In contrast to this viewpoint, an article and associated editorial in the New England Journal of Medicine in May 2015 emphasized the importance of pharmaceutical industry-physician interactions for the development of novel treatments, and argued that moral outrage over industry malfeasance had unjustifiably led many to overemphasize the problems created by financial conflicts of interest. The article noted that major healthcare organizations such as National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences of the National Institutes of Health, the President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology, the World Economic Forum, the Gates Foundation, the Wellcome Trust, and the Food and Drug Administration had encouraged greater interactions between physicians and industry in order to bring greater benefits to patients.

Who were some of the companies that encouraged the interactions between doctors and the pharmaceutical industry?

World Economic Forum, the Gates Foundation, the Wellcome Trust, and the Food and Drug Administration

When did the article come out about the importance of interactions?

May 2015

What was the reason behind these interactions?

bring greater benefits to patients

What was believed to have created a financial conflict of interest?

moral outrage over industry malfeasance

Who printed the article about the importance of interactions?

New England Journal of Medicine

What publication had an article about the importance of pharmaceutical industry-physician interactions in 2015?

New England Journal of Medicine

When was the editorial published?

May 2015

Did major healthcare organizations support or discourage interactions between doctors and industries?

encouraged greater interactions

Who were some of the companies that encouraged the interactions between doctors and the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences of the National Institutes of Health?

I'm not sure.

When did the article come out about the importance of doctors?

I'm not sure.

What was the reason behind these conflicts?

I'm not sure.

What was believed to have created physician interactions?

I'm not sure.

Who printed the article about the importance of malfeasance?

I'm not sure.


An investigation by ProPublica found that at least 21 doctors have been paid more than $500,000 for speeches and consulting by drugs manufacturers since 2009, with half of the top earners working in psychiatry, and about $2 billion in total paid to doctors for such services. AstraZeneca, Johnson & Johnson and Eli Lilly have paid billions of dollars in federal settlements over allegations that they paid doctors to promote drugs for unapproved uses. Some prominent medical schools have since tightened rules on faculty acceptance of such payments by drug companies.

Who conduced an investigation on doctors?

ProPublica

Billions of dollars have been paid by which companies?

AstraZeneca, Johnson & Johnson and Eli Lilly

How much was discovered to have been paid to doctors by drug companies?

more than $500,000

What was the reason these companies have to pay fines?

allegations that they paid doctors to promote drugs for unapproved uses

How many doctors have been paid by varies companies?

at least 21

A ProPublica study found that some doctors were being paid how much money for speeches?

more than $500,000

Half of the top earners were mostly in what field?

psychiatry

Drug manufacturers paid off doctors a total of how much money?

$2 billion

Who conducted an investigation on drugs?

I'm not sure.

Billions of drugs have been paid why which companies?

I'm not sure.

How much was discovered to have been paid to drug companies by doctors?

I'm not sure.

What was the reason these doctors have to pay fines?

I'm not sure.

How many companies have been paid by various doctors?

I'm not sure.


Often, large multinational corporations exhibit vertical integration, participating in a broad range of drug discovery and development, manufacturing and quality control, marketing, sales, and distribution. Smaller organizations, on the other hand, often focus on a specific aspect such as discovering drug candidates or developing formulations. Often, collaborative agreements between research organizations and large pharmaceutical companies are formed to explore the potential of new drug substances. More recently, multi-nationals are increasingly relying on contract research organizations to manage drug development.

Why are collaborative agreements important?

to explore the potential of new drug substances

How do large corporations show vertical integration?

participating in a broad range of drug discovery and development, manufacturing and quality control, marketing, sales, and distribution

What are large companies relying on outside organizations for?

to manage drug development

What are smaller organizations responsible for?

focus on a specific aspect such as discovering drug candidates or developing formulations

What type of integration do large corporations often do?

vertical

What type of integration do smaller organizations do?

a specific aspect

What type of agreements are made to research potential new drugs?

collaborative agreements

What type of organizations are multinational corporations increasingly rely on?

contract research

Why is collaborative distribution important?

I'm not sure.

How do large corporations show multi-nationals integration?

I'm not sure.

What are large companies relying on outside marketing for?

I'm not sure.

What are smaller drugs responsible for?

I'm not sure.

What type of integration do large drugs often do?

I'm not sure.


In the UK, the Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency approves drugs for use, though the evaluation is done by the European Medicines Agency, an agency of the European Union based in London. Normally an approval in the UK and other European countries comes later than one in the USA. Then it is the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE), for England and Wales, who decides if and how the National Health Service (NHS) will allow (in the sense of paying for) their use. The British National Formulary is the core guide for pharmacists and clinicians.

Who is the core guide?

The British National Formulary

Who is responsible for approving drugs in the United Kingdom?

Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency

After an approval in the United States, when does an approval occur in the United Kingdom and other countries?

comes later

Who decides how NHS will allow drugs?

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE)

Who does the evaluations for drugs in the United Kingdom?

European Medicines Agency

What UK firm approves pharmaceutical drugs?

Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency

What UK organization evaluates drugs?

European Medicines Agency

What firm in England and Wales decides if the NHS allows drugs?

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence

What is the name of the core guide for pharmacists and clinicians?

British National Formulary

Who is the core clinician?

I'm not sure.

Who is responsible for approving drugs in the NHS?

I'm not sure.

After an approval in the UK, when does an approval occur in the NHS and other countries?

I'm not sure.

Who decides how the USA will allow drugs?

I'm not sure.

Who does the evaluations for drugs in the United States?

I'm not sure.


There are special rules for certain rare diseases ("orphan diseases") in several major drug regulatory territories. For example, diseases involving fewer than 200,000 patients in the United States, or larger populations in certain circumstances are subject to the Orphan Drug Act.  Because medical research and development of drugs to treat such diseases is financially disadvantageous, companies that do so are rewarded with tax reductions, fee waivers, and market exclusivity on that drug for a limited time (seven years), regardless of whether the drug is protected by patents.

What is subject to the Orphan Drug Act?

diseases involving fewer than 200,000 patients in the United States, or larger populations in certain circumstances

What is given to companies who develop drugs for "orphan diseases"?

tax reductions, fee waivers, and market exclusivity on that drug for a limited time (seven years), regardless of whether the drug is protected by patents

Why are these companies rewarded?

Because medical research and development of drugs to treat such diseases is financially disadvantageous

What is a term for rare diseases in some territories?

orphan diseases

What size of disease populations are subject to the Orphan Drug Act?

fewer than 200,000 patients

What is one financial benefit to researching orphan drugs?

tax reductions

What is the length of time of market exclusivity of an orphan drug?

seven years

What is subject to patients in the United States?

I'm not sure.

What is given to companies who develop rules for "orphan diseases"?

I'm not sure.

Why are these rules rewarded?

I'm not sure.

What is a term for rare rules in some territories?

I'm not sure.

What size of disease populations are subject to patents?

I'm not sure.


Ben Goldacre has argued that regulators – such as the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) in the UK, or the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the United States – advance the interests of the drug companies rather than the interests of the public due to revolving door exchange of employees between the regulator and the companies and friendships develop between regulator and company employees. He argues that regulators do not require that new drugs offer an improvement over what is already available, or even that they be particularly effective.

Who argued against regulators?

Ben Goldacre

Who argued that drug regulators were greater serving the interests of the drug companies than the patients?

Ben Goldacre

The business friendships between which parties have been criticized?

regulator and company employees

Goldacre argued that which party didn't require that new drugs be improved at all?

regulators

Who argued against the public?

I'm not sure.

Who argued that drug regulators were greater serving the interests of patients than the drug companies?

I'm not sure.

The business friendships between which parties have been praised?

I'm not sure.

The FDA argued that which party didn't require that new drugs be improved at all?

I'm not sure.

Who argues that regulators do not require that new regulators offer an improvement?

I'm not sure.


In many non-US western countries a 'fourth hurdle' of cost effectiveness analysis has developed before new technologies can be provided. This focuses on the efficiency (in terms of the cost per QALY) of the technologies in question rather than their efficacy. In England and Wales NICE decides whether and in what circumstances drugs and technologies will be made available by the NHS, whilst similar arrangements exist with the Scottish Medicines Consortium in Scotland, and the Pharmaceutical Benefits Advisory Committee in Australia. A product must pass the threshold for cost-effectiveness if it is to be approved. Treatments must represent 'value for money' and a net benefit to society.

NICE decides the availability of drugs in which two countries?

England and Wales

What is the name of the organization in Scotland that decides the availability of drugs?

Scottish Medicines Consortium

What threshold must a drug pass before it is approved?

cost-effectiveness

QALY decides the availability of drugs in which two countries?

I'm not sure.

What is the name of the organization in Wales that decides the availability of drugs?

I'm not sure.

What threshold must a Wales pass before it is approved?

I'm not sure.

Where does QALY decide whether decide in what circumstances drugs and technologies will be made available?

I'm not sure.

What must the NHS do in order to be approved?

I'm not sure.


The top ten best-selling drugs of 2013 totaled $75.6 billion in sales, with the anti-inflammatory drug Humira being the best-selling drug worldwide at $10.7 billion in sales. The second and third best selling were Enbrel and Remicade, respectively. The top three best-selling drugs in the United States in 2013 were Abilify ($6.3 billion,) Nexium ($6 billion) and Humira ($5.4 billion). The best-selling drug ever, Lipitor, averaged $13 billion annually and netted $141 billion total over its lifetime before Pfizer's patent expired in November 2011.

How much money did the top ten bestselling drugs make in 2013?

$75.6 billion

What was the name of the top-selling anti-inflammatory drug in 2013?

Humira

What was the bestselling drug in history?

Lipitor

How much money did Lipitor make before the patent expired?

$141 billion

In what year did Pfizer's patent over Lipitor expire?

How much money did the top ten bestselling drugs make in 2011?

I'm not sure.

What was the name of the top-selling anti-inflammatory drug in 2011?

I'm not sure.

What was the bestselling drug in 2011?

I'm not sure.

How much money did Lipitor make after the patent expired?

I'm not sure.

In what year did Humira's patent over Lipitor expire?

I'm not sure.


Depending on a number of considerations, a company may apply for and be granted a patent for the drug, or the process of producing the drug, granting exclusivity rights typically for about 20 years. However, only after rigorous study and testing, which takes 10 to 15 years on average, will governmental authorities grant permission for the company to market and sell the drug. Patent protection enables the owner of the patent to recover the costs of research and development through high profit margins for the branded drug. When the patent protection for the drug expires, a generic drug is usually developed and sold by a competing company. The development and approval of generics is less expensive, allowing them to be sold at a lower price. Often the owner of the branded drug will introduce a generic version before the patent expires in order to get a head start in the generic market. Restructuring has therefore become routine, driven by the patent expiration of products launched during the industry's "golden era" in the 1990s and companies' failure to develop sufficient new blockbuster products to replace lost revenues.

How long do drug exclusivity rights usually last?

20 years

Governments grant permission to market drugs after how many years?

10 to 15 years on average

What enables a drug's owner to recover R&D costs?

Patent protection

What kind of drug is produced by competitors once a patent expires?

generic

What decade was the pharmaceutical industry's "golden era"?

How long do company exclusivity rights usually last?

I'm not sure.

Governments grant permission to market companies after how many years?

I'm not sure.

What enables a drug's owner to recover patent costs?

I'm not sure.

What kind of drug is produced by competitors once an industry expires?

I'm not sure.

What decade was the pharmaceutical industry's "drug era"?

I'm not sure.


In the United States, new pharmaceutical products must be approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as being both safe and effective. This process generally involves submission of an Investigational New Drug filing with sufficient pre-clinical data to support proceeding with human trials. Following IND approval, three phases of progressively larger human clinical trials may be conducted. Phase I generally studies toxicity using healthy volunteers. Phase II can include pharmacokinetics and dosing in patients, and Phase III is a very large study of efficacy in the intended patient population. Following the successful completion of phase III testing, a New Drug Application is submitted to the FDA. The FDA review the data and if the product is seen as having a positive benefit-risk assessment, approval to market the product in the US is granted.

The safety and efficacy of new drugs must be approved by what organization in the US?

Food and Drug Administration

What type of filing is used before beginning human trials?

Investigational New Drug

How many phases of human trials may be done after IND approval?

three

What type of application is filed after completing three phases of human trials?

New Drug Application

What type of risk assessment results in approving the drug to go on the market?

positive benefit-risk

What organization in the US must approve the safety and efficacy of testing?

I'm not sure.

What type of filing is used before beginning risk assessment?

I'm not sure.

How many phases of human trials may be done after review?

I'm not sure.

What type of application is filed after completing three phases of products?

I'm not sure.

What type of risk assessment results in approving the drug to go on to studies?

I'm not sure.


Advertising is common in healthcare journals as well as through more mainstream media routes. In some countries, notably the US, they are allowed to advertise directly to the general public. Pharmaceutical companies generally employ sales people (often called 'drug reps' or, an older term, 'detail men') to market directly and personally to physicians and other healthcare providers. In some countries, notably the US, pharmaceutical companies also employ lobbyists to influence politicians. Marketing of prescription drugs in the US is regulated by the federal Prescription Drug Marketing Act of 1987.

"Drug reps" are usually hired by what type of firms?

Pharmaceutical companies

What law regulates drug marketing in the US?

Prescription Drug Marketing Act of 1987

Who do drug reps market to?

directly and personally to physicians

"US reps" are usually hired by what type of firms?

I'm not sure.

What law regulates drug marketing in some countries?

I'm not sure.

Who do US reps market to?

I'm not sure.

Who do US companies generally employ?

I'm not sure.

What is marketing of media in the US regulated by?

I'm not sure.


There has been increasing controversy surrounding pharmaceutical marketing and influence. There have been accusations and findings of influence on doctors and other health professionals through drug reps, including the constant provision of marketing 'gifts' and biased information to health professionals; highly prevalent advertising in journals and conferences; funding independent healthcare organizations and health promotion campaigns; lobbying physicians and politicians (more than any other industry in the US); sponsorship of medical schools or nurse training; sponsorship of continuing educational events, with influence on the curriculum; and hiring physicians as paid consultants on medical advisory boards.

Drug reps have been accused of giving what to health professionals?

'gifts' and biased information

Drug marketers have hired who as paid consultants?

physicians

What publications can drug ads be commonly found?

journals and conferences

What have drug reps been accused of giving to conferences?

I'm not sure.

Conferences have hired who as paid consultants?

I'm not sure.

What publications can advisory boards be commonly found in?

I'm not sure.

Who has been accused of influencing consultants?

I'm not sure.

What has stopped controversy?

I'm not sure.


The rivalries between the Arab tribes had caused unrest in the provinces outside Syria, most notably in the Second Muslim Civil War of 680–692 CE and the Berber Revolt of 740–743 CE. During the Second Civil War, leadership of the Umayyad clan shifted from the Sufyanid branch of the family to the Marwanid branch. As the constant campaigning exhausted the resources and manpower of the state, the Umayyads, weakened by the Third Muslim Civil War of 744–747 CE, were finally toppled by the Abbasid Revolution in 750 CE/132 AH. A branch of the family fled across North Africa to Al-Andalus, where they established the Caliphate of Córdoba, which lasted until 1031 before falling due to the Fitna of al-Ándalus.

In what year CE did the Second Muslim Civil War end?

During what period did the Berber Revolt occur?

740–743 CE

What branch took over Umayyad leadership during the Second Civil War?

Marwanid

What caused unrest in the provinces inside Syria?

I'm not sure.

In what years did the First Muslim Civil War occur?

I'm not sure.

When did leadership shift from the Marwanid branch to the Sufyanid branch?

I'm not sure.

What year was the Caliphate of Cordoba started?

I'm not sure.

What war strengthened the Umayyads?

I'm not sure.


Ali was assassinated in 661 by a Kharijite partisan. Six months later in the same year, in the interest of peace, Hasan ibn Ali, highly regarded for his wisdom and as a peacemaker, and the Second Imam for the Shias, and the grandson of Muhammad, made a peace treaty with Muawiyah I. In the Hasan-Muawiya treaty, Hasan ibn Ali handed over power to Muawiya on the condition that he be just to the people and keep them safe and secure, and after his death he not establish a dynasty. This brought to an end the era of the Rightly Guided Caliphs for the Sunnis, and Hasan ibn Ali was also the last Imam for the Shias to be a Caliph. Following this, Mu'awiyah broke the conditions of the agreement and began the Umayyad dynasty, with its capital in Damascus.

In what year was Ali killed?

Who killed Ali?

Kharijite partisan

Who made peace with Muawiyah I?

Hasan ibn Ali

Where was the capital of the Umayyad dynasty?

Damascus

When was a Kharijite partisan killed?

I'm not sure.

Who was the First Imam for the Shias?

I'm not sure.

Who followed the conditions of the agreement?

I'm not sure.

Who refused to hand over power to Muawiyah?

I'm not sure.

Who was regarded as a fool?

I'm not sure.


At the time, the Umayyad taxation and administrative practice were perceived as unjust by some Muslims. The Christian and Jewish population had still autonomy; their judicial matters were dealt with in accordance with their own laws and by their own religious heads or their appointees, although they did pay a poll tax for policing to the central state. Muhammad had stated explicitly during his lifetime that abrahamic religious groups (still a majority in times of the Umayyad Caliphate), should be allowed to practice their own religion, provided that they paid the jizya taxation. The welfare state of both the Muslim and the non-Muslim poor started by Umar ibn al Khattab had also continued. Muawiya's wife Maysum (Yazid's mother) was also a Christian. The relations between the Muslims and the Christians in the state were stable in this time. The Umayyads were involved in frequent battles with the Christian Byzantines without being concerned with protecting themselves in Syria, which had remained largely Christian like many other parts of the empire. Prominent positions were held by Christians, some of whom belonged to families that had served in Byzantine governments. The employment of Christians was part of a broader policy of religious assimilation that was necessitated by the presence of large Christian populations in the conquered provinces, as in Syria. This policy also boosted Muawiya's popularity and solidified Syria as his power base.

What form of tax were Christians required to pay?

jizya

Who was the mother of Yazid?

Maysum

What was Maysum's religion?

Christian

What populations did not have autonomy?

I'm not sure.

Who ended the Muslim welfare state?

I'm not sure.

What religion never held prominent positions in the Caliphate?

I'm not sure.

What caused Muawiya to become less popular?

I'm not sure.

What part of the empire remained largely Jewish?

I'm not sure.


The Umayyad Caliphate (Arabic: الخلافة الأموية, trans. Al-Khilāfat al-ʾumawiyya) was the second of the four major Islamic caliphates established after the death of Muhammad. This caliphate was centered on the Umayyad dynasty (Arabic: الأمويون, al-ʾUmawiyyūn, or بنو أمية, Banū ʾUmayya, "Sons of Umayya"), hailing from Mecca. The Umayyad family had first come to power under the third caliph, Uthman ibn Affan (r. 644–656), but the Umayyad regime was founded by Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan, long-time governor of Syria, after the end of the First Muslim Civil War in 661 CE/41 AH. Syria remained the Umayyads' main power base thereafter, and Damascus was their capital. The Umayyads continued the Muslim conquests, incorporating the Caucasus, Transoxiana, Sindh, the Maghreb and the Iberian Peninsula (Al-Andalus) into the Muslim world. At its greatest extent, the Umayyad Caliphate covered 15 million km2 (5.79 million square miles), making it the largest empire (in terms of area - not in terms of population) the world had yet seen, and the fifth largest ever to exist.

How many major Islamic caliphates existed after Muhammad's death?

four

Who was the third caliph?

Uthman ibn Affan

Who founded the Umayyad regime?

Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan

How many million square miles was the Umayyad caliphate at its largest size?

How many Islamic caliphates existed before the death of Muhammad?

I'm not sure.

Who was the first caliph?

I'm not sure.

When did the First Muslim Civil War begin?

I'm not sure.

What was the first major Islamic caliphate?

I'm not sure.

How many square miles big was the Umayyad Caliphate at it's smallest?

I'm not sure.


Most historians[who?] consider Caliph Muawiyah (661–80) to have been the second ruler of the Umayyad dynasty, even though he was the first to assert the Umayyads' right to rule on a dynastic principle. It was really the caliphate of Uthman Ibn Affan (644–656), a member of Umayyad clan himself, that witnessed the revival and then the ascendancy of the Umayyad clan to the corridors of power. Uthman placed some of the trusted members of his clan at prominent and strong positions throughout the state. Most notable was the appointment of Marwan ibn al-Hakam, Uthman's first cousin, as his top advisor, which created a stir among the Hashimite companions of Muhammad, as Marwan along with his father Al-Hakam ibn Abi al-'As had been permanently exiled from Medina by Muhammad during his lifetime. Uthman also appointed as governor of Kufa his half-brother, Walid ibn Uqba, who was accused by Hashmites of leading prayer while under the influence of alcohol. Uthman also consolidated Muawiyah's governorship of Syria by granting him control over a larger area and appointed his foster brother Abdullah ibn Saad as the Governor of Egypt. However, since Uthman never named an heir, he cannot be considered the founder of a dynasty.

When did Muawiyah become caliph?

When did the caliphate of Uthman Ibn Affan end?

Who was the son of Al-Hakam ibn Abi al-'As?

Marwan ibn al-Hakam

Who was the second ruler to asset the Umayyads' right to rule on dynastic principal?

I'm not sure.

Who do most historians think was the first rules of the Umayyad dynasty?

I'm not sure.

Which caliphate witnessed the downfall of the Umayyad clan?

I'm not sure.

Who was Marwan ibn al-Hakam'a top advisor?

I'm not sure.

Why can Uthman be considered the founder of a dynasty?

I'm not sure.


Following the death of Husayn, Ibn al-Zubayr, although remaining in Mecca, was associated with two opposition movements, one centered in Medina and the other around Kharijites in Basra and Arabia. Because Medina had been home to Muhammad and his family, including Husayn, word of his death and the imprisonment of his family led to a large opposition movement. In 683, Yazid dispatched an army to subdue both movements. The army suppressed the Medinese opposition at the Battle of al-Harrah. The Grand Mosque in Medina was severely damaged and widespread pillaging caused deep-seated dissent. Yazid's army continued on and laid siege to Mecca. At some point during the siege, the Kaaba was badly damaged in a fire. The destruction of the Kaaba and Grand Mosque became a major cause for censure of the Umayyads in later histories of the period.

What opposition movement was based in Arabia and Basra?

Kharijites

Who sent an army in 683 to stop the opposition movements?

Yazid

In what battle was the Medinese opposition movement defeated?

Battle of al-Harrah

Where is the Kaaba located?

Mecca

How many opposition movements was Husayn associated with?

I'm not sure.

What mosque in Medina was repaired?

I'm not sure.

What army laid siege to Arabia?

I'm not sure.

What became a cause for the celebration of the Umayyads in later histories?

I'm not sure.

Who dispatched an army to help the opposition movements?

I'm not sure.


According to tradition, the Umayyad family (also known as the Banu Abd-Shams) and Muhammad both descended from a common ancestor, Abd Manaf ibn Qusai, and they originally came from the city of Mecca. Muhammad descended from Abd Manāf via his son Hashim, while the Umayyads descended from Abd Manaf via a different son, Abd-Shams, whose son was Umayya. The two families are therefore considered to be different clans (those of Hashim and of Umayya, respectively) of the same tribe (that of the Quraish). However Muslim Shia historians suspect that Umayya was an adopted son of Abd Shams so he was not a blood relative of Abd Manaf ibn Qusai. Umayya was later discarded from the noble family. Sunni historians disagree with this and view Shia claims as nothing more than outright polemics due to their hostility to the Umayyad family in general. They point to the fact that the grand sons of Uthman, Zaid bin amr bin uthman bin affan and Abdullah bin Amr bin Uthman got married to the Sukaina and Fatima the daughters of Hussein son of Ali to show closeness of Banu hashem and Bani Ummayah.

What is another term for the Umayyads?

Banu Abd-Shams

Traditionally, who did the Umayyads and Muhammad both descend from?

Abd Manaf ibn Qusai

From what city did the Umayyads originate?

Mecca

What son of Abd-Shams was the ancestor of the Umayyads?

Umayya

Who did Abd Manaf ibn Qusai descend from?

I'm not sure.

Who suspects that Muhammad was an adopted son?

I'm not sure.

Which historians agree with the Muslim Shia historians?

I'm not sure.

Who was married to the grandson of Abdullah bin Amr bin Uthman?

I'm not sure.

Who was the grandson of Zaid bin amr bin uthman bin affan?

I'm not sure.


Following this battle, Ali fought a battle against Muawiyah, known as the Battle of Siffin. The battle was stopped before either side had achieved victory, and the two parties agreed to arbitrate their dispute. After the battle Amr ibn al-As was appointed by Muawiyah as an arbitrator, and Ali appointed Abu Musa Ashaari. Seven months later, in February 658, the two arbitrators met at Adhruh, about 10 miles north west of Maan in Jordon. Amr ibn al-As convinced Abu Musa Ashaari that both Ali and Muawiyah should step down and a new Caliph be elected. Ali and his supporters were stunned by the decision which had lowered the Caliph to the status of the rebellious Muawiyah I. Ali was therefore outwitted by Muawiyah and Amr. Ali refused to accept the verdict and found himself technically in breach of his pledge to abide by the arbitration. This put Ali in a weak position even amongst his own supporters. The most vociferous opponents in Ali's camp were the very same people who had forced Ali into the ceasefire. They broke away from Ali's force, rallying under the slogan, "arbitration belongs to God alone." This group came to be known as the Kharijites ("those who leave"). In 659 Ali's forces and the Kharijites met in the Battle of Nahrawan. Although Ali won the battle, the constant conflict had begun to affect his standing, and in the following years some Syrians seem to have acclaimed Muawiyah as a rival caliph.

Where did Muawiyah fight Ali?

Battle of Siffin

Who was appointed arbitrator by Ali?

Abu Musa Ashaari

In what battle did Ali fight the Kharjites?

Battle of Nahrawan

What did the term Kharjites mean?

those who leave

Who did Ali fight against before this battle?

I'm not sure.

Who was appointed as an arbitrator before the battle?

I'm not sure.

Who convinced the others that a new Caliph should not be elected?

I'm not sure.

What group's name means "those who stay"?

I'm not sure.

What was the slogan of those who stayed with Ali's force?

I'm not sure.


The Quran and Muhammad talked about racial equality and justice as in The Farewell Sermon. Tribal and nationalistic differences were discouraged. But after Muhammad's passing, the old tribal differences between the Arabs started to resurface. Following the Roman–Persian Wars and the Byzantine–Sassanid Wars, deep rooted differences between Iraq, formally under the Persian Sassanid Empire, and Syria, formally under the Byzantine Empire, also existed. Each wanted the capital of the newly established Islamic State to be in their area. Previously, the second caliph Umar was very firm on the governors and his spies kept an eye on them. If he felt that a governor or a commander was becoming attracted to wealth, he had him removed from his position.

Who controlled Iraq before the Arabs?

Persian Sassanid Empire

Who ruled Syria before it was conquered by the followers of Muhammad?

Byzantine Empire

Who was the second caliph?

Umar

What book never mentioned racial equality?

I'm not sure.

What was encouraged in the Quran?

I'm not sure.

What started to resurface before Muhammad's passing?

I'm not sure.

Who was soft on the governors?

I'm not sure.

What area wanted the capital of the Islamic State to be outside their area?

I'm not sure.


While the Umayyads and the Hashimites may have had bitterness between the two clans before Muhammad, the rivalry turned into a severe case of tribal animosity after the Battle of Badr. The battle saw three top leaders of the Umayyad clan (Utba ibn Rabi'ah, Walid ibn Utbah and Shaybah) killed by Hashimites (Ali, Hamza ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib and Ubaydah ibn al-Harith) in a three-on-three melee. This fueled the opposition of Abu Sufyan ibn Harb, the grandson of Umayya, to Muhammad and to Islam. Abu Sufyan sought to exterminate the adherents of the new religion by waging another battle with Muslims based in Medina only a year after the Battle of Badr. He did this to avenge the defeat at Badr. The Battle of Uhud is generally believed by scholars to be the first defeat for the Muslims, as they had incurred greater losses than the Meccans. After the battle, Abu Sufyan's wife Hind, who was also the daughter of Utba ibn Rabi'ah, is reported to have cut open the corpse of Hamza, taking out his liver which she then attempted to eat. Within five years after his defeat in the Battle of Uhud, however, Muhammad took control of Mecca and announced a general amnesty for all. Abu Sufyan and his wife Hind embraced Islam on the eve of the conquest of Mecca, as did their son (the future caliph Muawiyah I).

How many top leaders of the Umayyads were killed in the Battle of Badr?

three

Who did the Umayyads fight in the Battle of Badr?

Hashimites

What do historians see as the first military defeat of Islam?

Battle of Uhud

Who was the spouse of Abu Sufyan?

Hind

Who was the son of Abu Sufyan?

Muawiyah I

How many top leaders of the Umayyads survived the Battle of Badr?

I'm not sure.

Who was the grandson of Abu Sufyan ibn Harb?

I'm not sure.

Who fought a battle only a year before the Battle of Badr?

I'm not sure.

What battle was the last defeat for the Muslims?

I'm not sure.

Who was the daughter of Hind?

I'm not sure.


Umar is honored for his attempt to resolve the fiscal problems attendant upon conversion to Islam. During the Umayyad period, the majority of people living within the caliphate were not Muslim, but Christian, Jewish, Zoroastrian, or members of other small groups. These religious communities were not forced to convert to Islam, but were subject to a tax (jizyah) which was not imposed upon Muslims. This situation may actually have made widespread conversion to Islam undesirable from the point of view of state revenue, and there are reports that provincial governors actively discouraged such conversions. It is not clear how Umar attempted to resolve this situation, but the sources portray him as having insisted on like treatment of Arab and non-Arab (mawali) Muslims, and on the removal of obstacles to the conversion of non-Arabs to Islam.

What tax did non-Muslims pay in the Umayyad period?

jizyah

What was another term for Muslims who were not Arab?

mawali

Along with Christians and Jews, what was a major non-Muslim religious group under the Umayyads?

Zoroastrian

What tax did Muslims pay in the Umayyad period?

I'm not sure.

What was a term for Arabs who were not Muslim?

I'm not sure.

Who encouraged conversions in order to make more revenue?

I'm not sure.

Who insisted on different treatment of Arab and non-Arab Muslims?

I'm not sure.

Who added more obstacles to conversion to Islam for non-Arabs?

I'm not sure.


After the assassination of Uthman in 656, Ali, a member of the Quraysh tribe and the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, was elected as the caliph. He soon met with resistance from several factions, owing to his relative political inexperience. Ali moved his capital from Medina to Kufa. The resulting conflict, which lasted from 656 until 661, is known as the First Fitna ("civil war"). Muawiyah I, the governor of Syria, a relative of Uthman ibn al-Affan and Marwan I, wanted the culprits arrested. Marwan I manipulated everyone and created conflict. Aisha, the wife of Muhammad, and Talhah and Al-Zubayr, two of the companions of Muhammad, went to Basra to tell Ali to arrest the culprits who murdered Uthman. Marwan I and other people who wanted conflict manipulated everyone to fight. The two sides clashed at the Battle of the Camel in 656, where Ali won a decisive victory.

When did Uthman die?

What tribe did Ali belong to?

Quraysh

Along with being his cousin, what relationship did Ali have to Muhammad?

son-in-law

Where was the capital before Ali changed it?

Medina

What does Fitna mean?

civil war

When was Uthman born?

I'm not sure.

Why did Ali meet with little resistance?

I'm not sure.

When did the Second Fitna occur?

I'm not sure.

Who was the wife of Marwan I?

I'm not sure.

Who did not want conflict?

I'm not sure.


Early Muslim armies stayed in encampments away from cities because Umar feared that they might get attracted to wealth and luxury. In the process, they might turn away from the worship of God and start accumulating wealth and establishing dynasties. When Uthman ibn al-Affan became very old, Marwan I, a relative of Muawiyah I, slipped into the vacuum, became his secretary, slowly assumed more control and relaxed some of these restrictions. Marwan I had previously been excluded from positions of responsibility. In 656, Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, the son of Abu Bakr, the adopted son of Ali ibn Abi Talib, and the great grandfather of Ja'far al-Sadiq, showed some Egyptians the house of Uthman ibn al-Affan. Later the Egyptians ended up killing Uthman ibn al-Affan.

What group murdered Uthman ibn al-Affan?

Egyptians

Who was Marwan I related to?

Muawiyah I

Who adopted Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr?

Ali ibn Abi Talib

Who was the great grandson of Muhammad ibn Ali Bakr?

Ja'far al-Sadiq

Who feared that Muslim armies would turn away from wealth?

I'm not sure.

Why did early Muslim armies stay inside of cities?

I'm not sure.

Who murdered the Egyptians?

I'm not sure.

Who assumed power when Marwan I became very old?

I'm not sure.

Who was the son of Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr?

I'm not sure.


In 680 Ibn al-Zubayr fled Medina for Mecca. Hearing about Husayn's opposition to Yazid I, the people of Kufa sent to Husayn asking him to take over with their support. Al-Husayn sent his cousin Muslim bin Agail to verify if they would rally behind him. When the news reached Yazid I, he sent Ubayd-Allah bin Ziyad, ruler of Basrah, with the instruction to prevent the people of Kufa rallying behind Al-Husayn. Ubayd-Allah bin Ziyad managed to disperse the crowd that gathered around Muslim bin Agail and captured him. Realizing Ubayd-Allah bin Ziyad had been instructed to prevent Husayn from establishing support in Kufa, Muslim bin Agail requested a message to be sent to Husayn to prevent his immigration to Kufa. The request was denied and Ubayd-Allah bin Ziyad killed Muslim bin Agail. While Ibn al-Zubayr would stay in Mecca until his death, Husayn decided to travel on to Kufa with his family, unaware of the lack of support there. Husayn and his family were intercepted by Yazid I's forces led by Amru bin Saad, Shamar bin Thi Al-Joshan, and Hussain bin Tamim, who fought Al-Husayn and his male family members until they were killed. There were 200 people in Husayn's caravan, many of whom were women, including his sisters, wives, daughters and their children. The women and children from Husayn's camp were taken as prisoners of war and led back to Damascus to be presented to Yazid I. They remained imprisoned until public opinion turned against him as word of Husayn's death and his family's capture spread. They were then granted passage back to Medina. The sole adult male survivor from the caravan was Ali ibn Husayn who was with fever too ill to fight when the caravan was attacked.

Where did Ibn al-Zubayr flee to in 680?

Mecca

Who did Al-Husayn send to Kufa?

Muslim bin Agail

What did Ubayd-Allah bin Ziyad rule?

Basrah

Who did Ubayd-Allah bin Ziyad murder?

Muslim bin Agail

When did Ibn al-Zubayr flee Mecca for Medina?

I'm not sure.

Who was the sole female survivor of the caravan?

I'm not sure.

Who was not able to disperse the crowd that had gathered?

I'm not sure.

Who requested a message be sent to Ubayd-Allah bin Ziyad to prevent his immigration to Kufa?

I'm not sure.

Who led Husayn's forces?

I'm not sure.


In the year 712, Muhammad bin Qasim, an Umayyad general, sailed from the Persian Gulf into Sindh in Pakistan and conquered both the Sindh and the Punjab regions along the Indus river. The conquest of Sindh and Punjab, in modern-day Pakistan, although costly, were major gains for the Umayyad Caliphate. However, further gains were halted by Hindu kingdoms in India in the battle of Rajasthan. The Arabs tried to invade India but they were defeated by the north Indian king Nagabhata of the Pratihara Dynasty and by the south Indian Emperor Vikramaditya II of the Chalukya dynasty in the early 8th century. After this the Arab chroniclers admit that the Caliph Mahdi "gave up the project of conquering any part of India."

When did Muhammad bin Wasim sail to Pakistan?

Along with the Punjab, what did Muhammad bin Wasim conquer?

Sindh

At what battle did the Hindus of India defeat the Umayyads?

Rajasthan

To what dynasty did Vikramaditya II belong?

Pratihara

Who was a notable king in this period from the Pratihara dynasty?

Nagabhata

Who sailed away from Pakistan in 712?

I'm not sure.

What year did Muhammad bin Qasim leave Pakistan?

I'm not sure.

What conquests were easy for Umayyad Caliphate?

I'm not sure.

Who stopped India from invading the Arabs?

I'm not sure.

When did the south Indian Emperor give up conquering the Arabs?

I'm not sure.


The second major event of the early reign of Abd al-Malik was the construction of the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem. Although the chronology remains somewhat uncertain, the building seems to have been completed in 692, which means that it was under construction during the conflict with Ibn al-Zubayr. This had led some historians, both medieval and modern, to suggest that the Dome of the Rock was built as a destination for pilgrimage to rival the Kaaba, which was under the control of Ibn al-Zubayr.

Where was the Dome of the Rock built?

Jerusalem

In what year was the Dome of the Rock finished?

During whose reign was the Dome of the Rock constructed?

Abd al-Malik

What was the first major event of the early reign of Abd al-Mali?

I'm not sure.

What year did construction of the Dome of the Rock begin?

I'm not sure.

Why was the Kaaba built?

I'm not sure.

When was the Kaaba under construction?

I'm not sure.

What year was the Kaaba completed?

I'm not sure.


Muawiyah also encouraged peaceful coexistence with the Christian communities of Syria, granting his reign with "peace and prosperity for Christians and Arabs alike", and one of his closest advisers was Sarjun, the father of John of Damascus. At the same time, he waged unceasing war against the Byzantine Roman Empire. During his reign, Rhodes and Crete were occupied, and several assaults were launched against Constantinople. After their failure, and faced with a large-scale Christian uprising in the form of the Mardaites, Muawiyah concluded a peace with Byzantium. Muawiyah also oversaw military expansion in North Africa (the foundation of Kairouan) and in Central Asia (the conquest of Kabul, Bukhara, and Samarkand).

Who was the son of Sarjun?

John of Damascus

Along with Rhodes, what Byzantine possession did Muawiyah occupy?

Crete

Who group of Christians rose up against Muawiyah?

Mardaites

What did Muawiyah found in North Africa?

Kairouan

Who discouraged peaceful coexistence with the Christians in Syria?

I'm not sure.

Who was Muawiyah's least close adviser?

I'm not sure.

When were Rhodes and Crete freed from occupation?

I'm not sure.

Who oversaw a military withdrawal in North Africa?

I'm not sure.

Where did Muawiya shrink military expansion in?

I'm not sure.


Yazid died while the siege was still in progress, and the Umayyad army returned to Damascus, leaving Ibn al-Zubayr in control of Mecca. Yazid's son Muawiya II (683–84) initially succeeded him but seems to have never been recognized as caliph outside of Syria. Two factions developed within Syria: the Confederation of Qays, who supported Ibn al-Zubayr, and the Quda'a, who supported Marwan, a descendant of Umayya via Wa'il ibn Umayyah. The partisans of Marwan triumphed at a battle at Marj Rahit, near Damascus, in 684, and Marwan became caliph shortly thereafter.

Who was the son of Yazid?

Muawiya II

When did Muawiya II's reign begin?

Who had the support of the Confederation of Qays?

Ibn al-Zubayr

From whom was Marwan descended?

Umayya via Wa'il ibn Umayyah

In what year did the battle of Marj Rahit occur?

What army left Damascus?

I'm not sure.

Who was recognized as caliph outside of Syria?

I'm not sure.

Who was a descendant of Marwan?

I'm not sure.

What year did the partisans of Marwan lose a battle?

I'm not sure.

What city did the partisans of Marwan lose a battle near?

I'm not sure.


Marwan was succeeded by his son, Abd al-Malik (685–705), who reconsolidated Umayyad control of the caliphate. The early reign of Abd al-Malik was marked by the revolt of Al-Mukhtar, which was based in Kufa. Al-Mukhtar hoped to elevate Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah, another son of Ali, to the caliphate, although Ibn al-Hanafiyyah himself may have had no connection to the revolt. The troops of al-Mukhtar engaged in battles both with the Umayyads in 686, defeating them at the river Khazir near Mosul, and with Ibn al-Zubayr in 687, at which time the revolt of al-Mukhtar was crushed. In 691, Umayyad troops reconquered Iraq, and in 692 the same army captured Mecca. Ibn al-Zubayr was killed in the attack.

Who was the father of Abd al-Malik?

Marwan

When did Abd al-Malik's rule begin?

Where was Al-Mukhtar based?

Kufa

Who was the father of Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah?

Ali

In what year did Ibn al-Zubayr die?

Who succeeded Abd al-Malik?

I'm not sure.

What span of years did Marwan rule?

I'm not sure.

Who was another son of Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah?

I'm not sure.

When did the Umayyads defeat the troops of al-Mukhtar near Mosul?

I'm not sure.


Geographically, the empire was divided into several provinces, the borders of which changed numerous times during the Umayyad reign. Each province had a governor appointed by the khalifah. The governor was in charge of the religious officials, army leaders, police, and civil administrators in his province. Local expenses were paid for by taxes coming from that province, with the remainder each year being sent to the central government in Damascus. As the central power of the Umayyad rulers waned in the later years of the dynasty, some governors neglected to send the extra tax revenue to Damascus and created great personal fortunes.

Who appointed the governors in the Umayyad empire?

khalifah

Where was the government of the Umayyads based?

Damascus

Along with army leaders, police and civil administration, what did the governor control in his province?

religious officials

What was not divided into several pieces?

I'm not sure.

What did the borders of the empire do before the Umayyad reign?

I'm not sure.

Who appointed the khalifah?

I'm not sure.

What did governors do with the extra tax revenue in the early years of the dynasty?

I'm not sure.

When did the central power of the Umayyad rulers increase?

I'm not sure.


Hisham suffered still worse defeats in the east, where his armies attempted to subdue both Tokharistan, with its center at Balkh, and Transoxiana, with its center at Samarkand. Both areas had already been partially conquered, but remained difficult to govern. Once again, a particular difficulty concerned the question of the conversion of non-Arabs, especially the Sogdians of Transoxiana. Following the Umayyad defeat in the "Day of Thirst" in 724, Ashras ibn 'Abd Allah al-Sulami, governor of Khurasan, promised tax relief to those Sogdians who converted to Islam, but went back on his offer when it proved too popular and threatened to reduce tax revenues. Discontent among the Khurasani Arabs rose sharply after the losses suffered in the Battle of the Defile in 731, and in 734, al-Harith ibn Surayj led a revolt that received broad backing from Arabs and natives alike, capturing Balkh but failing to take Merv. After this defeat, al-Harith's movement seems to have been dissolved, but the problem of the rights of non-Arab Muslims would continue to plague the Umayyads.

What was the main city of Tokharistan?

Balkh

What was the central part of Transoxiana called?

Samarkand

In what year did the Day of Thirst occur?

What notable battle occurred in 731?

Battle of the Defile

Who was the leader of the revolt of 734?

al-Harith ibn Surayj

Who suffered worse defeats in the west?

I'm not sure.

What area was easy to govern?

I'm not sure.

What was the Umayyad victory in 724 called?

I'm not sure.

What governor stuck to his promise of tax relief to the Sogdians?

I'm not sure.

Who was able to capture Merv?

I'm not sure.


The Hashimiyya movement (a sub-sect of the Kaysanites Shia), led by the Abbasid family, overthrew the Umayyad caliphate. The Abbasids were members of the Hashim clan, rivals of the Umayyads, but the word "Hashimiyya" seems to refer specifically to Abu Hashim, a grandson of Ali and son of Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya. According to certain traditions, Abu Hashim died in 717 in Humeima in the house of Muhammad ibn Ali, the head of the Abbasid family, and before dying named Muhammad ibn Ali as his successor. This tradition allowed the Abbasids to rally the supporters of the failed revolt of Mukhtar, who had represented themselves as the supporters of Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya.

What group were the Hashimiyya a sect of?

Kaysanites Shia

Who led the Hashimiyya movement?

Abbasid family

Of what clan were the Abbasids members of?

Hashim

What year saw the death of Abu Hashim?

Who was named successor by Abu Hashim?

Muhammad ibn Ali

What was a sub-sect of the Hashimiyya movement?

I'm not sure.

Who led the Kaysanites Shia?

I'm not sure.

Who named Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya as his successor?

I'm not sure.

What failed to rally the supporters of the failed revolt?

I'm not sure.

Who represented themselves as the supporters of Ali?

I'm not sure.


From the caliphate's north-western African bases, a series of raids on coastal areas of the Visigothic Kingdom paved the way to the permanent occupation of most of Iberia by the Umayyads (starting in 711), and on into south-eastern Gaul (last stronghold at Narbonne in 759). Hisham's reign witnessed the end of expansion in the west, following the defeat of the Arab army by the Franks at the Battle of Tours in 732. In 739 a major Berber Revolt broke out in North Africa, which was subdued only with difficulty, but it was followed by the collapse of Umayyad authority in al-Andalus. In India the Arab armies were defeated by the south Indian Chalukya dynasty and by the north Indian Pratiharas Dynasty in the 8th century and the Arabs were driven out of India. In the Caucasus, the confrontation with the Khazars peaked under Hisham: the Arabs established Derbent as a major military base and launched several invasions of the northern Caucasus, but failed to subdue the nomadic Khazars. The conflict was arduous and bloody, and the Arab army even suffered a major defeat at the Battle of Marj Ardabil in 730. Marwan ibn Muhammad, the future Marwan II, finally ended the war in 737 with a massive invasion that is reported to have reached as far as the Volga, but the Khazars remained unsubdued.

When did the Umayyads begin to occupy Iberia?

What was the final year that the Umayyads held Narbonne?

Who defeated the Arabs at the Battle of Tours?

Franks

In what year did the Berber Revolt begin?

What was Marwan II's name before he became caliph?

Marwan ibn Muhammad

What paved the way towards an occupation of the Umayyads by the Iberians?

I'm not sure.

When did the occupation of Iberia end?

I'm not sure.

What year did the caliphate's expansion in the west start?

I'm not sure.

At what battle did the Arabs defeat the Franks?

I'm not sure.

When did the Arab army win a major victory at the Battle of Marj Ardabil?

I'm not sure.


The final son of Abd al-Malik to become caliph was Hisham (724–43), whose long and eventful reign was above all marked by the curtailment of military expansion. Hisham established his court at Resafa in northern Syria, which was closer to the Byzantine border than Damascus, and resumed hostilities against the Byzantines, which had lapsed following the failure of the last siege of Constantinople. The new campaigns resulted in a number of successful raids into Anatolia, but also in a major defeat (the Battle of Akroinon), and did not lead to any significant territorial expansion.

Who was the father of Hisham?

Abd al-Malik

When did Hisham's reign start?

Where did Hisham base his court?

Resafa

What notable defeat was suffered by the Arabs under Hisham?

Battle of Akroinon

In what part of Syria was Resafa located?

northern

Who was the first son of Abd al-Malik to become caliph?

I'm not sure.

What years did the first son of Abd al-Malik rule?

I'm not sure.

Whose reign was marked by the acceleration of military expansion?

I'm not sure.

Who stopped hostilities against the Byzantines?

I'm not sure.

Who was the final son of Hirsham?

I'm not sure.


With limited resources Muawiyah went about creating allies. Muawiyah married Maysum the daughter of the chief of the Kalb tribe, that was a large Jacobite Christian Arab tribe in Syria. His marriage to Maysum was politically motivated. The Kalb tribe had remained largely neutral when the Muslims first went into Syria. After the plague that killed much of the Muslim Army in Syria, by marrying Maysum, Muawiyah started to use the Jacobite Christians, against the Romans. Muawiya's wife Maysum (Yazid's mother) was also a Jacobite Christian. With limited resources and the Byzantine just over the border, Muawiyah worked in cooperation with the local Christian population. To stop Byzantine harassment from the sea during the Arab-Byzantine Wars, in 649 Muawiyah set up a navy; manned by Monophysitise Christians, Copts and Jacobite Syrian Christians sailors and Muslim troops.

What was the name of Muawiyah's wife?

Maysum

What tribe did Muawiyah's wife belong to?

Kalb

What was the religion of Muawiyah's wife's tribe?

Christian

What was the ethnicity of the Kalb tribe?

Arab

Where was the Kalb tribe based?

Syria

Who was the chief of the Kalb tribe?

I'm not sure.

Who did the chief of the Kalb tribe marry?

I'm not sure.

Whose marriage was motivated by love?

I'm not sure.

Who used the Jacobite Christians against the Muslims?

I'm not sure.

When did Muawiyah dissolve the navy?

I'm not sure.


Only Umayyad ruler (Caliphs of Damascus), Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz, is unanimously praised by Sunni sources for his devout piety and justice. In his efforts to spread Islam he established liberties for the Mawali by abolishing the jizya tax for converts to Islam. Imam Abu Muhammad Adbullah ibn Abdul Hakam stated that Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz also stopped the personal allowance offered to his relatives stating that he could only give them an allowance if he gave an allowance to everyone else in the empire. Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz was later poisoned in the year 720. When successive governments tried to reverse Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz's tax policies it created rebellion.

What Umayyad ruler is regarded as especially just and pious by Sunni scholars?

Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz

For whom did Umar end the jizya?

converts to Islam

In what year did Umar ibn Ad Al-Aziz die?

What was Umar ibn Ad al-Aziz's cause of death?

poisoned

What group did Umar ibn Ad Al-Aziz grant liberties to?

Mawali

What Umayyad ruler is hated by Sunni sources?

I'm not sure.

When was Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz born?

I'm not sure.

What happened when later governments tried to continue Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz's tax policies?

I'm not sure.

What unanimously praised most of the Umayyad rulers?

I'm not sure.

Who established the jizya tax?

I'm not sure.


Around 746, Abu Muslim assumed leadership of the Hashimiyya in Khurasan. In 747, he successfully initiated an open revolt against Umayyad rule, which was carried out under the sign of the black flag. He soon established control of Khurasan, expelling its Umayyad governor, Nasr ibn Sayyar, and dispatched an army westwards. Kufa fell to the Hashimiyya in 749, the last Umayyad stronghold in Iraq, Wasit, was placed under siege, and in November of the same year Abu al-Abbas was recognized as the new caliph in the mosque at Kufa.[citation needed] At this point Marwan mobilized his troops from Harran and advanced toward Iraq. In January 750 the two forces met in the Battle of the Zab, and the Umayyads were defeated. Damascus fell to the Abbasids in April, and in August, Marwan was killed in Egypt.

Who became leader of the Khurasan Hashimiyya in approximately 746?

Abu Muslim

What symbol did Abu Muslim use in his revolt against the Umayyads?

black flag

Who was the Umayyad governor of Khurasan who was defeated by Abu Muslim?

Nasr ibn Sayyar

When did the Hashimiyya conquer Kufa?

Where did Marwan die?

Egypt

Who carried out a revolt under the sign of the white flag?

I'm not sure.

What year was control of Khurasan established?

I'm not sure.

What was the first Umayyad stronghold in Iraq?

I'm not sure.

When was Marwan recognized as the new caliph in the mosque at Kufa?

I'm not sure.

What month was Abu Muslim killed in Egypt?

I'm not sure.


The books written later in the Abbasid period in Iran are more anti Umayyad. Iran was Sunni at the time. There was much anti Arab feeling in Iran after the fall of the Persian empire. This anti Arab feeling also influenced the books on Islamic history. Al-Tabri was also written in Iran during that period. Al-Tabri was a huge collection including all the text that he could find, from all the sources. It was a collection preserving everything for future generations to codify and for future generations to judge if it was true or false.

In the later Abbasid era, what branch of Islam did Iran adhere to?

Sunni

What notable work of Islamic history was written in Iran during the later Abbasid period?

Al-Tabri

What group was notably disliked in Iran after the Persian Empire fell?

Arab

What are the books written early in the Abbasid period like?

I'm not sure.

When was there not much anti Arab feeling in Iran?

I'm not sure.

What did this anti Arab feeling fail to influence?

I'm not sure.

What was a small collection of texts?

I'm not sure.

What was a collection meant only for current generations?

I'm not sure.


The Diwan of Umar, assigning annuities to all Arabs and to the Muslim soldiers of other races, underwent a change in the hands of the Umayyads. The Umayyads meddled with the register and the recipients regarded pensions as the subsistence allowance even without being in active service. Hisham reformed it and paid only to those who participated in battle. On the pattern of the Byzantine system the Umayyads reformed their army organization in general and divided it into five corps: the centre, two wings, vanguards and rearguards, following the same formation while on march or on a battle field. Marwan II (740–50) abandoned the old division and introduced Kurdus (cohort), a small compact body. The Umayyad troops were divided into three divisions: infantry, cavalry and artillery. Arab troops were dressed and armed in Greek fashion. The Umayyad cavalry used plain and round saddles. The artillery used arradah (ballista), manjaniq (the mangonel) and dabbabah or kabsh (the battering ram). The heavy engines, siege machines and baggage were carried on camels behind the army.

What is the meaning of the term Kurdus in English?

cohort

What caliph reigned from 740 to 750?

Marwan II

What style of dress did Arab troops wear under Marwan II?

Greek

Along with artillery and infantry, what was the third division of Umayyad troops under Marwan II?

cavalry

What did the Umayyads call the mangonel?

manjaniq

Who didn't change the Diwan of Umar?

I'm not sure.

What did the Byzantines pattern their army organization on?

I'm not sure.

How many corps did the Byzantines have?

I'm not sure.

Who reintroduced the old division?

I'm not sure.

In what fashion were Greek troops armed?

I'm not sure.


Mu'awiyah introduced postal service, Abd al-Malik extended it throughout his empire, and Walid made full use of it. The Umayyad Caliph Abd al-Malik developed a regular postal service. Umar bin Abdul-Aziz developed it further by building caravanserais at stages along the Khurasan highway. Relays of horses were used for the conveyance of dispatches between the caliph and his agents and officials posted in the provinces. The main highways were divided into stages of 12 miles (19 km) each and each stage had horses, donkeys or camels ready to carry the post. Primarily the service met the needs of Government officials, but travellers and their important dispatches were also benefitted by the system. The postal carriages were also used for the swift transport of troops. They were able to carry fifty to a hundred men at a time. Under Governor Yusuf bin Umar, the postal department of Iraq cost 4,000,000 dirhams a year.

Who first brought a postal service into Umayyad lands?

Mu'awiyah

Along what highway did Umar bin Abdul-Aziz build caravanserais?

Khurasan

Along with horses and camels, what animals were used by the postal service?

donkeys

In dirhams, what was the yearly cost of the Iraqi postal service when Yusuf bin Umar was governor?

In kilometers, how far apart was each stage of the Umayyad highways?

Who ended the postal service?

I'm not sure.

Who shrunk the reach of the postal service throughout his empire?

I'm not sure.

Who stopped the use of horses in the postal service?

I'm not sure.

What service primarily met the needs of private citizens?

I'm not sure.

What did the postal department of Iraq cost per year under Abd al-Malik?

I'm not sure.


However many early history books like the Islamic Conquest of Syria Fatuhusham by al-Imam al-Waqidi state that after the conversion to Islam Muawiyah's father Abu Sufyan ibn Harb and his brothers Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan were appointed as commanders in the Muslim armies by Muhammad. Muawiyah, Abu Sufyan ibn Harb, Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan and Hind bint Utbah fought in the Battle of Yarmouk. The defeat of the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius at the Battle of Yarmouk opened the way for the Muslim expansion into Jerusalem and Syria.

What nation lost the Battle of Yarmouk?

Byzantine

Who was the Byzantine leader at the Battle of Yarmouk?

Heraclius

Along with Syria, where did the Muslims extend their control after the Battle of Yarmouk?

Jerusalem

Who was the father of Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan?

Abu Sufyan ibn Harb

Along with Muawiyah, Abu Sufyan ibn Harb and Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan, what notable Muslim participated in the Battle of Yarmouk?

Hind bint Utbah

What is an example of a late history book?

I'm not sure.

What were Muawiyah's father and brothers appointed as before they converted to Islam?

I'm not sure.

Who appointed Muhammad as a commander?

I'm not sure.

Who never fought at the battle of Yarmouk?

I'm not sure.

What battle did the Byzantines win?

I'm not sure.


Non-Muslim groups in the Umayyad Caliphate, which included Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians, and pagan Berbers, were called dhimmis. They were given a legally protected status as second-class citizens as long as they accepted and acknowledged the political supremacy of the ruling Muslims. They were allowed to have their own courts, and were given freedom of their religion within the empire.[citation needed] Although they could not hold the highest public offices in the empire, they had many bureaucratic positions within the government. Christians and Jews still continued to produce great theological thinkers within their communities, but as time wore on, many of the intellectuals converted to Islam, leading to a lack of great thinkers in the non-Muslim communities.

What were non-Muslim groups under the Umayyads called?

dhimmis

Along with Berbers, Zoroastrians and Christians, what notable non-Muslim group existed in the Umayyad Caliphate?

Jews

Along with Jews, what non-Muslim religion produced notable theological works under the Umayyads?

Christians

What were Muslim groups in the Umayyad Caliphate called?

I'm not sure.

Who was given a legally protected status as first class citizens?

I'm not sure.

What were Muslims banned from holding in the empire?

I'm not sure.

What led to a lack of great thinkers in Muslim communities?

I'm not sure.

What were non-Muslims not required to acknowledge?

I'm not sure.


The Umayyad caliphate was marked both by territorial expansion and by the administrative and cultural problems that such expansion created. Despite some notable exceptions, the Umayyads tended to favor the rights of the old Arab families, and in particular their own, over those of newly converted Muslims (mawali). Therefore, they held to a less universalist conception of Islam than did many of their rivals. As G.R. Hawting has written, "Islam was in fact regarded as the property of the conquering aristocracy."

What is another name for people who recently converted to Islam?

mawali

Who argued that the Umayyads regarded Islam as a particularly aristocratic faith?

G.R. Hawting

What sorts of families did the Umayyads show favor to?

old Arab

Which caliphate was not marked by territorial expansion?

I'm not sure.

Who favored the rights of newly converted Muslims?

I'm not sure.

Who did the mawali show favor to?

I'm not sure.

Who had a more universalist conception of Islam than their rivals?

I'm not sure.


Many Muslims criticized the Umayyads for having too many non-Muslim, former Roman administrators in their government. St John of Damascus was also a high administrator in the Umayyad administration. As the Muslims took over cities, they left the peoples political representatives and the Roman tax collectors and the administrators. The taxes to the central government were calculated and negotiated by the peoples political representatives. The Central government got paid for the services it provided and the local government got the money for the services it provided. Many Christian cities also used some of the taxes on maintain their churches and run their own organizations. Later the Umayyads were criticized by some Muslims for not reducing the taxes of the people who converted to Islam. These new converts continues to pay the same taxes that were previously negotiated.

What Christian saint was also an Umayyad administrator?

John of Damascus

What tax collectors did the Umayyads often leave in place after they conquered regions?

Roman

In addition to criticism received for employing non-Muslims, for what notable reason did some Muslims criticize the Umayyads?

not reducing the taxes of the people who converted to Islam

What did many Muslims praise the Umayyads for?

I'm not sure.

Who removed the people's political representatives as they took over?

I'm not sure.

What was the Central government not paid for?

I'm not sure.

What did many Muslim cities use some of their taxes for?

I'm not sure.

Who reduced the taxes of the people who converted to Islam?

I'm not sure.


The Umayyads have met with a largely negative reception from later Islamic historians, who have accused them of promoting a kingship (mulk, a term with connotations of tyranny) instead of a true caliphate (khilafa). In this respect it is notable that the Umayyad caliphs referred to themselves not as khalifat rasul Allah ("successor of the messenger of God", the title preferred by the tradition), but rather as khalifat Allah ("deputy of God"). The distinction seems to indicate that the Umayyads "regarded themselves as God's representatives at the head of the community and saw no need to share their religious power with, or delegate it to, the emergent class of religious scholars." In fact, it was precisely this class of scholars, based largely in Iraq, that was responsible for collecting and recording the traditions that form the primary source material for the history of the Umayyad period. In reconstructing this history, therefore, it is necessary to rely mainly on sources, such as the histories of Tabari and Baladhuri, that were written in the Abbasid court at Baghdad.

What Arabic term did the Umayyad caliphs use to refer to themselves?

khalifat Allah

Where was the Abbasid court based?

Baghdad

What is the Arabic term for kingship?

mulk

What was the tradition Arabic title used by caliphs?

khalifat rasul Allah

What does khalifat Allah translate to in English?

deputy of God

Who has a positive reception from later Islamic historians?

I'm not sure.

What is a term for kingship that has connotations of freedom?

I'm not sure.

Who calls the Umayyads a true caliphate?

I'm not sure.

Who saw a need to share religious power with the religious scholars?

I'm not sure.

What histories were written outside the Abbasid court?

I'm not sure.


Asphalt/bitumen also occurs in unconsolidated sandstones known as "oil sands" in Alberta, Canada, and the similar "tar sands" in Utah, US. The Canadian province of Alberta has most of the world's reserves of natural bitumen, in three huge deposits covering 142,000 square kilometres (55,000 sq mi), an area larger than England or New York state. These bituminous sands contain 166 billion barrels (26.4×10^9 m3) of commercially established oil reserves, giving Canada the third largest oil reserves in the world. and produce over 2.3 million barrels per day (370×10^3 m3/d) of heavy crude oil and synthetic crude oil. Although historically it was used without refining to pave roads, nearly all of the bitumen is now used as raw material for oil refineries in Canada and the United States.

What is another term for asphalt?

bitumen

Besides occurrences in Canada, where in the US is asphalt found?

Utah

How much of the planet's asphalt is located in Canada?

most

What is the area amount of the Canadian asphalt deposits?

142,000 square kilometres

Where does most of Canada's asphalt end up these days?

oil refineries

Along with the state of Iowa, where else does asphalt occur in unconsolidated sandstones?

I'm not sure.

Comprised of four large deposits, in which province are most of the world's natural bitumen reserves located?

I'm not sure.

Where does most of the Canadian oil supply end up?

I'm not sure.

What is the total area of the Cambodian asphalt deposits?

I'm not sure.


The first use of asphalt/bitumen in the New World was by indigenous peoples. On the west coast, as early as the 13th century, the Tongva, Luiseño and Chumash peoples collected the naturally occurring asphalt/bitumen that seeped to the surface above underlying petroleum deposits. All three used the substance as an adhesive. It is found on many different artifacts of tools and ceremonial items. For example, it was used on rattles to adhere gourds or turtle shells to rattle handles. It was also used in decorations. Small round shell beads were often set in asphaltum to provide decorations. It was used as a sealant on baskets to make them watertight for carrying water. Asphaltum was used also to seal the planks on ocean-going canoes.

What group initially made use of asphalt?

indigenous peoples

For what purpose did American Indians use asphalt?

adhesive

What sort of deposits does asphalt overlay?

petroleum

What would early users of asphalt want to achieve by putting it on baskets?

watertight

On what type of boat was asphalt used to seal planks?

canoes

The foreign people were the first to use what in the New World?

I'm not sure.

What group was the first to use shell beads?

I'm not sure.

What was used on shell beads to adhere gourds?

I'm not sure.

What was used on turtle shells to provide decorations?

I'm not sure.

What was used on turtle shells as a sealant?

I'm not sure.


When maintenance is performed on asphalt pavements, such as milling to remove a worn or damaged surface, the removed material can be returned to a facility for processing into new pavement mixtures. The asphalt/bitumen in the removed material can be reactivated and put back to use in new pavement mixes. With some 95% of paved roads being constructed of or surfaced with asphalt, a substantial amount of asphalt pavement material is reclaimed each year. According to industry surveys conducted annually by the Federal Highway Administration and the National Asphalt Pavement Association, more than 99% of the asphalt removed each year from road surfaces during widening and resurfacing projects is reused as part of new pavements, roadbeds, shoulders and embankments.

What is used asphalt turned back into?

new pavement mixtures

How much of yearly acquired asphalt is reclaimed?

What percentage of new roadways are surfaced with asphalt?

During what action is asphalt often reclaimed?

maintenance

For what reason is asphalt removed from a road?

worn or damaged

Where can the removed surveys be returned for processing into new mixtures?

I'm not sure.

Where is the deactivated asphalt put back to use?

I'm not sure.

99% percent of what are constructed by using asphalt?

I'm not sure.

How often does the Federal Asphalt Administration conduct surveys?

I'm not sure.

99% of asphalt that is removed from road surfaces during what type of projects is reused for conducting industry surveys?

I'm not sure.


In Alberta, five bitumen upgraders produce synthetic crude oil and a variety of other products: The Suncor Energy upgrader near Fort McMurray, Alberta produces synthetic crude oil plus diesel fuel; the Syncrude Canada, Canadian Natural Resources, and Nexen upgraders near Fort McMurray produce synthetic crude oil; and the Shell Scotford Upgrader near Edmonton produces synthetic crude oil plus an intermediate feedstock for the nearby Shell Oil Refinery. A sixth upgrader, under construction in 2015 near Redwater, Alberta, will upgrade half of its crude bitumen directly to diesel fuel, with the remainder of the output being sold as feedstock to nearby oil refineries and petrochemical plants.

How many asphalt upgraders operate in Alberta?

five

What synthetic product is produced by upgraders?

crude oil

Besides crude oil, what does the Suncor Energy plant produce?

diesel fuel

Where is a sixth upgrader being built in Alberta?

Redwater, Alberta

How much of the production of the Redwater plant will into diesel fuel?

half

How many bitumen upgraders produce synthetic crude oil in Edmonton?

I'm not sure.

When is the seventh upgrader scheduled to be under construction?

I'm not sure.

The sixth upgrader will upgrade two thirds of what?

I'm not sure.

The remainder of the output will be sold to Suncor Energy as what?

I'm not sure.

Where is the Shell Oil upgrader located?

I'm not sure.


Asphalt/bitumen is typically stored and transported at temperatures around 150 °C (302 °F). Sometimes diesel oil or kerosene are mixed in before shipping to retain liquidity; upon delivery, these lighter materials are separated out of the mixture. This mixture is often called "bitumen feedstock", or BFS. Some dump trucks route the hot engine exhaust through pipes in the dump body to keep the material warm. The backs of tippers carrying asphalt/bitumen, as well as some handling equipment, are also commonly sprayed with a releasing agent before filling to aid release. Diesel oil is no longer used as a release agent due to environmental concerns.

About what temperature is asphalt shipped?

150 °C

To promote what characteristic is diesel oil added to asphalt for shipping?

liquidity

What is the liquefied mixture called?

bitumen feedstock

What truck feature is occasionally used to keep asphalt warm?

engine exhaust

Due to what concerns is diesel fuel no longer used as a release agent for transporting asphalt?

environmental

To retain liquidity, what is sometimes mixed in with engine exhaust?

I'm not sure.

Diesel oil or kerosene is often mixed into what to retain warmth?

I'm not sure.

Due to what kind of concerns is diesel oil now used as a release agent?

I'm not sure.

Environmental concerns are the reason engine exhaust is no longer used as what?

I'm not sure.


The Albanian bitumen extraction has a long history and was practiced in an organized way by the Romans. After centuries of silence, the first mentions of Albanian bitumen appeared only in 1868, when the Frenchman Coquand published the first geological description of the deposits of Albanian bitumen. In 1875, the exploitation rights were granted to the Ottoman government and in 1912, they were transferred to the Italian company Simsa. Since 1945, the mine was exploited by the Albanian government and from 2001 to date, the management passed to a French company, which organized the mining process for the manufacture of the natural bitumen on an industrial scale.

What ancient group used bitumen extraction?

Romans

When were the first published reports of bitumen extraction in Albania?

What government had exploitation rights for bitumen extraction?

Ottoman

When were the Ottoman rights given to the Simsa company?

When was management of Albanian bitumen acquired by the French?

The last known mentions of Albanian bitumen appeared in what year?

I'm not sure.

The Albanian Coquand published the first description of what?

I'm not sure.

When were the exploitation rights given to the Roman Empire?

I'm not sure.

When did Simsa receive the industrial scale?

I'm not sure.

What was transferred to Simsa in 1917?

I'm not sure.


The word asphalt is derived from the late Middle English, in turn from French asphalte, based on Late Latin asphalton, asphaltum, which is the latinisation of the Greek ἄσφαλτος (ásphaltos, ásphalton), a word meaning "asphalt/bitumen/pitch", which perhaps derives from ἀ-, "without" and σφάλλω (sfallō), "make fall". Note that in French, the term asphalte is used for naturally occurring bitumen-soaked limestone deposits, and for specialised manufactured products with fewer voids or greater bitumen content than the "asphaltic concrete" used to pave roads. It is a significant fact that the first use of asphalt by the ancients was in the nature of a cement for securing or joining together various objects, and it thus seems likely that the name itself was expressive of this application. Specifically Herodotus mentioned that bitumen was brought to Babylon to build its gigantic fortification wall. From the Greek, the word passed into late Latin, and thence into French (asphalte) and English ("asphaltum" and "asphalt").

What is the last origination of the word asphalt?

late Middle English

From what language does asphalt initially come?

Greek

What are the meanings of the Greek word for asphalt?

asphalt/bitumen/pitch

What is the French term for natural asphalt?

asphalte

To construct what feature was asphalt brought to Babylon?

wall

From where is the word limestone derived?

I'm not sure.

In Greek, what is the term asphalte used for?

I'm not sure.

According to who was bitumen brought to Greece to build a giant wall?

I'm not sure.

In what language is asphalte used for synthetically occurring bitumen soaked limestones?

I'm not sure.


The terms asphalt and bitumen are often used interchangeably to mean both natural and manufactured forms of the substance. In American English, asphalt (or asphalt cement) is the carefully refined residue from the distillation process of selected crude oils. Outside the United States, the product is often called bitumen. Geologists often prefer the term bitumen. Common usage often refers to various forms of asphalt/bitumen as "tar", such as at the La Brea Tar Pits. Another archaic term for asphalt/bitumen is "pitch".

How are the words bitumen and asphalt frequently used?

interchangeably

Where is bitumen the usual term for refined residue from crude oils?

United States

What is asphalt called outside of the US?

bitumen

What group likes the term bitumen instead of asphalt?

Geologists

What is a naming term for asphalt?

tar

The term asphalt is often preferred by who?

I'm not sure.

Tar is an archaic term for what?

I'm not sure.

Pitch and what other term are often used interchangeably?

I'm not sure.

Another way to say asphalt tar is to simply say what ?

I'm not sure.

What is the substance usually called outside of the La Brea Tar Pits?

I'm not sure.


The great majority of asphalt used commercially is obtained from petroleum. Nonetheless, large amounts of asphalt occur in concentrated form in nature. Naturally occurring deposits of asphalt/bitumen are formed from the remains of ancient, microscopic algae (diatoms) and other once-living things. These remains were deposited in the mud on the bottom of the ocean or lake where the organisms lived. Under the heat (above 50 °C) and pressure of burial deep in the earth, the remains were transformed into materials such as asphalt/bitumen, kerogen, or petroleum.

From where does most asphalt come?

petroleum

What are the sources of natural deposits of asphalt?

once-living things

How much heat is required for the natural production of asphalt?

above 50 °C

Besides heat, what other requirement is needed to form asphalt?

pressure

What other product of heat and pressure does the formation of asphalt and petroleum  produce?

kerogen

Most of the petroleum used for commercial purposes is obtained from what?

I'm not sure.

Current living things are the source of what?

I'm not sure.

What product of heat and pressure does the formation of asphalt and microscopic algae produce?

I'm not sure.

Besides pressure, what is required to form mud?

I'm not sure.

Besides heat, what is required to form Besides pressure, what is required to form mud??

I'm not sure.


The world's largest deposit of natural bitumen, known as the Athabasca oil sands is located in the McMurray Formation of Northern Alberta. This formation is from the early Cretaceous, and is composed of numerous lenses of oil-bearing sand with up to 20% oil. Isotopic studies attribute the oil deposits to be about 110 million years old. Two smaller but still very large formations occur in the Peace River oil sands and the Cold Lake oil sands, to the west and southeast of the Athabasca oil sands, respectively. Of the Alberta bitumen deposits, only parts of the Athabasca oil sands are shallow enough to be suitable for surface mining. The other 80% has to be produced by oil wells using enhanced oil recovery techniques like steam-assisted gravity drainage.

What is the name of the world's greatest deposit of bitumen?

Athabasca oil sands

Where are the Athabasca oil sands located?

Northern Alberta

What formative period  produced bitumen?

early Cretaceous

How old are the Athabasca deposits?

110 million years

What percentage of recovery of bitumen is by oil wells?

Located in the McMurray Formation, what is the smallest deposit of natural bitumen known as?

I'm not sure.

Located in the Peace River, what is the largest deposit of natural bitumen known as?

I'm not sure.

The two largest formations occur in the oil sands of which river?

I'm not sure.

The two largest formations occur in the oil sands of which lake?

I'm not sure.

What is the other 70% produced by?

I'm not sure.


Bitumen was used in early photographic technology. In 1826 or 1827, it was used by French scientist Joseph Nicéphore Niépce to make the oldest surviving photograph from nature. The bitumen was thinly coated onto a pewter plate which was then exposed in a camera. Exposure to light hardened the bitumen and made it insoluble, so that when it was subsequently rinsed with a solvent only the sufficiently light-struck areas remained. Many hours of exposure in the camera were required, making bitumen impractical for ordinary photography, but from the 1850s to the 1920s it was in common use as a photoresist in the production of printing plates for various photomechanical printing processes.[not in citation given]

In what early technology was bitumen used?

photographic

What photographer used bitumen to make the earliest extant nature picture?

Joseph Nicéphore Niépce

What feature of bitumen use in photography made it impractical?

hours of exposure

During what period was bitumen used in printing processes?

1850s to the 1920s

Exposure to what natural element was necessary for early photographic plates?

light

What was used in early photomechanical technology?

I'm not sure.

What did spanish scientist Joseph Nicéphore Niépce use to make the oldest surviving photograph?

I'm not sure.

Exposure to darkness did what to the bitumen and also made it insoluble?

I'm not sure.

What did exposure to light harden and make soluble?

I'm not sure.

When did the Spanish scientist use bitumen to make a photograph from nature?

I'm not sure.


The first British patent for the use of asphalt/bitumen was 'Cassell's patent asphalte or bitumen' in 1834. Then on 25 November 1837, Richard Tappin Claridge patented the use of Seyssel asphalt (patent #7849), for use in asphalte pavement, having seen it employed in France and Belgium when visiting with Frederick Walter Simms, who worked with him on the introduction of asphalt to Britain. Dr T. Lamb Phipson writes that his father, Samuel Ryland Phipson, a friend of Claridge, was also "instrumental in introducing the asphalte pavement (in 1836)". Indeed, mastic pavements had been previously employed at Vauxhall by a competitor of Claridge, but without success.

When was the first British patent for the use of bitumen?

When did Richard Tappin Claridge patent asphalt for use in pavement?

25 November 1837

Where had Claridge previously seen asphalt used as pavement?

France and Belgium

What type of pavement techniques had already been tried by a competitor of Claridge?

mastic

What friend of Claridge's was helpful in introducing asphalt for use in pavements?

Samuel Ryland Phipson

In what year was Cassell's patent France or Belgium issued?

I'm not sure.

The second patent, Cassell's patent, was issued in which year?

I'm not sure.

On what day did Claridge's patent #5309 patent the use of Seyssel asphalt?

I'm not sure.

In 1845 Richard Tappin Claridge patented the use of what?

I'm not sure.

When was the second British patent for using bitumen issued?

I'm not sure.


Roads in the US have been paved with materials that include asphalt/bitumen since at least 1870, when a street in front of the Newark, NJ City Hall was paved. In many cases, these early pavings were made from naturally occurring "bituminous rock", such as at Ritchie Mines in Macfarlan in Ritchie County, West Virginia from 1852 to 1873. In 1876, asphalt-based paving was used to pave Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, DC, in time for the celebration of the national centennial. Asphalt/bitumen was also used for flooring, paving and waterproofing of baths and swimming pools during the early 20th century, following similar trends in Europe.

Since what date has asphalt been used for road paving in the US?

In front of what NJ building was the street paved with asphalt in 1870?

City Hall

What natural substance was used in early road pavings?

bituminous rock

From what Virginia  mines was asphalt obtained for early street pavings?

Ritchie Mines

For what purpose was asphalt used in swimming pools and baths?

waterproofing

Ever since 1773, roads in the United States have been paved with what?

I'm not sure.

What have been paved with asphalt since at least 1920?

I'm not sure.

What was Ritchie Mines used to waterproof during the 20th century?

I'm not sure.

When was New York's, Pennsylvania Avenue paved?

I'm not sure.

What was NJ City Hall used for during the early 20th century?

I'm not sure.


In 1838, there was a flurry of entrepreneurial activity involving asphalt/bitumen, which had uses beyond paving. For example, asphalt could also used for flooring, damp proofing in buildings, and for waterproofing of various types of pools and baths, with these latter themselves proliferating in the 19th century. On the London stockmarket, there were various claims as to the exclusivity of asphalt quality from France, Germany and England. And numerous patents were granted in France, with similar numbers of patent applications being denied in England due to their similarity to each other. In England, "Claridge's was the type most used in the 1840s and 50s"

In what year was asphalt used for uses aside from road paving?

In what places were asphalt used as waterproofing?

pools and baths

For what reason was asphalt used in the flooring of buildings?

damp proofing

When was Claridge's asphalt the most often used?

1840s and 50s

Many of what were granted in France, but denied in Britain?

patents

In what year was asphalt used for things other than bathing?

I'm not sure.

In what places were asphalt used as soundproofing?

I'm not sure.

Why was asphalt used in the flooring of patents?

I'm not sure.

What were often granted in Britain, but denied in France?

I'm not sure.

What were often denied throughout France, Germany and England?

I'm not sure.


The value of the deposit was obvious from the start, but the means of extracting the bitumen were not. The nearest town, Fort McMurray, Alberta was a small fur trading post, other markets were far away, and transportation costs were too high to ship the raw bituminous sand for paving. In 1915, Sidney Ells of the Federal Mines Branch experimented with separation techniques and used the bitumen to pave 600 feet of road in Edmonton, Alberta. Other roads in Alberta were paved with oil sands, but it was generally not economic. During the 1920s Dr. Karl A. Clark of the Alberta Research Council patented a hot water oil separation process and entrepreneur Robert C. Fitzsimmons built the Bitumount oil separation plant, which between 1925 and 1958 produced up to 300 barrels (50 m3) per day of bitumen using Dr. Clark's method. Most of the bitumen was used for waterproofing roofs, but other uses included fuels, lubrication oils, printers ink, medicines, rust and acid-proof paints, fireproof roofing, street paving, patent leather, and fence post preservatives. Eventually Fitzsimmons ran out of money and the plant was taken over by the Alberta government. Today the Bitumount plant is a Provincial Historic Site.

Who experimented with bitumen extraction techniques to make shipping easier?

Sidney Ells

When did Ells begin using bitumen as a paving in Alberta?

What researcher patented a hot water oil process to separate bitumen?

Dr. Karl A. Clark

Who constructed the Bitumont oil separation plant?

Robert C. Fitzsimmons

For what was most of the the Bitumont plant's output was used for waterproofing?

roofs

From when was the value of Dr. Clark's method obvious?

I'm not sure.

The means of implanting what were not obvious?

I'm not sure.

The largest fur trading post was in what town?

I'm not sure.

In what year did Karl Clark use bitumen to pave 600 feet of road in Edmonton?

I'm not sure.

In what year did Sidney Ells use bitumen to pave 900 feet of road in Edmonton?

I'm not sure.


Canadian bitumen does not differ substantially from oils such as Venezuelan extra-heavy and Mexican heavy oil in chemical composition, and the real difficulty is moving the extremely viscous bitumen through oil pipelines to the refinery. Many modern oil refineries are extremely sophisticated and can process non-upgraded bitumen directly into products such as gasoline, diesel fuel, and refined asphalt without any preprocessing. This is particularly common in areas such as the US Gulf coast, where refineries were designed to process Venezuelan and Mexican oil, and in areas such as the US Midwest where refineries were rebuilt to process heavy oil as domestic light oil production declined. Given the choice, such heavy oil refineries usually prefer to buy bitumen rather than synthetic oil because the cost is lower, and in some cases because they prefer to produce more diesel fuel and less gasoline. By 2015 Canadian production and exports of non-upgraded bitumen exceeded that of synthetic crude oil at over 1.3 million barrels (210×10^3 m3) per day, of which about 65% was exported to the United States.

What property of bitumen makes it difficult to move through pipelines?

extremely viscous

What industry is capable of refining bitumen directly into gasoline without preprocessing?

modern oil refineries

Why do refineries like to buy bitumen instead of synthetic oil?

cost is lower

How much Canadian bitumen was exported to the US by 2015?

What type of oils does Canadian bitumen differ substantially from?

I'm not sure.

Other than Mexican extra-heavy oil, what type of oil does Canadian bitumen not differ greatly from?

I'm not sure.

Other than Venezuelan-light oil, what type of oil does Canadian bitumen not differ greatly from?

I'm not sure.

What type of oils does American bitumen not differ substantially from?

I'm not sure.

In what areas is this uncommon?

I'm not sure.


A number of technologies allow asphalt/bitumen to be mixed at much lower temperatures. These involve mixing with petroleum solvents to form "cutbacks" with reduced melting point, or mixtures with water to turn the asphalt/bitumen into an emulsion. Asphalt emulsions contain up to 70% asphalt/bitumen and typically less than 1.5% chemical additives. There are two main types of emulsions with different affinity for aggregates, cationic and anionic. Asphalt emulsions are used in a wide variety of applications. Chipseal involves spraying the road surface with asphalt emulsion followed by a layer of crushed rock, gravel or crushed slag. Slurry seal involves the creation of a mixture of asphalt emulsion and fine crushed aggregate that is spread on the surface of a road. Cold-mixed asphalt can also be made from asphalt emulsion to create pavements similar to hot-mixed asphalt, several inches in depth and asphalt emulsions are also blended into recycled hot-mix asphalt to create low-cost pavements.

What does mixing bitumen with water create?

emulsion

What percentage of bitumen is found in bitumen/water emulsions?

What are the two types of bitumen emulsions?

cationic and anionic

What are some bitumen emulsions blended with to make a low-cost product?

recycled

What kind of asphalt pavements an cold-mix asphalt resemble?

hot-mixed

What allows asphalt to be mixed at higher temperatures?

I'm not sure.

Up to 80% of asphalt emulsions is what?

I'm not sure.

Less than 5% of asphalt emulsions is comprised of what?

I'm not sure.

How many types of chipseals with different affinities are there?

I'm not sure.


Naturally occurring crude asphalt/bitumen impregnated in sedimentary rock is the prime feed stock for petroleum production from "Oil sands", currently under development in Alberta, Canada. Canada has most of the world's supply of natural asphalt/bitumen, covering 140,000 square kilometres (an area larger than England), giving it the second-largest proven oil reserves in the world. The Athabasca oil sands is the largest asphalt/bitumen deposit in Canada and the only one accessible to surface mining, although recent technological breakthroughs have resulted in deeper deposits becoming producible by in situ methods. Because of oil price increases after 2003, producing bitumen became highly profitable, but as a result of the decline after 2014 it became uneconomic to build new plants again. By 2014, Canadian crude asphalt/bitumen production averaged about 2.3 million barrels (370,000 m3) per day and was projected to rise to 4.4 million barrels (700,000 m3) per day by 2020. The total amount of crude asphalt/bitumen in Alberta which could be extracted is estimated to be about 310 billion barrels (50×10^9 m3), which at a rate of 4,400,000 barrels per day (700,000 m3/d) would last about 200 years.

Where is naturally occurring bitumen in rock being developed as a feed stock for petroleum production?

Alberta, Canada

How much area does Canada's natural bitumen cover?

140,000 square kilometres

Where does Canada rank in world's oil supplies?

second-largest

What is Canada's only surface bitumen mine?

Athabasca oil sands

What is the amount of bitumen that can be extracted in Alberta?

310 billion barrels

How much area does the smallest supply of natural bitumen, in Canada, cover?

I'm not sure.

Which country has the third-largest known oil preserves in the world?

I'm not sure.

Oil prices decreased after which year?

I'm not sure.

By what year did Canadian oil sands production average 2.3 million barrels per day?

I'm not sure.

By what year did Athabascan crude asphalt/bitumen production average 2.3 million barrels per day?

I'm not sure.