what case can a countout and disqualification be done away with entirely?

must be declared a "no holds barred" match, a "street fight" or some other term


In practice, not all rule violations will result in a disqualification as the referee may use their own judgement and is not obligated to stop the match. Usually, the only offenses that the referee will see and immediately disqualify the match on (as opposed to having multiple offenses) are low blows, weapon usage, interference, or assaulting the referee. In WWE, a referee must see the violation with their own eyes to rule that the match end in a disqualification (simply watching the video tape is not usually enough) and the referee's ruling is almost always final, although Dusty finishes (named after, and made famous by, Dusty Rhodes) will often result in the referee's decision being overturned. It is not uncommon for the referees themselves to get knocked out during a match, which is commonly referred to by the term "ref bump". While the referee remains "unconscious", wrestlers are free to violate rules until the referee is revived or replaced. In some cases, a referee might disqualify a person under the presumption that it was that wrestler who knocked them out; most referee knockouts are arranged to allow a wrestler, usually a heel, to gain an advantage. For example, a wrestler may get whipped into a referee at a slower speed, knocking the ref down for short amount of time; during that interim period, one wrestler may pin their opponent for a three-count and would have won the match but for the referee being down (sometimes, another referee will sprint to the ring from backstage to attempt to make the count, but by then, the other wrestler has had enough time to kick-out on their own accord).

What are the usual reasons for an automatic disqualification?

low blows, weapon usage, interference, or assaulting the referee

What must the referee do to rule the match at an end via disqualification?

must see the violation with their own eyes

In what case can a referee's decision be overturned?

Dusty finishes

What is it called when a ref is knocked out?

ref bump

What can wrestlers do when a ref is out?

free to violate rules


A professional wrestling match can end in a draw. A draw occurs if both opponents are simultaneously disqualified (as via countout or if the referee loses complete control of the match and both opponents attack each other with no regard to being in a match, like Brock Lesnar vs. Undertaker at Unforgiven in 2002), neither opponent is able to answer a ten-count, or both opponents simultaneously win the match. The latter can occur if, for example, one opponent's shoulders touch the mat while maintaining a submission hold against another opponent. If the opponent in the hold begins to tap out at the same time a referee counts to three for pinning the opponent delivering the hold, both opponents have legally achieved scoring conditions simultaneously. Traditionally, a championship may not change hands in the event of a draw (though it may become vacant), though some promotions such as TNA have endorsed rules where the champion may lose a title by disqualification. A variant of the draw is the time-limit draw, where the match does not have a winner by a specified time period (a one-hour draw, which was once common, is known in wrestling circles as a "Broadway").

What is one way a match can end?

in a draw

What is one reason a draw can result?

if both opponents are simultaneously disqualified

What usually happens regarding a championship during a draw?

may not change hands in the event of a draw

What is another name for a one hour draw?

"Broadway"


A wrestling match may be declared a no contest if the winning conditions are unable to occur. This can be due to excessive interference, loss of referee's control over the match, one or more participants sustaining debilitating injury not caused by the opponent, or the inability of a scheduled match to even begin. A no contest is a state separate and distinct from a draw — a draw indicates winning conditions were met. Although the terms are sometimes used interchangeably in practice, this usage is technically incorrect.

What kind of injury can cause a no contest ruling?

debilitating

How is no contest related to a draw, if at all?

state separate and distinct from a draw

How can a referee's action result in a no contest?

loss of referee's control over the match


While each wrestling match is ostensibly a competition of athletics and strategy, the goal of each match from a business standpoint is to excite and entertain the audience. Although the competition is staged, dramatic emphasis can be utilized to draw out the most intense reaction from the audience. Heightened interest results in higher attendance rates, increased ticket sales, higher ratings on television broadcasts (which result in greater ad revenue), higher pay-per-view buyrates, and sales of branded merchandise and recorded video footage. All of these contribute to the profit of the promotion company.

What is the point of a match?

to excite and entertain the audience

Higher attendance and more ticket sales can be the result of what?

Heightened interest

Though the contest is staged, what can garner more interest from the crowd?

dramatic emphasis


In Latin America and English-speaking countries, most wrestlers (and other on-stage performers) portray character roles, sometimes with personalities wildly different from their own. These personalities are a gimmick intended to heighten interest in a wrestler without regard to athletic ability. Some can be unrealistic and cartoon-like (such as Doink the Clown), while others carry more verisimilitude and can be seen as exaggerated versions of the performer's real life personality (such as Chris Jericho, The Rock, John Cena, Stone Cold Steve Austin, and CM Punk). In lucha libre, many characters wear masks, adopting a secret identity akin to a superhero, a near-sacred tradition.

What do most wrestlers do, as far as how they act?

portray character roles

What is the name of one wrestler who acts like a cartoonish character?

Doink the Clown

The Rock's persona is seen as what?

exaggerated versions of the performer's real life personality

What is common apparel in lucha libre?

masks


An individual wrestler may sometimes use their real name, or a minor variation of it, for much of their career, such as Angelo Poffo, Ernie Ladd, Verne Gagne, Bret Hart, and Randy Orton. Others can keep one ring name for their entire career (cases in point include Chris Jericho, Shawn Michaels, CM Punk and Ricky Steamboat), or may change from time to time to better suit the demands of the audience or company. Sometimes a character is owned and trademarked by the company, forcing the wrestler to find a new one when they leave (although a simple typeset change, such as changing Rhyno to Rhino, can usually get around this), and sometimes a character is owned by the wrestler. Sometimes, a wrestler may change their legal name in order to obtain ownership of their ring name (examples include Andrew Martin and Warrior). Many wrestlers (such as The Rock and The Undertaker) are strongly identified with their character, even responding to the name in public or between friends. It's actually considered proper decorum for fellow wrestlers to refer to each other by their stage names/characters rather than their birth/legal names, unless otherwise introduced. A professional wrestling character's popularity can grow to the point that it makes appearances in other media (see Hulk Hogan and El Santo) or even give the performer enough visibility to enter politics (Antonio Inoki and Jesse Ventura, among others).

What is the popular way for wrestlers to refer to one another?

by their stage names/characters

Other than a company, who else can own a character?

the wrestler

How can a wrestler get around changing their ring name entirely?

typeset change

What else might a wrestler do to obtain their ring name?

change their legal name


Typically, matches are staged between a protagonist (historically an audience favorite, known as a babyface, or "the good guy") and an antagonist (historically a villain with arrogance, a tendency to break rules, or other unlikable qualities, called a heel). In recent years, however, antiheroes have also become prominent in professional wrestling. There is also a less common role of a "tweener", who is neither fully face nor fully heel yet able to play either role effectively (case in point, Samoa Joe during his first run in TNA from June 2005 to November 2006).

What are other names for a protagonist?

babyface, or "the good guy"

What will an antagonist usually do?

break rules

What is a wrestler whose persona is somewhere between the two norms called?

tweener

Who is generally the audience favorite?

protagonist


At times a character may "turn", altering their face/heel alignment. This may be an abrupt, surprising event, or it may slowly build up over time. It almost always is accomplished with a markable change in behavior on the part of the character. Some turns become defining points in a wrestler's career, as was the case when Hulk Hogan turned heel after being a top face for over a decade. Others may have no noticeable effect on the character's status. If a character repeatedly switches between being a face and heel, this lessens the effect of such turns, and may result in apathy from the audience. Vince McMahon is a good example of having more heel and face turns than anyone in WWE history.

What might a character do with their persona?

turn

What did Hulk Hogan become?

heel

Who has the most turns in the WWE?

Vince McMahon


As with personae in general, a character's face or heel alignment may change with time, or remain constant over its lifetime (the most famous example of the latter is Ricky Steamboat, a WWE Hall of Famer who remained a babyface throughout his entire career). Sometimes a character's heel turn will become so popular that eventually the audience response will alter the character's heel-face cycle to the point where the heel persona will, in practice, become a face persona, and what was previously the face persona, will turn into the heel persona, such as when Dwayne Johnson first began using "The Rock" persona as a heel character, as opposed to his original "Rocky Maivia" babyface persona. Another legendary example is Stone Cold Steve Austin, who was originally booked as a heel, with such mannerisms as drinking on the job, using profanity, breaking company property, and even breaking into people's private homes. However, much to WWF's surprise, the fans enjoyed Austin's antics so much that he became one of the greatest antiheroes in the history of the business. He, along with the stable of D-Generation X, is generally credited with ushering in the Attitude Era of WWF programming.

Who is a wrestler who never turned?

Ricky Steamboat

What did Stone Cold Steve Austin start as?

heel

What was The Rock's original character?

Rocky Maivia

What did Steve Austin become?

one of the greatest antiheroes


In some cases a wrestler may possess admirable physical traits but perceived mediocre public speaking abilities (such as Brock Lesnar), or their gimmick may be that of a "wild savage" needing a handler (such as Kamala). Such performers have historically employed a manager, who speaks on their behalf and adds to the performance. Managers have sometimes become major personalities, including Bobby Heenan, Paul Heyman, Ernie Roth, and Paul Bearer. A manager role may also be filled by a "valet", typically an appealing female who may participate in love triangle storylines, "damsel in distress" situations, and scripted fights with female wrestlers. Some of these have also gone on to become recognized stars, such as Tammy Lynn Sytch, Stacy Keibler, and Miss Elizabeth.

Who helps out a wrestler with poor speaking abilities?

manager

What sometimes happens with managers?

become major personalities

Who else can perform the manager role?

"valet

Who might participate in a love triangle story?

an appealing female


While true exhibition matches are not uncommon, most matches tell a story analogous to a scene in a play or film, or an episode of a serial drama: The face will sometimes win (triumph) or sometimes lose (tragedy). Longer story arcs can result from multiple matches over the course of time. Since most promotions have a championship title, competition for the championship is a common impetus for stories. Also, anything from a character's own hair to their job with the promotion can be wagered in a match. The same type of good vs. evil storylines were also once popular in roller derby.

What do most matches have?

a story analogous to a scene in a play or film, or an episode of a serial drama:

What is it called when the protagonist loses?

tragedy

What do they call it when a protagonist wins?

triumph

What can be wagered in a match?

from a character's own hair to their job with the promotion


Other stories result from a natural rivalry between two or more characters. Outside of performance, these are referred to as feuds. A feud can exist between any number of participants and can last for a few days up to multiple decades. The feud between Ric Flair and Ricky Steamboat lasted from the late 1970s into the early 1990s and allegedly spanned over two thousand matches (although most of those matches were mere dark matches). The career-spanning history between characters Mike Awesome and Masato Tanaka is another example of a long-running feud, as is the case of Stone Cold Steve Austin vs. Mr. McMahon, one of the most lucrative feuds in the World Wrestling Federation (WWF) during 1998 and 1999.

What are rivalries often called?

feuds

How long might a feud last?

a few days up to multiple decades

How long did the feud between Ric Flair and Ricky Steamboat last?

late 1970s into the early 1990s

What is an example of a popular feud?

Stone Cold Steve Austin vs. Mr. McMahon


Also, anything that can be used as an element of drama can exist in professional wrestling stories: romantic relationships (including love triangles and marriage), racism, classism, nepotism, favoritism, corporate corruption, family bonds, personal histories, grudges, theft, cheating, assault, betrayal, bribery, seduction, stalking, confidence tricks, extortion, blackmail, substance abuse, self-doubt, self-sacrifice; even kidnapping, sexual fetishism, necrophilia, misogyny, rape and death have been portrayed in wrestling. Some promotions have included supernatural elements such as magic, curses, the undead and Satanic imagery (most notably The Undertaker and his Ministry of Darkness, a stable that regularly performed evil rituals and human sacrifice in Satanic-like worship of a hidden power figure). Celebrities would also be involved in storylines.

What supernatural things have been portrayed in matches?

magic, curses, the undead and Satanic imagery

What can be used in a wrestling story?

anything that can be used as an element of drama

What romantic drama might be used in a story?

love triangles and marriage


Behind the scenes, the bookers in a company will place the title on the most accomplished performer, or those the bookers believe will generate fan interest in terms of event attendance and television viewership. Lower ranked titles may also be used on the performers who show potential, thus allowing them greater exposure to the audience. However other circumstances may also determine the use of a championship. A combination of a championship's lineage, the caliber of performers as champion, and the frequency and manner of title changes, dictates the audience's perception of the title's quality, significance and reputation.

What happens behind the scenes of a match?

bookers in a company will place the title on the most accomplished performer,

Who else do bookers focus on?

those the bookers believe will generate fan interest

Who might they use a lower ranked title on?

performers who show potential


A wrestler's championship accomplishments can be central to their career, becoming a measure of their performance ability and drawing power. In general, a wrestler with multiple title reigns or an extended title reign is indicative of a wrestler's ability to maintain audience interest and/or a wrestler's ability to perform in the ring. As such, the most accomplished or decorated wrestlers tend to be revered as legends despite the predetermined nature of title reigns. American wrestler Ric Flair has had multiple world heavyweight championship reigns spanning over three decades. Japanese wrestler Último Dragón once held and defended a record 10 titles simultaneously.

What does it show when a wrestler has many titles?

ability to maintain audience interest and/or a wrestler's ability to perform in the ring

What can be important in a wrestler's career?

championship accomplishments

What do those accomplishments indicate?

performance ability and drawing power

What has Ric Flair accomplished?

multiple world heavyweight championship reigns spanning over three decades

Who held 10 records at once?

Último Dragón


All notable wrestlers now enter the ring accompanied by music, and regularly add other elements to their entrance. The music played during the ring entrance will usually mirror the wrestler's personality. Many wrestlers, particularly in America, have music and lyrics specially written for their ring entrance. While invented long before, the practice of including music with the entrance gained rapid popularity during the 1980s, largely as a result of the huge success of Hulk Hogan and the WWF, and their Rock 'n' Wrestling Connection. When a match is won, the victor's theme music is usually also played in celebration.

What occurs when a wrestler enters the ring?

accompanied by music

What does the music playing indicate?

the wrestler's personality

What typically happens when a match is won?

victor's theme music is usually also played

What happens with many wrestlers?

have music and lyrics specially written for their ring entrance


The women's division of professional wrestling has maintained a recognized world champion since 1937, when Mildred Burke won the original World Women's title. She then formed the World Women's Wrestling Association in the early 1950s and recognized herself as the first champion, although the championship would be vacated upon her retirement in 1956. The NWA, however, ceased to acknowledge Burke as their Women's World champion in 1954, and instead acknowledged June Byers as champion after a controversial finish to a high-profile match between Burke and Byers that year. Upon Byers' retirement in 1964, The Fabulous Moolah, who won a junior heavyweight version of the NWA World Women's Championship (the predecessor to the WWE's Women's Championship) in a tournament back in 1958, was recognized by most NWA promoters as champion by default.

Who won the women's title in 1937?

Mildred Burke

What did Mildred Burke form?

Women's Wrestling Association

What year did June Byers retire?

What year did Mildred Burke retire?


In Japan, professional wrestling done by female wrestlers is called joshi puroresu (女子プロレス) or joshi puro for short. Female wrestling is usually handled by promotions that specialize in joshi puroresu rather than divisions of otherwise male-dominated promotions, as is the case in the United States. However, joshi puroresu promotions usually have agreements with male puroresu promotions such that they recognize each other's titles as legitimate, and may share cards. All Japan Women's Pro-Wrestling was the dominant joshi organization from the 1970s to the 1990s.

What is professional female wrestling called in Japan?

joshi puroresu

What is the short form for joshi puroresu?

joshi puro

What was the major joshi organization for two decades?

Japan Women's Pro-Wrestling


In the 1980s, mixed tag team matches began to take place, with a male and female on each team and a rule stating that each wrestler could only attack the opponent of the same gender. If a tag was made, the other team had to automatically switch their legal wrestler as well. Despite these restrictions, many mixed tag matches do feature some physical interaction between participants of different genders. For example, a heel may take a cheap shot at the female wrestler of the opposing team to draw a negative crowd reaction. In lucha libre, cheap-shots and male-female attacks are not uncommon.

What does a mixed tag team consist of?

a male and female on each team

When did mixed tag teams start?

What happened when a tag was made?

the other team had to automatically switch their legal wrestler as well

What isn't uncommon in lucha libre?

cheap-shots and male-female attacks


Intergender singles bouts were first fought on a national level in the 1990s. This began with Luna Vachon, who faced men in ECW and WWF. Later, Chyna became the first female to hold a belt that was not exclusive to women when she won the Intercontinental Championship. While it is a rare feat in WWE, in TNA, ODB participates in singles intergender matches. Also, ODB's kayfabe husband and tag team partner Eric Young held the Knockouts Tag Team Championship for a record 478 days before it was stripped by Brooke Hogan because Young was a male.

When were intergender singles bouts fought on a national scale?

Who was the first woman to hold a belt that wasn't exclusive to women?

Chyna

What was the record before it was stripped?

478 days

Who stripped the previous record?

Brooke Hogan


Some wrestlers may have their own specific "mini me", like Mascarita Sagrada, Alebrije has Quije, etc. There are also cases in which midgets can become valets for a wrestler, and even get physically involved in matches, like Alushe, who often accompanies Tinieblas, or KeMonito, who is portrayed as Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre's mascot and is also a valet for Mistico. Dave Finlay was often aided in his matches by a midget known mainly as Hornswoggle while in WWE, who hid under the ring and gave a shillelagh to Finlay to use on his opponent. Finlay also occasionally threw him at his opponent(s). Hornswoggle has also been given a run with the Cruiserweight Championship and feuded with D-Generation X in 2009.

A wrestler may have a small person called what?

mini me

What else can a little person do in the match?

become valets

Who was Dave Finlay often helped by?

Hornswoggle

What else did Finlay do with his little person?

occasionally threw him at his opponent(s

What happened to Hornswoggle?

given a run with the Cruiserweight Championship


Though they have not had the level of exposure as other wrestlers, bears have long been a part of professional wrestling. Usually declawed and muzzled, they often wrestled shoot matches against audience members, offered a cash reward if they could pin the bear. They also wrestled professionals in worked, often battle royal or handicap, matches (usually booked so the bear won). Though they have wrestled around the world and continue to do so, wrestling bears enjoyed their greatest popularity in the Southern United States, during the 1960s and 1970s. The practice of bear wrestling has met strong opposition from animal rights activists in recent decades, contributing to its lack of mainstream acceptance. As of 2006, it is banned in 20 U.S. states. Perhaps the most famous wrestling bears are Ginger, Victor, Hercules and Terrible Ted.

Who are the most well-known wrestling bears?

Ginger, Victor, Hercules and Terrible Ted

What animal has been a part of wrestling for a long time?

bears

What condition are bears usually brought in in?

declawed and muzzled

Who do the bears fight?

audience members

How many states have banned bear wrestling as of 2006?


Professional wrestling in the U.S. tends to have a heavy focus on story building and the establishment of characters (and their personalities). There is a story for each match, and even a longer story for successive matches. The stories usually contain characters like faces and heels, and less often antiheroes and tweeners. It is a "triumph" if the face wins, while it is a "tragedy" if the heel wins. The characters usually have strong and sharp personalities, with examples like Doink the Clown, whose personality is melodramatic, slapstick and fantastical. The opposition between faces and heels is very intense in the story, and the heels may even attack the faces during TV interviews. The relationship between different characters can also be very complex.

What does every match have?

a story

Who is usually included in stories?

characters like faces and heels

What are the possibly outcomes of a story?

It is a "triumph" if the face wins, while it is a "tragedy" if the heel wins.

What is Doink the Clown's persona like?

melodramatic, slapstick and fantastical

What might happen during interviews?

heels may even attack the faces


Although professional wrestling in Mexico (lucha libre) also has stories and characters, they are less emphasized. Wrestlers in Mexico are traditionally more agile and perform more aerial maneuvers than professional wrestlers in the U.S. who, more often, rely on power moves and strikes to subdue their opponents. The difference in styles is due to the independent evolution of the sport in Mexico beginning in the 1930s and the fact that wrestlers in the cruiserweight division (peso semicompleto) are often the most popular wrestlers in Mexican lucha libre. Wrestlers often execute high flying moves characteristic of lucha libre by utilizing the wrestling ring's ropes to catapult themselves towards their opponents, using intricate combinations in rapid-fire succession, and applying complex submission holds. Lucha libre is also known for its tag team wrestling matches, in which the teams are often made up of three members, instead of two as is common in the U.S.

How do characters differ in Mexican wrestling?

they are less emphasized

How are Mexican wrestlers different?

more agile and perform more aerial maneuvers

What do American wrestlers depend on?

rely on power moves and strikes to subdue their opponents

What else is lucha libre known for?

tag team wrestling matches

How does lucha libre's tag team matches differ?

often made up of three members, instead of two as is common in the U.S


The style of Japanese professional wrestling (puroresu) is again different. With its origins in traditional American style of wrestling and still being under the same genre, it has become an entity in itself. Despite the similarity to its American counterpart in that the outcome of the matches remains predetermined, the phenomena are different in the form of the psychology and presentation of the sport; it is treated as a full contact combat sport as it mixes hard hitting martial arts strikes with shoot style submission holds, while in the U.S. it is rather more regarded as an entertainment show. Wrestlers incorporate kicks and strikes from martial arts disciplines, and a strong emphasis is placed on submission wrestling, and unlike the use of involved storylines in the U.S., they are not as intricate in Japan, more emphasis is placed on the concept of Fighting Spirit, meaning the Wrestlers display of physical and mental stamina are valued a lot more than theatrics. Many of Japan's wrestlers including top stars such as Shinya Hashimoto, Riki Choshu and Keiji Mutoh came from a legitimate martial arts background and many Japanese wrestlers in the 1990s began to pursue careers in mixed martial arts organizations such as Pancrase and Shooto which at the time retained the original look of puroresu, but were actual competitions.

How is Japanese wrestling similar to American?

outcome of the matches remains predetermined

How does Japanese wrestling differ?

the form of the psychology and presentation of the sport

What does Japanese wrestling combine?

hard hitting martial arts strikes with shoot style submission holds

What is the emphasis placed on in Japanese wrestling?

Fighting Spirit

What is a common background for a Japanese wrestler?

legitimate martial arts


Those involved in producing professional wrestling have developed a kind of global fraternity, with familial bonds, shared language and passed-down traditions. New performers are expected to "pay their dues" for a few years by working in lower-profile promotions and working as ring crew before working their way upward. The permanent rosters of most promotions develop a backstage pecking order, with veterans mediating conflicts and mentoring younger wrestlers. For many decades (and still to a lesser extent today), performers were expected to keep the illusions of wrestling's legitimacy alive even while not performing, essentially acting in character any time they were in public. Some veterans speak of a "sickness" among wrestling performers, an inexplicable pull to remain active in the wrestling world despite the devastating effects the job can have on one's life and health.

What is expected of newcomers?

to "pay their dues" for a few years by working in lower-profile promotions

What were wrestlers expected to do for decades?

keep the illusions of wrestling's legitimacy alive

How did wrestlers have to act in public?

acting in character

What effects can wrestling have on the wrestlers?

devastating effects the job can have on one's life and health


Fans of professional wrestling have their own subculture, comparable to those of science fiction, video games, or comic books (in some cases, the "fandoms" overlap; in recent years, some professional wrestlers, particularly those who nurture an anti-establishment rebel persona, such as CM Punk, have made guest appearances at comic book conventions). Those who are interested in the backstage occurrences, future storylines, and reasonings behind company decisions read newsletters written by journalists with inside ties to the wrestling industry. These "rags" or "dirt sheets" have expanded into the Internet, where their information can be dispensed on an up-to-the-minute basis. Some have expanded into radio shows.

What do the fans have?

their own subculture

What sometimes happens with fandoms?

overlap

Where have some wrestlers appeared?

comic book conventions


Some fans enjoy a pastime of collecting tapes of wrestling shows from specific companies, of certain wrestlers, or of specific genres. The Internet has given fans exposure to worldwide variations of wrestling they would be unable to see otherwise. Since the 1990s, many companies have been founded which deal primarily in wrestling footage. When the WWF purchased both WCW and ECW in 2001, they also obtained the entire past video libraries of both productions and have released many past matches online and on home video.

What do some fans like to do?

collecting tapes of wrestling shows

What has the internet done for wrestling fans?

exposure to worldwide variations of wrestling

Many companies who handle wrestling footage have been founded since what decade?

What companies did WWF purchase in 2001?

WCW and ECW


From the first established world championship, the top professional wrestlers have garnered fame within mainstream society. Each successive generation has produced a number of wrestlers who extend their careers into the realms of music, acting, writing, business, politics or public speaking, and are known to those who are unfamiliar with wrestling in general. Conversely, celebrities from other sports or general pop culture also become involved with wrestling for brief periods of time. A prime example of this is The Rock 'n' Wrestling Connection of the 1980s, which combined wrestling with MTV.

What kind of notoriety have wrestlers achieved?

fame within mainstream society

What did the Rock 'n' Wrestling Connection do?

combined wrestling with MTV

What are some other career paths wrestlers embarked on?

music, acting, writing, business, politics or public speaking


Many television shows and films have been produced which portray in-character professional wrestlers as protagonists, such as Ready to Rumble, ¡Mucha Lucha!, Nacho Libre, and the Santo film series. In the wildly popular Rocky series of films about the fictional boxer Rocky Balboa, Rocky III saw its hero fighting a "boxer vs. wrestler" exhibition match against the enormous and villainous wrestler "Thunderlips", portrayed by real-life soon-to-be wrestling icon Hulk Hogan. At least two stage plays set in the world of pro wrestling have been produced: The Baron is a comedy that retells the life of an actual performer known as Baron von Raschke. From Parts Unknown... is an award-nominated Canadian drama about the rise and fall of a fictional wrestler. The 2009 South Park episode "W.T.F." played on the soap operatic elements of professional wrestling. One of the lead characters on the Disney Channel series Kim Possible was a huge fan of pro wrestling and actually featured it on an episode (with two former WWE wrestlers voicing the two fictitious wrestlers featured in the episode). The 2008 film The Wrestler, about a washed-up professional wrestler, garnered several Oscar nominations.

Name a popular series of boxing films?

Rocky series

Who is the movie The Baron about?

Baron von Raschke

What episode of South Park dealt with wrestling?

"W.T.F."

What critically acclaimed wrestling film came out in 2008?

The Wrestler

Many of what forms of entertainment have portrayed wrestlers?

television shows and films


With its growing popularity, professional wrestling has attracted attention as a subject of serious academic study and journalistic criticism. Many courses, theses, essays, and dissertations have analyzed wrestling's conventions, content, and its role in modern society. It is often included as part of studies on theatre, sociology, performance, and media. The Massachusetts Institute of Technology developed a course of study on the cultural significance of professional wrestling, and anthropologist Heather Levi has written an ethnography about the culture of lucha libre in Mexico.

What other areas has wrestling garnered interest from?

academic study and journalistic criticism

What areas of study is wrestling talked about in?

theatre, sociology, performance, and media

What did Heather Levi write?

an ethnography about the culture of lucha libre

What college has a course about the cultural impact of wrestling?

Massachusetts Institute of Technology


However, this was not always the case; in the early 20th century, once it became apparent that the "sport" was worked, pro wrestling was looked down on as a cheap entertainment for the uneducated working class — an attitude that still exists to varying degrees today. The French theorist Roland Barthes was among the first to propose that wrestling was worthy of deeper analysis, in his essay "The World of Wrestling" from his book Mythologies, first published in 1957. Barthes argued that it should be looked at not as a scamming of the ignorant, but as spectacle; a mode of theatric performance for a willing, if bloodthirsty, audience. Wrestling is described as performed art which demands an immediate reading of the juxtaposed meanings. The logical conclusion is given least importance over the theatrical performers of the wrestlers and the referee. According to Barthes, the function of a wrestler is not to win: it is to go exactly through the motions which are expected of them and to give the audience a theatrical spectacle. This work is considered a foundation of all later study.

What impact did the revelation of wrestling being "fixed" have?

looked down on as a cheap entertainment for the uneducated working class

When was Roland Barthes book published?

What did Barthes believe a wrestler give the audience?

a theatrical spectacle

What was the name of Roland Barthes' essay?

"The World of Wrestling"


While pro wrestling is often described simplistically as a "soap opera for males", it has also been cited as filling the role of past forms of literature and theatre; a synthesis of classical heroics, commedia dell'arte, revenge tragedies, morality plays, and burlesque. The characters and storylines portrayed by a successful promotion are seen to reflect the current mood, attitudes, and concerns of that promotion's society (and can, in turn, influence those same things). Wrestling's high levels of violence and masculinity make it a vicarious outlet for aggression during peacetime.

What is wrestling sometimes called?

"soap opera for males"

What is wrestling to people during a peaceful time?

vicarious outlet for aggression

What role does wrestling fill?

past forms of literature and theatre;


Documentary filmmakers have studied the lives of wrestlers and the effects the profession has on them and their families. The 1999 theatrical documentary Beyond the Mat focused on Terry Funk, a wrestler nearing retirement; Mick Foley, a wrestler within his prime; Jake Roberts, a former star fallen from grace; and a school of wrestling student trying to break into the business. The 2005 release Lipstick and Dynamite, Piss and Vinegar: The First Ladies of Wrestling chronicled the development of women's wrestling throughout the 20th century. Pro wrestling has been featured several times on HBO's Real Sports with Bryant Gumbel. MTV's documentary series True Life featured two episodes titled "I'm a Professional Wrestler" and "I Want to Be a Professional Wrestler". Other documentaries have been produced by The Learning Channel (The Secret World of Professional Wrestling) and A&E (Hitman Hart: Wrestling with Shadows). Bloodstained Memoirs explored the careers of several pro wrestlers, including Chris Jericho, Rob Van Dam and Roddy Piper.

Who has studied the lives of wrestlers?

Documentary filmmakers

When did Beyond the Mat come out?

Who hosts Real Sports?

Bryant Gumbel

Who are a few wrestlers who have had memoirs written about them?

Chris Jericho, Rob Van Dam and Roddy Piper


Although professional wrestling is worked, there is a high chance of injury, and even death. Strikes are often stiff, especially in Japan and in independent wrestling promotions such as Combat Zone Wrestling (CZW) and Ring of Honor (ROH). The ring is often made out of 2 by 8 timber planks. Many of the injuries that occur in pro wrestling are shoulders, knee, back, neck, and rib injuries. Chronic traumatic encephalopathy and traumatic brain injuries have also been linked to pro wrestling, including in the double-murder suicide case involving Chris Benoit. Professional wrestler Davey Richards said in 2015, "We train to take damage, we know we are going to take damage and we accept that".

What are the risks of wrestling?

high chance of injury, and even death

What is the ring commonly made of?

2 by 8 timber planks

What are common injuries in wrestling?

shoulders, knee, back, neck, and rib injuries

What other injuries have been connected with wrestling?

Chronic traumatic encephalopathy and traumatic brain injuries

Chris Benoit was involved in what tragic event?

double-murder suicide case


Relatively insensitive film, with a correspondingly lower speed index, requires more exposure to light to produce the same image density as a more sensitive film, and is thus commonly termed a slow film. Highly sensitive films are correspondingly termed fast films. In both digital and film photography, the reduction of exposure corresponding to use of higher sensitivities generally leads to reduced image quality (via coarser film grain or higher image noise of other types). In short, the higher the sensitivity, the grainier the image will be. Ultimately sensitivity is limited by the quantum efficiency of the film or sensor.

What does the film's quantum efficiency limit?

sensitivity

What speed of film is produced by insensitive film?

slow film

What leads to lower quality images?

reduction of exposure

What types of film are considered fast films?

Highly sensitive films

What effect does highly sensitive film have on images?

reduced image quality

What does insensitive film with a faster speed index need?

I'm not sure.

What does a sensitive film more of?

I'm not sure.

How is digital photography different from film?

I'm not sure.

Higher sensitivity leads to greater what?

I'm not sure.

What does a grainier image limit?

I'm not sure.


The Warnerke Standard Sensitometer consisted of a frame holding an opaque screen with an array of typically 25 numbered, gradually pigmented squares brought into contact with the photographic plate during a timed test exposure under a phosphorescent tablet excited before by the light of a burning Magnesium ribbon. The speed of the emulsion was then expressed in 'degrees' Warnerke (sometimes seen as Warn. or °W.) corresponding with the last number visible on the exposed plate after development and fixation. Each number represented an increase of 1/3 in speed, typical plate speeds were between 10° and 25° Warnerke at the time.

What consists of 25 pigmented squares touching a plate below a phosphorescent tablet under the light of a burning Magnesium ribbon?

The Warnerke Standard Sensitometer

What do degrees Warnerke measure?

The speed of the emulsion

How much speed is associated with each degree Warnerke?

an increase of 1/3 in speed

What were usual ranges of Warnerke speeds?

between 10° and 25° Warnerke

What does the last exposed number on the plate represent?

'degrees' Warnerke

The Warnerke Standard Sensitometer has 25 opaque what?

I'm not sure.

What measures the number of pigmented squares on the photographic plate?

I'm not sure.

Degrees Warneke represented the first what?

I'm not sure.

What was the range of the number of squares in a Sensitometer?

I'm not sure.

Each number represented a decrease of what?

I'm not sure.


The Scheinergrade (Sch.) system was devised by the German astronomer Julius Scheiner (1858–1913) in 1894 originally as a method of comparing the speeds of plates used for astronomical photography. Scheiner's system rated the speed of a plate by the least exposure to produce a visible darkening upon development. Speed was expressed in degrees Scheiner, originally ranging from 1° Sch. to 20° Sch., where an increment of 19° Sch. corresponded to a hundredfold increase in sensitivity, which meant that an increment of 3° Sch. came close to a doubling of sensitivity.

Who created the Scheinergrade system?

the German astronomer Julius Scheiner

What is the Scheinergrade system used for?

comparing the speeds of plates used for astronomical photography

What do degrees Scheiner indicate?

the speed of a plate

What is the range of Scheiner speeds?

from 1° Sch. to 20° Sch

Approximately how many degrees indicate double the sensitivity?

an increment of 3° Sch

What was the second use of the Scheinergrade system?

I'm not sure.

What did an increment of 1 degree Sch. correspond to?

I'm not sure.

What was 20 degrees Sch. indicative of?

I'm not sure.

What measured the visible darkening of a developing photograph?

I'm not sure.

When did the Scheinergrade system become outdated?

I'm not sure.


The system was later extended to cover larger ranges and some of its practical shortcomings were addressed by the Austrian scientist Josef Maria Eder (1855–1944) and Flemish-born botanist Walter Hecht (de) (1896–1960), (who, in 1919/1920, jointly developed their Eder–Hecht neutral wedge sensitometer measuring emulsion speeds in Eder–Hecht grades). Still, it remained difficult for manufactures to reliably determine film speeds, often only by comparing with competing products, so that an increasing number of modified semi-Scheiner-based systems started to spread, which no longer followed Scheiner's original procedures and thereby defeated the idea of comparability.

Who developed a device that improved on the shortcomings of Scheiner's invention?

Austrian scientist Josef Maria Eder (1855–1944) and Flemish-born botanist Walter Hecht (de)

What did the Eder-Hecht device measure?

emulsion speeds

What method did manufacturers use much of the time to compare film speeds?

comparing with competing products

What type of measurement methods began to proliferate?

modified semi-Scheiner-based systems

What eliminated comparability?

modified semi-Scheiner-based systems

Who caused the shortcomings in the Scheiner invention?

I'm not sure.

What device allowed manufacturers to reliably determine speed?

I'm not sure.

What was revised to a measure a tighter range?

I'm not sure.

What made comparability a more common option?

I'm not sure.

What scientist suggested comparing the systems?

I'm not sure.


The DIN system, officially DIN standard 4512 by Deutsches Institut für Normung (but still named Deutscher Normenausschuß (DNA) at this time), was published in January 1934. It grew out of drafts for a standardized method of sensitometry put forward by Deutscher Normenausschuß für Phototechnik as proposed by the committee for sensitometry of the Deutsche Gesellschaft für photographische Forschung since 1930 and presented by Robert Luther (de) (1868–1945) and Emanuel Goldberg (1881–1970) at the influential VIII. International Congress of Photography (German: Internationaler Kongreß für wissenschaftliche und angewandte Photographie) held in Dresden from August 3 to 8, 1931.

When was the DIN system established?

January 1934

Who created the DIN system?

Deutsches Institut für Normung

What was proposed at the VIII International Congress of Photography?

a standardized method of sensitometry

Who presented the idea that grew into the DIN?

Robert Luther (de) (1868–1945) and Emanuel Goldberg (1881–1970)

Where was the VIII International Congress of Photography held?

Dresden

When were the drafts by Deutscher Normenausschuß für Phototechnik made?

I'm not sure.

What was the abbreviation for the Deutscher Normenausschuß für Phototechnik drafts?

I'm not sure.

When was Deutsche Gesellschaft für photographische Forschung founded?

I'm not sure.

Where was Emanuel Goldberg from?

I'm not sure.

Who founded the VIII. International Congress of Photography?

I'm not sure.


As in the Scheiner system, speeds were expressed in 'degrees'. Originally the sensitivity was written as a fraction with 'tenths' (for example "18/10° DIN"), where the resultant value 1.8 represented the relative base 10 logarithm of the speed. 'Tenths' were later abandoned with DIN 4512:1957-11, and the example above would be written as "18° DIN". The degree symbol was finally dropped with DIN 4512:1961-10. This revision also saw significant changes in the definition of film speeds in order to accommodate then-recent changes in the American ASA PH2.5-1960 standard, so that film speeds of black-and-white negative film effectively would become doubled, that is, a film previously marked as "18° DIN" would now be labeled as "21 DIN" without emulsion changes.

What unit was used in the DIN to express speeds?

degrees

How was sensitivity expressed at first in the DIN system?

as a fraction with 'tenths' (for example "18/10° DIN")

When did the degree symbol fall out of use in the DIN system?

with DIN 4512:1961-10

Why did the definition of film speeds change considerably?

to accommodate then-recent changes in the American ASA PH2.5-1960 standard

What happened to film speeds of black-and-white negative film?

would become doubled

What replaced the American ASA PH2.5-1960 standard?

I'm not sure.

What system reintroduced the degree symbol?

I'm not sure.

What American standard abandoned the tenths method?

I'm not sure.

With emulsion changes, what did 18° DIN become?

I'm not sure.

What happened to film speeds after the introduction of the DIN 4512:1957-11?

I'm not sure.


On an international level the German DIN 4512 system has been effectively superseded in the 1980s by ISO 6:1974, ISO 2240:1982, and ISO 5800:1979 where the same sensitivity is written in linear and logarithmic form as "ISO 100/21°" (now again with degree symbol). These ISO standards were subsequently adopted by DIN as well. Finally, the latest DIN 4512 revisions were replaced by corresponding ISO standards, DIN 4512-1:1993-05 by DIN ISO 6:1996-02 in September 2000, DIN 4512-4:1985-08 by DIN ISO 2240:1998-06 and DIN 4512-5:1990-11 by DIN ISO 5800:1998-06 both in July 2002.

What took the place of the German DIN 4512 system?

ISO 6:1974, ISO 2240:1982, and ISO 5800:1979

How is sensitivity shown in the ISO systems?

in linear and logarithmic form as "ISO 100/21°"

What standards did the DIN begin to use?

ISO standards

When were the ISO standards first adopted?

in the 1980s

When were the last ISO standards adopted?

July 2002

What did the German DIN 4512 supersede?

I'm not sure.

What German system wrote in a linear and logarithmic form?

I'm not sure.

What standards did DIN abandon?

I'm not sure.

When did the ISO adopt the DIN standards?

I'm not sure.

When did DIN 4512-5:1990-11 replace DIN ISO 5800:1998-06?

I'm not sure.


Before the advent of the ASA system, the system of Weston film speed ratings was introduced by Edward Faraday Weston (1878–1971) and his father Dr. Edward Weston (1850–1936), a British-born electrical engineer, industrialist and founder of the US-based Weston Electrical Instrument Corporation, with the Weston model 617, one of the earliest photo-electric exposure meters, in August 1932. The meter and film rating system were invented by William Nelson Goodwin, Jr., who worked for them and later received a Howard N. Potts Medal for his contributions to engineering.

What system was used previous to the ASA system?

the system of Weston film speed ratings

Who devised the Weston film speed ratings?

Edward Faraday Weston (1878–1971) and his father Dr. Edward Weston (1850–1936)

What company did Dr. Edward Weston start?

the US-based Weston Electrical Instrument Corporation

When was the Weston model 617 created?

August 1932

Who is credited with creating the film and meter system?

William Nelson Goodwin, Jr.

Who introduced the ASA system?

I'm not sure.

When was the ASA system introduced?

I'm not sure.

When was William Nelson Goodwin Jr. born?

I'm not sure.

What medal did Edward Faraday Weston win?

I'm not sure.

What did Howard N. Potts invent in 1932?

I'm not sure.