In 1824, the French physicist François Arago formulated the existence of rotating magnetic fields, termed Arago's rotations, which, by manually turning switches on and off, Walter Baily demonstrated in 1879 as in effect the first primitive induction motor.  In the 1880s, many inventors were trying to develop workable AC motors because AC's advantages in long-distance high-voltage transmission were counterbalanced by the inability to operate motors on AC. The first alternating-current commutatorless induction motors were independently invented by Galileo Ferraris and Nikola Tesla, a working motor model having been demonstrated by the former in 1885 and by the latter in 1887. In 1888, the Royal Academy of Science of Turin published Ferraris' research detailing the foundations of motor operation while however concluding that "the apparatus based on that principle could not be of any commercial importance as motor." In 1888, Tesla presented his paper A New System for Alternating Current Motors and Transformers to the AIEE that described three patented two-phase four-stator-pole motor types: one with a four-pole rotor forming a non-self-starting reluctance motor, another with a wound rotor forming a self-starting induction motor, and the third a true synchronous motor with separately excited DC supply to rotor winding. One of the patents Tesla filed in 1887, however, also described a shorted-winding-rotor induction motor. George Westinghouse promptly bought Tesla's patents, employed Tesla to develop them, and assigned C. F. Scott to help Tesla, Tesla left for other pursuits in 1889.  The constant speed AC induction motor was found not to be suitable for street cars but Westinghouse engineers successfully adapted it to power a mining operation in Telluride, Colorado in 1891. Steadfast in his promotion of three-phase development, Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky invented the three-phase cage-rotor induction motor in 1889 and the three-limb transformer in 1890. This type of motor is now used for the vast majority of commercial applications. However, he claimed that Tesla's motor was not practical because of two-phase pulsations, which prompted him to persist in his three-phase work. Although Westinghouse achieved its first practical induction motor in 1892 and developed a line of polyphase 60 hertz induction motors in 1893, these early Westinghouse motors were two-phase motors with wound rotors until B. G. Lamme developed a rotating bar winding rotor. The General Electric Company began developing three-phase induction motors in 1891. By 1896, General Electric and Westinghouse signed a cross-licensing agreement for the bar-winding-rotor design, later called the squirrel-cage rotor. Induction motor improvements flowing from these inventions and innovations were such that a 100 horsepower (HP) induction motor currently has the same mounting dimensions as a 7.5 HP motor in 1897.

Who built the first induction motor?

Walter Baily

What type of power were early motors unable to use?

AC

Who bought Tesla's patents?

George Westinghouse

For what application was Tesla's motor first used?

mining

What's another name for the bar-winding-rotor?

squirrel-cage

Who built the second induction motor?

I'm not sure.

What type of power were late motors unable to use?

I'm not sure.

Who sold Tesla's patents?

I'm not sure.

For what application was Tesla's motor never used?

I'm not sure.

What's not another name for the bar-winding-rotor?

I'm not sure.


A commutator is a mechanism used to switch the input of most DC machines and certain AC machines consisting of slip ring segments insulated from each other and from the electric motor's shaft. The motor's armature current is supplied through the stationary brushes in contact with the revolving commutator, which causes required current reversal and applies power to the machine in an optimal manner as the rotor rotates from pole to pole. In absence of such current reversal, the motor would brake to a stop. In light of significant advances in the past few decades due to improved technologies in electronic controller, sensorless control, induction motor, and permanent magnet motor fields, electromechanically commutated motors are increasingly being displaced by externally commutated induction and permanent-magnet motors.

What would a rotor do without current reversal?

brake to a stop

What switches the input of most DC motors?

commutator

From where is current to the motor supplied?

stationary brushes

What two motor types are ascendant today?

externally commutated induction and permanent-magnet

What would a rotor do with current reversal?

I'm not sure.

What switches the output of most DC motors?

I'm not sure.

From where is current to the motor not supplied?

I'm not sure.

What two motor types are descendant today?

I'm not sure.


A commutated DC motor has a set of rotating windings wound on an armature mounted on a rotating shaft. The shaft also carries the commutator, a long-lasting rotary electrical switch that periodically reverses the flow of current in the rotor windings as the shaft rotates. Thus, every brushed DC motor has AC flowing through its rotating windings. Current flows through one or more pairs of brushes that bear on the commutator; the brushes connect an external source of electric power to the rotating armature.

What does the communicator do?

reverses the flow of current in the rotor windings

What type of current is featured in brushed DC motors?

AC

Where do brushes get their power?

external

What is the main feature of the shaft in a commutated DC motor?

rotating

What does the excommunicator do?

I'm not sure.

What type of current is featured in brushed RC motors?

I'm not sure.

Where do brushes not get their power?

I'm not sure.

What is not the main feature of the shaft in a commutated DC motor?

I'm not sure.


The rotating armature consists of one or more coils of wire wound around a laminated, magnetically "soft" ferromagnetic core. Current from the brushes flows through the commutator and one winding of the armature, making it a temporary magnet (an electromagnet). The magnetic field produced by the armature interacts with a stationary magnetic field produced by either PMs or another winding a field coil, as part of the motor frame. The force between the two magnetic fields tends to rotate the motor shaft. The commutator switches power to the coils as the rotor turns, keeping the magnetic poles of the rotor from ever fully aligning with the magnetic poles of the stator field, so that the rotor never stops (like a compass needle does), but rather keeps rotating as long as power is applied.

Current flowing to create a temporary magent is called what?

electromagnet

What rotates the motor shaft?

force between the two magnetic fields

What element of the motor keeps the poles from alligning?

commutator

What non-motor device demonstrates why a commutator is needed?

compass

Current flowing to create a non-temporary magent is called what?

I'm not sure.

What doesn't rotate the motor shaft?

I'm not sure.

What element of the motor makes the poles alligning?

I'm not sure.

What motor device demonstrates why a commutator is needed?

I'm not sure.


Many of the limitations of the classic commutator DC motor are due to the need for brushes to press against the commutator. This creates friction. Sparks are created by the brushes making and breaking circuits through the rotor coils as the brushes cross the insulating gaps between commutator sections. Depending on the commutator design, this may include the brushes shorting together adjacent sections – and hence coil ends – momentarily while crossing the gaps. Furthermore, the inductance of the rotor coils causes the voltage across each to rise when its circuit is opened, increasing the sparking of the brushes. This sparking limits the maximum speed of the machine, as too-rapid sparking will overheat, erode, or even melt the commutator. The current density per unit area of the brushes, in combination with their resistivity, limits the output of the motor. The making and breaking of electric contact also generates electrical noise; sparking generates RFI. Brushes eventually wear out and require replacement, and the commutator itself is subject to wear and maintenance (on larger motors) or replacement (on small motors). The commutator assembly on a large motor is a costly element, requiring precision assembly of many parts. On small motors, the commutator is usually permanently integrated into the rotor, so replacing it usually requires replacing the whole rotor.

How is RFI generated?

sparking

What do brushes need to be in contact with?

commutator

What is created by contact between parts of the motor?

friction

What does sparking limit?

maximum speed

What motor components most need replacement and maintenance?

Brushes

How is RFID generated?

I'm not sure.

What don't brushes need to be in contact with?

I'm not sure.

What is not created by contact between parts of the motor?

I'm not sure.

What does sparking not limit?

I'm not sure.

What motor components least need replacement and maintenance?

I'm not sure.


Large brushes are desired for a larger brush contact area to maximize motor output, but small brushes are desired for low mass to maximize the speed at which the motor can run without the brushes excessively bouncing and sparking. (Small brushes are also desirable for lower cost.) Stiffer brush springs can also be used to make brushes of a given mass work at a higher speed, but at the cost of greater friction losses (lower efficiency) and accelerated brush and commutator wear. Therefore, DC motor brush design entails a trade-off between output power, speed, and efficiency/wear.

What are large brushes favorable for?

motor output

Whate are small brushes favorable for?

speed

What type of brushes are cheapest?

small

How can the speed of larger brushes be increased?

Stiffer brush springs

Besides wear, what is a downside of stiff brush springs?

lower efficiency

What are small brushes favorable for?

I'm not sure.

What are small brushes not favorable for?

I'm not sure.

What type of brushes are not the cheapest?

I'm not sure.

How can the speed of larger brushes be decreased?

I'm not sure.

Besides wear, what is a upside of stiff brush springs?

I'm not sure.


A PM motor does not have a field winding on the stator frame, instead relying on PMs to provide the magnetic field against which the rotor field interacts to produce torque. Compensating windings in series with the armature may be used on large motors to improve commutation under load. Because this field is fixed, it cannot be adjusted for speed control. PM fields (stators) are convenient in miniature motors to eliminate the power consumption of the field winding. Most larger DC motors are of the "dynamo" type, which have stator windings. Historically, PMs could not be made to retain high flux if they were disassembled; field windings were more practical to obtain the needed amount of flux. However, large PMs are costly, as well as dangerous and difficult to assemble; this favors wound fields for large machines.

What can a PM motor not be adjusted for?

speed control

What is another name for PM fields?

stators

What design feature does a PM motor lack?

field winding

What do field windings provide?

flux

What can a PMM motor not be adjusted for?

I'm not sure.

What is another name for PMM fields?

I'm not sure.

What design feature does a PMM motor lack?

I'm not sure.

What don't field windings provide?

I'm not sure.


To minimize overall weight and size, miniature PM motors may use high energy magnets made with neodymium or other strategic elements; most such are neodymium-iron-boron alloy. With their higher flux density, electric machines with high-energy PMs are at least competitive with all optimally designed singly-fed synchronous and induction electric machines. Miniature motors resemble the structure in the illustration, except that they have at least three rotor poles (to ensure starting, regardless of rotor position) and their outer housing is a steel tube that magnetically links the exteriors of the curved field magnets.

Why do miniature PM motors use high energy magnets?

To minimize overall weight and size

What are high energy magnets typically made of?

neodymium-iron-boron alloy

What does the outer housing of a miniature motor resemble?

steel tube

How do PMs rate against other types of electric motors?

least competitive

Why do large PM motors use high energy magnets?

I'm not sure.

What are high energy magnets never made of?

I'm not sure.

What doesn't the outer housing of a miniature motor resemble?

I'm not sure.

How do PMs rate with other types of electric motors?

I'm not sure.


Operating at normal power line frequencies, universal motors are often found in a range less than 1000 watts. Universal motors also formed the basis of the traditional railway traction motor in electric railways. In this application, the use of AC to power a motor originally designed to run on DC would lead to efficiency losses due to eddy current heating of their magnetic components, particularly the motor field pole-pieces that, for DC, would have used solid (un-laminated) iron and they are now rarely used.

What is the typical maximum range of universal motors?

1000 watts

What type of motor was used in trailway traction applications?

universal

What is the result of using AC power on a DC motor?

efficiency losses

What were universal motor pole pieces constructed from?

solid (un-laminated) iron

What is the atypical maximum range of universal motors?

I'm not sure.

What type of motor was not used in trailway traction applications?

I'm not sure.

What is the result of using DC power on a DC motor?

I'm not sure.

What weren't universal motor pole pieces constructed from?

I'm not sure.


An advantage of the universal motor is that AC supplies may be used on motors which have some characteristics more common in DC motors, specifically high starting torque and very compact design if high running speeds are used. The negative aspect is the maintenance and short life problems caused by the commutator. Such motors are used in devices such as food mixers and power tools which are used only intermittently, and often have high starting-torque demands. Multiple taps on the field coil provide (imprecise) stepped speed control. Household blenders that advertise many speeds frequently combine a field coil with several taps and a diode that can be inserted in series with the motor (causing the motor to run on half-wave rectified AC). Universal motors also lend themselves to electronic speed control and, as such, are an ideal choice for devices like domestic washing machines. The motor can be used to agitate the drum (both forwards and in reverse) by switching the field winding with respect to the armature.

What kind of motor can employ both AC and DC?

universal

What component of a universal motor is most likely to fail?

commutator

When is torque most important in universal motor applications?

starting

Switching the field winding in washing machines causes the drum to agitate how?

forwards and in reverse

How is stepped speed control achieved?

Multiple taps on the field coil provide

What kind of motor can employ both DC and DC?

I'm not sure.

What component of a universal motor is most likely to not fail?

I'm not sure.

When is torque least important in universal motor applications?

I'm not sure.

Switching the field winding out of washing machines causes the drum to agitate how?

I'm not sure.


Whereas SCIMs cannot turn a shaft faster than allowed by the power line frequency, universal motors can run at much higher speeds. This makes them useful for appliances such as blenders, vacuum cleaners, and hair dryers where high speed and light weight are desirable. They are also commonly used in portable power tools, such as drills, sanders, circular and jig saws, where the motor's characteristics work well. Many vacuum cleaner and weed trimmer motors exceed 10,000 rpm, while many similar miniature grinders exceed 30,000 rpm.

At around what RMP do weed trimmer motors operate?

At around what RMP do miniature grinders operate?

What type of motor can universal motors operate much faster than?

SCIMs

What attributes make universal motors desireable for consumer applications like hair dryers?

high speed and light weight

At around what RRP do weed trimmer motors operate?

I'm not sure.

At around what RMR do miniature grinders operate?

I'm not sure.

What type of motor can't universal motors operate much faster than?

I'm not sure.

What attributes make universal motors less desirable for consumer applications like hair dryers?

I'm not sure.


Currents induced into this winding provide the rotor magnetic field. The shape of the rotor bars determines the speed-torque characteristics. At low speeds, the current induced in the squirrel cage is nearly at line frequency and tends to be in the outer parts of the rotor cage. As the motor accelerates, the slip frequency becomes lower, and more current is in the interior of the winding. By shaping the bars to change the resistance of the winding portions in the interior and outer parts of the cage, effectively a variable resistance is inserted in the rotor circuit. However, the majority of such motors have uniform bars.

What determines the properties of speed and torque?

shape of the rotor bars

At high speed, where is the most current?

interior of the winding

Is the current frequency higher or lower at high speed?

lower

Changing the shapes of the bars creates what?

variable resistance

Where can variable resistance be created?

rotor circuit

What doesn't determine the properties of speed and torque?

I'm not sure.

At low speed, where is the most current?

I'm not sure.

Is the non-current frequency higher or lower at high speed?

I'm not sure.

Not changing the shapes of the bars creates what?

I'm not sure.

Where can variable resistance not be created?

I'm not sure.


In a WRIM, the rotor winding is made of many turns of insulated wire and is connected to slip rings on the motor shaft. An external resistor or other control devices can be connected in the rotor circuit. Resistors allow control of the motor speed, although significant power is dissipated in the external resistance. A converter can be fed from the rotor circuit and return the slip-frequency power that would otherwise be wasted back into the power system through an inverter or separate motor-generator.

Where might a resistor be attached?

rotor circuit

What can a resistor control?

motor speed

How might wasted power be salvaged?

inverter or separate motor-generator

From where may a converter be fed?

rotor circuit

Where might a resistor not be attached?

I'm not sure.

What can a resistor never control?

I'm not sure.

How might wasted power not be salvaged?

I'm not sure.

From where won't a converter be fed?

I'm not sure.


When used with a load that has a torque curve that increases with speed, the motor will operate at the speed where the torque developed by the motor is equal to the load torque. Reducing the load will cause the motor to speed up, and increasing the load will cause the motor to slow down until the load and motor torque are equal. Operated in this manner, the slip losses are dissipated in the secondary resistors and can be very significant. The speed regulation and net efficiency is also very poor.

What will a motor do if the load is reduced?

speed up

What will a motor do if the load is increased?

slow down

Where are slip losses dissipated?

secondary resistors

How efficient is such a design?

very poor

What will a motor do if the load is not reduced?

I'm not sure.

What will a motor do if the load is decreased?

I'm not sure.

Where are slip losses not dissipated?

I'm not sure.

How inefficient is such a design?

I'm not sure.


A common application of a torque motor would be the supply- and take-up reel motors in a tape drive. In this application, driven from a low voltage, the characteristics of these motors allow a relatively constant light tension to be applied to the tape whether or not the capstan is feeding tape past the tape heads. Driven from a higher voltage, (and so delivering a higher torque), the torque motors can also achieve fast-forward and rewind operation without requiring any additional mechanics such as gears or clutches. In the computer gaming world, torque motors are used in force feedback steering wheels.

How are torque motors used in computer gaming?

feedback steering wheels

A torque motor at low voltage provides what?

constant light tension

A torque motor at high voltage provides what?

higher torque

In a tape drive, what is not needed if a torque motor is used?

gears or clutches

How aren't torque motors used in computer gaming?

I'm not sure.

A torque motor at high voltage provides what?

I'm not sure.

A torque motor at low voltage provides what?

I'm not sure.

In a tape drive, what is needed if a torque motor is used?

I'm not sure.


Another common application is the control of the throttle of an internal combustion engine in conjunction with an electronic governor. In this usage, the motor works against a return spring to move the throttle in accordance with the output of the governor. The latter monitors engine speed by counting electrical pulses from the ignition system or from a magnetic pickup and, depending on the speed, makes small adjustments to the amount of current applied to the motor. If the engine starts to slow down relative to the desired speed, the current will be increased, the motor will develop more torque, pulling against the return spring and opening the throttle. Should the engine run too fast, the governor will reduce the current being applied to the motor, causing the return spring to pull back and close the throttle.

What element of a combustion engine does a governor monitor?

electrical pulses

What is a governor connected to?

return spring

What kinds of adjustments would a governor make?

small

What would a governor do to a too-fast running engine?

reduce the current being applied to the motor

What element of a combustion engine doesn't a governor monitor?

I'm not sure.

What is a governor disconnected from?

I'm not sure.

What kinds of adjustments would a governor never make?

I'm not sure.

What would a governor do to a too-slow running engine?

I'm not sure.


A synchronous electric motor is an AC motor distinguished by a rotor spinning with coils passing magnets at the same rate as the AC and resulting magnetic field which drives it. Another way of saying this is that it has zero slip under usual operating conditions. Contrast this with an induction motor, which must slip to produce torque. One type of synchronous motor is like an induction motor except the rotor is excited by a DC field. Slip rings and brushes are used to conduct current to the rotor. The rotor poles connect to each other and move at the same speed hence the name synchronous motor. Another type, for low load torque, has flats ground onto a conventional squirrel-cage rotor to create discrete poles. Yet another, such as made by Hammond for its pre-World War II clocks, and in the older Hammond organs, has no rotor windings and discrete poles. It is not self-starting. The clock requires manual starting by a small knob on the back, while the older Hammond organs had an auxiliary starting motor connected by a spring-loaded manually operated switch.

How much slip does a synchronous motor have?

zero

How does an induction motor produce torque?

slip

Whithout rotor windings, how must a Hammond clock be started?

manually

How can a synchronous motor be made more like an induction motor?

DC field

How is current brought to the rotor in a synchronous motor?

Slip rings and brushes

How much slip does a non-synchronous motor have?

I'm not sure.

How doesn't an induction motor produce torque?

I'm not sure.

With rotor windings, how must a Hammond clock be started?

I'm not sure.

How can a synchronous motor be made less like an induction motor?

I'm not sure.

How isn't current brought to the rotor in a synchronous motor?

I'm not sure.


Finally, hysteresis synchronous motors typically are (essentially) two-phase motors with a phase-shifting capacitor for one phase. They start like induction motors, but when slip rate decreases sufficiently, the rotor (a smooth cylinder) becomes temporarily magnetized. Its distributed poles make it act like a PMSM. The rotor material, like that of a common nail, will stay magnetized, but can also be demagnetized with little difficulty. Once running, the rotor poles stay in place; they do not drift.

What do hysteresis synchronous motors' rotors do when slip rate decreases?

becomes temporarily magnetized

When in operation, what do hysteresis synchronous motors poles do?

stay in place

What do hysteresis synchronous motors resemble at startup?

induction motors

How can a hysteresis synchronous motor's rotor be described?

a smooth cylinder

What do the distributed poles of a hysteresis synchronous motor resemble?

PMSM

What do hysteresis synchronous motors' rotors do when slip rate increases?

I'm not sure.

When in operation, what don't hysteresis synchronous motors poles do?

I'm not sure.

What do hysteresis synchronous motors not resemble at startup?

I'm not sure.

How can't a hysteresis synchronous motor's rotor be described?

I'm not sure.

What do the undistributed poles of a hysteresis synchronous motor resemble?

I'm not sure.


Doubly fed electric motors have two independent multiphase winding sets, which contribute active (i.e., working) power to the energy conversion process, with at least one of the winding sets electronically controlled for variable speed operation. Two independent multiphase winding sets (i.e., dual armature) are the maximum provided in a single package without topology duplication. Doubly-fed electric motors are machines with an effective constant torque speed range that is twice synchronous speed for a given frequency of excitation. This is twice the constant torque speed range as singly-fed electric machines, which have only one active winding set.

What type of motor has two independent multiphase winding sets?

Doubly fed electric motors

What advanage do independent multiphase winding sets have?

contribute active (i.e., working) power to the energy conversion process

What is one of the independent multiphase winding sets configured for?

variable speed operation

Doubly fed motors have what advantage over single fed?

twice the constant torque speed range

What type of motor has three independent multiphase winding sets?

I'm not sure.

What advantage don't independent multiphase winding sets have?

I'm not sure.

What is one of the dependent multiphase winding sets configured for?

I'm not sure.

Doubly fed motors have what disadvantage under single fed?

I'm not sure.


Nothing in the principle of any of the motors described above requires that the iron (steel) portions of the rotor actually rotate. If the soft magnetic material of the rotor is made in the form of a cylinder, then (except for the effect of hysteresis) torque is exerted only on the windings of the electromagnets. Taking advantage of this fact is the coreless or ironless DC motor, a specialized form of a PM DC motor. Optimized for rapid acceleration, these motors have a rotor that is constructed without any iron core. The rotor can take the form of a winding-filled cylinder, or a self-supporting structure comprising only the magnet wire and the bonding material. The rotor can fit inside the stator magnets; a magnetically soft stationary cylinder inside the rotor provides a return path for the stator magnetic flux. A second arrangement has the rotor winding basket surrounding the stator magnets. In that design, the rotor fits inside a magnetically soft cylinder that can serve as the housing for the motor, and likewise provides a return path for the flux.

A coreless DC motor is distinguished by what?

rapid acceleration

What is absent in a coreless DC motor?

iron core

What forms can the rotor take?

winding-filled cylinder, or a self-supporting structure

A coreless RC motor is distinguished by what?

I'm not sure.

What is absent in a coreless RC motor?

I'm not sure.

What forms can't the rotor take?

I'm not sure.


Because the rotor is much lighter in weight (mass) than a conventional rotor formed from copper windings on steel laminations, the rotor can accelerate much more rapidly, often achieving a mechanical time constant under one ms. This is especially true if the windings use aluminum rather than the heavier copper. But because there is no metal mass in the rotor to act as a heat sink, even small coreless motors must often be cooled by forced air. Overheating might be an issue for coreless DC motor designs.

What is a likely problem of coreless DC motors?

Overheating

How does a coreless rotor compare to traditional rotors in terms of weight?

lighter

What advantage does a coreless rotor have over traditional variants?

accelerate much more rapidly

How is a coreless motor cooled?

forced air

The lack of a metal mass in the core causes what function to be absent?

heat sink

What is a likely problem of coreless RC motors?

I'm not sure.

How does a coreless rotor not compare to traditional rotors in terms of weight?

I'm not sure.

What advantage doesn't a coreless rotor have over traditional variants?

I'm not sure.

How is a coreless motor warmed?

I'm not sure.

The surplus of a metal mass in the core causes what function to be absent?

I'm not sure.


These motors were originally invented to drive the capstan(s) of magnetic tape drives in the burgeoning computer industry, where minimal time to reach operating speed and minimal stopping distance were critical. Pancake motors are still widely used in high-performance servo-controlled systems, robotic systems, industrial automation and medical devices. Due to the variety of constructions now available, the technology is used in applications from high temperature military to low cost pump and basic servos.

What was the original purpose for pancake motors?

drive the capstan(s) of magnetic tape drives

What are advantages of pancake motors?

minimal time to reach operating speed and minimal stopping distance

For what type of military applications are pancake motors currently used?

high temperature

What type of servo-controlled systems use pancake motors?

high-performance

What was the original purpose for waffle motors?

I'm not sure.

What are advantages of waffle motors?

I'm not sure.

For what type of military applications are waffle motors currently used?

I'm not sure.

What type of servo-controlled systems use waffle motors?

I'm not sure.


A servomotor is a motor, very often sold as a complete module, which is used within a position-control or speed-control feedback control system mainly control valves, such as motor-operated control valves. Servomotors are used in applications such as machine tools, pen plotters, and other process systems. Motors intended for use in a servomechanism must have well-documented characteristics for speed, torque, and power. The speed vs. torque curve is quite important and is high ratio for a servo motor. Dynamic response characteristics such as winding inductance and rotor inertia are also important; these factors limit the overall performance of the servomechanism loop. Large, powerful, but slow-responding servo loops may use conventional AC or DC motors and drive systems with position or speed feedback on the motor. As dynamic response requirements increase, more specialized motor designs such as coreless motors are used. AC motors' superior power density and acceleration characteristics compared to that of DC motors tends to favor PM synchronous, BLDC, induction, and SRM drive applications.

What may servo motors be used for?

machine tools, pen plotters, and other process systems

What must be well understood when applying a servo motor for use?

speed, torque, and power

What factors limit performance of servo motors?

winding inductance and rotor inertia

Large, slow servos can use what types of motors?

conventional AC or DC motors

When might coreless motors be used in servo applications?

As dynamic response requirements increase

What may servo motors never be used for?

I'm not sure.

What must not be well understood when applying a servo motor for use?

I'm not sure.

What factors don't limit performance of servo motors?

I'm not sure.

Small, fast servos can use what types of motors?

I'm not sure.


A servo system differs from some stepper motor applications in that the position feedback is continuous while the motor is running; a stepper system relies on the motor not to "miss steps" for short term accuracy, although a stepper system may include a "home" switch or other element to provide long-term stability of control. For instance, when a typical dot matrix computer printer starts up, its controller makes the print head stepper motor drive to its left-hand limit, where a position sensor defines home position and stops stepping. As long as power is on, a bidirectional counter in the printer's microprocessor keeps track of print-head position.

How do servo motors differ from stepper motors?

position feedback is continuous

How does a stepper system achieve stability?

a "home" switch

What makes a printer home switch work?

position sensor

What kind of counter keeps track of a print head's position?

bidirectional

A stepper system's motor is relied on to not do what?

miss steps

How are servo motors the same as stepper motors?

I'm not sure.

How does a stepper system not achieve stability?

I'm not sure.

What makes a printer home switch break?

I'm not sure.

What kind of counter keeps track of a print foot's position?

I'm not sure.

A stepper system's motor is unrelied on to not do what?

I'm not sure.


Stepper motors are a type of motor frequently used when precise rotations are required. In a stepper motor an internal rotor containing PMs or a magnetically soft rotor with salient poles is controlled by a set of external magnets that are switched electronically. A stepper motor may also be thought of as a cross between a DC electric motor and a rotary solenoid. As each coil is energized in turn, the rotor aligns itself with the magnetic field produced by the energized field winding. Unlike a synchronous motor, in its application, the stepper motor may not rotate continuously; instead, it "steps"—starts and then quickly stops again—from one position to the next as field windings are energized and de-energized in sequence. Depending on the sequence, the rotor may turn forwards or backwards, and it may change direction, stop, speed up or slow down arbitrarily at any time.

When are stepper motors most useful?

when precise rotations are required

What two devices can describe a stepper motor?

DC electric motor and a rotary solenoid

What do stepper motor rotors allign themselves with?

magnetic field produced by the energized field winding

How does a stepper motor differ from a synchronous motor?

the stepper motor may not rotate continuously

What types of velocities and positions is the stepper motor capable of?

forwards or backwards, and it may change direction, stop, speed up or slow down

When are stepper motors least useful?

I'm not sure.

What three devices can describe a stepper motor?

I'm not sure.

What do stepper motor rotors align themselves without?

I'm not sure.

How doesn't a stepper motor differ from a synchronous motor?

I'm not sure.


Simple stepper motor drivers entirely energize or entirely de-energize the field windings, leading the rotor to "cog" to a limited number of positions; more sophisticated drivers can proportionally control the power to the field windings, allowing the rotors to position between the cog points and thereby rotate extremely smoothly. This mode of operation is often called microstepping. Computer controlled stepper motors are one of the most versatile forms of positioning systems, particularly when part of a digital servo-controlled system.

What is a trait of a sophisticated stepper motor?

proportionally control the power to the field windings

What does proportinal control of the field windings in a stepper motor achieve?

rotate extremely smoothly

What is another name for smooth rotation?

microstepping

With what other device are stepper motors most versatile?

digital servo-controlled system

What is not a trait of a sophisticated stepper motor?

I'm not sure.

What doesn't proportional control of the field windings in a stepper motor achieve?

I'm not sure.

What is another name for rough rotation?

I'm not sure.

With what other device aren't stepper motors most versatile?

I'm not sure.


Stepper motors can be rotated to a specific angle in discrete steps with ease, and hence stepper motors are used for read/write head positioning in computer floppy diskette drives. They were used for the same purpose in pre-gigabyte era computer disk drives, where the precision and speed they offered was adequate for the correct positioning of the read/write head of a hard disk drive. As drive density increased, the precision and speed limitations of stepper motors made them obsolete for hard drives—the precision limitation made them unusable, and the speed limitation made them uncompetitive—thus newer hard disk drives use voice coil-based head actuator systems. (The term "voice coil" in this connection is historic; it refers to the structure in a typical (cone type) loudspeaker. This structure was used for a while to position the heads. Modern drives have a pivoted coil mount; the coil swings back and forth, something like a blade of a rotating fan. Nevertheless, like a voice coil, modern actuator coil conductors (the magnet wire) move perpendicular to the magnetic lines of force.)

Why were stepper motors abandoned in computer drive designs?

precision and speed limitations

What do newer computer drives use instead of stepper motors?

voice coil-based head actuator systems

In what direction do modern coil actuators move?

perpendicular to the magnetic lines of force

To what device does the term, "voice coil" historically refer?

the structure in a typical (cone type) loudspeaker

Why weren't stepper motors abandoned in computer drive designs?

I'm not sure.

What don't newer computer drives use instead of stepper motors?

I'm not sure.

In what direction don't modern coil actuators move?

I'm not sure.

To what device does the term, "voice coil" not historically refer?

I'm not sure.


Stepper motors were and still are often used in computer printers, optical scanners, and digital photocopiers to move the optical scanning element, the print head carriage (of dot matrix and inkjet printers), and the platen or feed rollers. Likewise, many computer plotters (which since the early 1990s have been replaced with large-format inkjet and laser printers) used rotary stepper motors for pen and platen movement; the typical alternatives here were either linear stepper motors or servomotors with closed-loop analog control systems.

List two alternatives to rotary stepper motors in printer applications.

linear stepper motors or servomotors

In scanners, what do stepper motors move?

optical scanning element

In printers and copiers, what do stepper motors move?

print head carriage (of dot matrix and inkjet printers), and the platen or feed rollers

List two alternatives to rotary stepper motors in non-printer applications.

I'm not sure.

In scanners, what don't stepper motors move?

I'm not sure.

In printers and copiers, what don't stepper motors move?

I'm not sure.


Since the armature windings of a direct-current or universal motor are moving through a magnetic field, they have a voltage induced in them. This voltage tends to oppose the motor supply voltage and so is called "back electromotive force (emf)". The voltage is proportional to the running speed of the motor. The back emf of the motor, plus the voltage drop across the winding internal resistance and brushes, must equal the voltage at the brushes. This provides the fundamental mechanism of speed regulation in a DC motor. If the mechanical load increases, the motor slows down; a lower back emf results, and more current is drawn from the supply. This increased current provides the additional torque to balance the new load.

Voltage opposing the motor supply voltage is called what?

back electromotive force

EMP is proportional to what?

the running speed of the motor

Voltage at the brushes is equal to what?

back emf of the motor, plus the voltage drop across the winding internal resistance

If load increases, what happens to current drawn?

more current is drawn from the supply

Voltage not opposing the motor supply voltage is called what?

I'm not sure.

ENP is proportional to what?

I'm not sure.

Voltage at the brushes is not equal to what?

I'm not sure.

If load decreases, what happens to current drawn?

I'm not sure.


All the electromagnetic motors, and that includes the types mentioned here derive the torque from the vector product of the interacting fields. For calculating the torque it is necessary to know the fields in the air gap . Once these have been established by mathematical analysis using FEA or other tools the torque may be calculated as the integral of all the vectors of force multiplied by the radius of each vector. The current flowing in the winding is producing the fields and for a motor using a magnetic material the field is not linearly proportional to the current. This makes the calculation difficult but a computer can do the many calculations needed.

What needs to be known to calculate torque?

fields in the air gap

How are the many calculations to determine torque done?

FEA

How is torque determined?

from the vector product of the interacting fields

What is the formulia to determine torque?

the integral of all the vectors of force multiplied by the radius of each vector

What needs to be unknown to calculate torque?

I'm not sure.

How are the very few calculations to determine torque done?

I'm not sure.

How is torque undetermined?

I'm not sure.

What is the formula to not determine torque?

I'm not sure.


When optimally designed within a given core saturation constraint and for a given active current (i.e., torque current), voltage, pole-pair number, excitation frequency (i.e., synchronous speed), and air-gap flux density, all categories of electric motors or generators will exhibit virtually the same maximum continuous shaft torque (i.e., operating torque) within a given air-gap area with winding slots and back-iron depth, which determines the physical size of electromagnetic core. Some applications require bursts of torque beyond the maximum operating torque, such as short bursts of torque to accelerate an electric vehicle from standstill. Always limited by magnetic core saturation or safe operating temperature rise and voltage, the capacity for torque bursts beyond the maximum operating torque differs significantly between categories of electric motors or generators.

What are factors that determine shaft torque?

torque current), voltage, pole-pair number, excitation frequency (i.e., synchronous speed), and air-gap flux density

Whate decides the size of an electromagnetic core?

air-gap area with winding slots and back-iron depth

What limits excessive torque?

magnetic core saturation or safe operating temperature rise and voltage

What aren't factors that determine shaft torque?

I'm not sure.

Whate decides the size of a nonelectromagnetic core?

I'm not sure.

What doesn't limit excessive torque?

I'm not sure.


The brushless wound-rotor synchronous doubly-fed (BWRSDF) machine is the only electric machine with a truly dual ported transformer circuit topology (i.e., both ports independently excited with no short-circuited port). The dual ported transformer circuit topology is known to be unstable and requires a multiphase slip-ring-brush assembly to propagate limited power to the rotor winding set. If a precision means were available to instantaneously control torque angle and slip for synchronous operation during motoring or generating while simultaneously providing brushless power to the rotor winding set, the active current of the BWRSDF machine would be independent of the reactive impedance of the transformer circuit and bursts of torque significantly higher than the maximum operating torque and far beyond the practical capability of any other type of electric machine would be realizable. Torque bursts greater than eight times operating torque have been calculated.

What is the only device with dual ported transformer circuit topology?

brushless wound-rotor

What is a brushless wound-rotor?

both ports independently excited with no short-circuited port

How does a brushless wound rotor achieve stability?

a multiphase slip-ring-brush assembly to propagate limited power to the rotor winding set

What is the theoretical maximum of a brushless wound rotor?

eight times operating torque

What is the only device with triple ported transformer circuit topology?

I'm not sure.

What is a brushfilled wound-rotor?

I'm not sure.

How doesn't a brushless wound rotor achieve stability?

I'm not sure.

What isn't the theoretical maximum of a brushless wound rotor?

I'm not sure.


The continuous torque density of conventional electric machines is determined by the size of the air-gap area and the back-iron depth, which are determined by the power rating of the armature winding set, the speed of the machine, and the achievable air-gap flux density before core saturation. Despite the high coercivity of neodymium or samarium-cobalt PMs, continuous torque density is virtually the same amongst electric machines with optimally designed armature winding sets. Continuous torque density relates to method of cooling and permissible period of operation before destruction by overheating of windings or PM damage.

What determines continuous torque density?

size of the air-gap area and the back-iron depth

What three elements determine the size of the air-gap area and back iron depth?

power rating of the armature winding set, the speed of the machine, and the achievable air-gap flux density before core saturation

What does continuous torque density refer to?

method of cooling and permissible period of operation before destruction by overheating

How does continuous torque density vary between well designed motors?

virtually the same

What determines non-continuous torque density?

I'm not sure.

What is the fourth element that determines the size of the air-gap area and back iron depth?

I'm not sure.

What doesn't continuous torque density refer to?

I'm not sure.

How does non-continuous torque density vary between well designed motors?

I'm not sure.


An electrostatic motor is based on the attraction and repulsion of electric charge. Usually, electrostatic motors are the dual of conventional coil-based motors. They typically require a high-voltage power supply, although very small motors employ lower voltages. Conventional electric motors instead employ magnetic attraction and repulsion, and require high current at low voltages. In the 1750s, the first electrostatic motors were developed by Benjamin Franklin and Andrew Gordon. Today the electrostatic motor finds frequent use in micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) where their drive voltages are below 100 volts, and where moving, charged plates are far easier to fabricate than coils and iron cores. Also, the molecular machinery which runs living cells is often based on linear and rotary electrostatic motors.[citation needed]

What type of motor is based on the attraction and repulsion of electric charge?

electrostatic

What are electrostatic motors like two of?

conventional coil-based motors

What type of power supply do electrostatic motors usually have?

high-voltage

What two inventors developed the first electrostatic motors?

Benjamin Franklin and Andrew Gordon

Micro-electro mechanical systems prefer what type of motor?

electrostatic motor

What type of motor is not based on the attraction and repulsion of electric charge?

I'm not sure.

What are electrostatic motors like three of?

I'm not sure.

What type of power supply don't electrostatic motors usually have?

I'm not sure.

What two inventors developed the second electrostatic motors?

I'm not sure.

Macro-electro mechanical systems prefer what type of motor?

I'm not sure.


Switzerland (/ˈswɪtsərlənd/), officially the Swiss Confederation (Latin: Confoederatio Helvetica, hence its abbreviation CH), is a country in Europe. While still named the "Swiss Confederation" for historical reasons, modern Switzerland is a federal directorial republic consisting of 26 cantons, with Bern as the seat of the federal authorities, called Bundesstadt ("federal city").[note 3] The country is situated in Western and Central Europe,[note 4] and is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. Switzerland is a landlocked country geographically divided between the Alps, the Swiss Plateau and the Jura, spanning an area of 41,285 km2 (15,940 sq mi). While the Alps occupy the greater part of the territory, the Swiss population of approximately 8 million people is concentrated mostly on the Plateau, where the largest cities are to be found: among them are the two global and economic centres, Zürich and Geneva.

What is the official name of Switzerland?

Swiss Confederation

What type of government does Switzerland have?

a federal directorial republic

How many cantons are in Switzerland's federal directorial republic?

What 3 geographical features divide Switzerland?

the Alps, the Swiss Plateau and the Jura

What is the population of Switzerland?

approximately 8 million


The establishment of the Swiss Confederation is traditionally dated to 1 August 1291, which is celebrated annually as the Swiss National Day. The country has a long history of armed neutrality—it has not been in a state of war internationally since 1815—and did not join the United Nations until 2002. Nevertheless, it pursues an active foreign policy and is frequently involved in peace-building processes around the world. In addition to being the birthplace of the Red Cross, Switzerland is home to numerous international organizations, including the second largest UN office. On the European level, it is a founding member of the European Free Trade Association, but notably it is not part of the European Union, nor the European Economic Area. However the country does participate in the Schengen Area and the EU's single market through a number of bilateral treaties.

What is the traditional date of the establishment of the Swiss Confederation?

1 August 1291

What year did Switzerland join the United Nations?

What country is the birthplace of the Red Cross?

Switzerland

In what year was Switzerland last involved in a war internationally?

What Swiss holiday is celebrated on August 1st every year?

Swiss National Day


Straddling the intersection of Germanic and Romance Europe, Switzerland comprises four main linguistic and cultural regions: German, French, Italian and Romansh. Therefore, the Swiss, although predominantly German-speaking, do not form a nation in the sense of a common ethnicity or language; rather, Switzerland's strong sense of identity and community is founded on a common historical background, shared values such as federalism and direct democracy, and Alpine symbolism. Due to its linguistic diversity, Switzerland is known by a variety of native names: Schweiz [ˈʃvaɪts] (German);[note 5] Suisse [sɥis(ə)] (French); Svizzera [ˈzvittsera] (Italian); and Svizra [ˈʒviːtsrɐ] or [ˈʒviːtsʁːɐ] (Romansh).[note 6]

Which four main linguistic and cultural regions make up Switzerland?

German, French, Italian and Romansh

What is the predominant language in Switzerland?

German

What do the French Swiss call Switzerland?

Suisse

What do the German Swiss call Switzerland?

Schweiz

What do the Italian Swiss call Switzerland?

Svizzera


Switzerland is one of the richest and wealthiest countries in the world. Switzerland ranks top or close to the top in several metrics of national performance, including government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic competitiveness, and human development. It has the highest nominal wealth (financial and non-financial assets) per adult in the world according to Credit Suisse and the eighth-highest per capita gross domestic product on the IMF list. Zürich and Geneva have each been ranked among the top cities with the highest quality of life in the world, with the former ranked 2nd globally, according to Mercer.

How does Switzerland rank worldwide in areas such as quality of life and civil liberties?

top or close to the top

Which country has the highest nominal wealth per adult in the world according to Credit Suisse?

Switzerland

Which two Swiss cities have been ranked as having the highest quality of life in the world?

Zürich and Geneva

What assets are included in nominal wealth?

financial and non-financial

What is Switzerland's ranking for per capita gross domestic product on the IMF list?

eighth-highest


 The English name Switzerland is a compound containing Switzer, an obsolete term for the Swiss, which was in use during the 16th to 19th centuries. The English adjective Swiss is a loan from French Suisse, also in use since the 16th century. The name Switzer is from the Alemannic Schwiizer, in origin an inhabitant of Schwyz and its associated territory, one of the Waldstätten cantons which formed the nucleus of the Old Swiss Confederacy. The name originates as an exonym, applied pars pro toto to the troops of the Confederacy. The Swiss began to adopt the name for themselves after the Swabian War of 1499, used alongside the term for "Confederates", Eidgenossen (literally: comrades by oath), used since the 14th century.

What was the Swiss term for Switzerland during the 16th - 19th centuries?

Switzer

Where did the English adjective Swiss originate from?

French Suisse

Where did the name Switzer originate from?

the Alemannic Schwiizer

What did the Alemannic Schwiizer help form the nucleus of?

the Old Swiss Confederacy


The toponym Schwyz itself is first attested in 972, as Old High German Suittes, ultimately perhaps related to suedan "to burn", referring to the area of forest that was burned and cleared to build. The name was extended to the area dominated by the canton, and after the Swabian War of 1499 gradually came to be used for the entire Confederation. The Swiss German name of the country, Schwiiz, is homophonous to that of the canton and the settlement, but distinguished by the use of the definite article (d'Schwiiz for the Confederation, but simply Schwyz for the canton and the town).

In what year was the toponym Schwyz first attested as Old High German Suittes?

At what time did the name Schwyz begin to be used by the entire Confederation?

after the Swabian War of 1499

What was the Swiss German name for Schwyz?

Schwiiz

What was the name d'Schwiiz used for?

the Confederation


The earliest known cultural tribes of the area were members of the Hallstatt and La Tène cultures, named after the archaeological site of La Tène on the north side of Lake Neuchâtel. La Tène culture developed and flourished during the late Iron Age from around 450 BC, possibly under some influence from the Greek and Etruscan civilisations. One of the most important tribal groups in the Swiss region was the Helvetii. Steadily harassed by the Germans, in 58 BC the Helvetii decided to abandon the Swiss plateau and migrate to western Gallia, but Julius Caesar's armies pursued and defeated them at the Battle of Bibracte, in today's western France, forcing the tribe to move back to its original homeland. In 15 BC, Tiberius, who was destined to be the second Roman emperor and his brother, Drusus, conquered the Alps, integrating them into the Roman Empire. The area occupied by the Helvetii—the namesakes of the later Confoederatio Helvetica—first became part of Rome's Gallia Belgica province and then of its Germania Superior province, while the eastern portion of modern Switzerland was integrated into the Roman province of Raetia. Sometime around the start of the Common Era, the Romans maintained a large legionary camp called Vindonissa, now a ruin at the confluence of the Aare and Reuss rivers, near the town of Windisch, an outskirt of Brugg.

What were the two earliest know cultural tribes in Switerland?

Hallstatt and La Tène

Which Swiss cultural tribe developed and flourished during the late Iron Age?

La Tène

Which Swiss tribal group was defeated by Julius Caesar at the Battle of Bribacti as they tried to escape the Swiss plateau?

the Helvetii

In what year did Tiberius conquer the Alps, integrating them into the Roman Empire?

15 BC

What is the name of the large legionary camp, now a ruin, that the Romans maintained around the start of the Common Era?

Vindonissa


In about 260 AD, the fall of the Agri Decumates territory north of the Rhine transformed today's Switzerland into a frontier land of the Empire. Repeated raids by the Alamanni tribes provoked the ruin of the Roman towns and economy, forcing the population to find shelter near Roman fortresses, like the Castrum Rauracense near Augusta Raurica. The Empire built another line of defense at the north border (the so-called Donau-Iller-Rhine-Limes), but at the end of the fourth century the increased Germanic pressure forced the Romans to abandon the linear defence concept, and the Swiss plateau was finally open to the settlement of German tribes.

In what year did the fall of the Agri Decumates territory transform today's Switzerland?

about 260 AD

In about 260 AD, what forced the people of Roman towns to find shelter in Roman fortresses?

raids by the Alamanni tribes

What was the name of the concept used by the Roman Empire when building another line of defense at the north border?

the linear defence concept

What increased pressure forced the Romans to abandon their line of defense concept at the end of the 4th century?

Germanic

Who was allowed to settle on the Swiss plateau by the end of the 4th century?

German tribes


In the Early Middle Ages, from the end of the 4th century, the western extent of modern-day Switzerland was part of the territory of the Kings of the Burgundians. The Alemanni settled the Swiss plateau in the 5th century and the valleys of the Alps in the 8th century, forming Alemannia. Modern-day Switzerland was therefore then divided between the kingdoms of Alemannia and Burgundy. The entire region became part of the expanding Frankish Empire in the 6th century, following Clovis I's victory over the Alemanni at Tolbiac in 504 AD, and later Frankish domination of the Burgundians.

From the end of the 4th century, what territory was the western extent of modern-day Switzerland part of?

the Kings of the Burgundians

Where did the Alemanni settle in the 5th century?

the Swiss plateau

Where did the Alemanni settle in the 8th century, forming Alemannia?

valleys of the Alps

In the 8th century, what two kingdoms made up Modern-day Switzerland?

Alemannia and Burgundy

What Empire did the entire region of Modern-day Switzerland become part of in the 6th century?

Frankish Empire


By 1200, the Swiss plateau comprised the dominions of the houses of Savoy, Zähringer, Habsburg, and Kyburg. Some regions (Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, later known as Waldstätten) were accorded the Imperial immediacy to grant the empire direct control over the mountain passes. With the extinction of its male line in 1263 the Kyburg dynasty fell in AD 1264; then the Habsburgs under King Rudolph I (Holy Roman Emperor in 1273) laid claim to the Kyburg lands and annexed them extending their territory to the eastern Swiss plateau.

In 1200, what area did the houses of Savoy, Zahringer, Habsburg, and Kyburg comprise?

the Swiss plateau

In 1264 AD, what caused the Kyburg dynasty to fall?

extinction of its male line in 1263

Who claimed the Kyburg lands after their fall in 1264 AD?

the Habsburgs

Which Holy Roman Emperor were the Habsburgs under in 1273 AD?

King Rudolph I

What did the three regions of Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden become known as?

Waldstätten


By 1353, the three original cantons had joined with the cantons of Glarus and Zug and the Lucerne, Zürich and Bern city states to form the "Old Confederacy" of eight states that existed until the end of the 15th century. The expansion led to increased power and wealth for the federation. By 1460, the confederates controlled most of the territory south and west of the Rhine to the Alps and the Jura mountains, particularly after victories against the Habsburgs (Battle of Sempach, Battle of Näfels), over Charles the Bold of Burgundy during the 1470s, and the success of the Swiss mercenaries. The Swiss victory in the Swabian War against the Swabian League of Emperor Maximilian I in 1499 amounted to de facto independence within the Holy Roman Empire.

In what year did the three original  cantons join with five other cantons to form the "Old Confederacy" of eight states?

By 1353

Which century did the Old Confederacy of the eight states exist until?

end of the 15th century

What effect did the expansion of the three cantons into eight have on the status of the federation?

increased power and wealth

By 1460, who controlled most of the territory south and west of the Rhine?

the confederates

Which Swiss victory in 1499 amounted to de facto independence within the Holy Roman Empire?

Swabian War


The Old Swiss Confederacy had acquired a reputation of invincibility during these earlier wars, but expansion of the federation suffered a setback in 1515 with the Swiss defeat in the Battle of Marignano. This ended the so-called "heroic" epoch of Swiss history. The success of Zwingli's Reformation in some cantons led to inter-cantonal religious conflicts in 1529 and 1531 (Wars of Kappel). It was not until more than one hundred years after these internal wars that, in 1648, under the Peace of Westphalia, European countries recognized Switzerland's independence from the Holy Roman Empire and its neutrality.

Which Battle was the first to interrupt the seeming invincibility of the Old Swiss Confederacy in 1515?

Battle of Marignano

What inter-cantonal conflicts resulted in the Wars of Kappel?

religious

In what year did European countries first recognize Switzerland's independence from the Holy Roman Empire?

In what two years were the Wars of Kappel?

1529 and 1531

Under the Peace of Westphalia, who finally recognized Switzerland's neutrality?

European countries


In 1798, the revolutionary French government conquered Switzerland and imposed a new unified constitution. This centralised the government of the country, effectively abolishing the cantons: moreover, Mülhausen joined France and Valtellina valley, the Cisalpine Republic, separating from Switzerland. The new regime, known as the Helvetic Republic, was highly unpopular. It had been imposed by a foreign invading army and destroyed centuries of tradition, making Switzerland nothing more than a French satellite state. The fierce French suppression of the Nidwalden Revolt in September 1798 was an example of the oppressive presence of the French Army and the local population's resistance to the occupation.

Who conquered Switzerland in 1798?

the revolutionary French government

What did the French government impose on Switzerland in 1798, centralizing the Swiss government?

a new unified constitution

What was abolished with the introduction of the unified constitution in Switzerland?

the cantons

What was the name of the new regime created when the Cisalpine Republic separated from Switzerland?

Helvetic Republic

Which unpopular republic destroyed centuries of Swiss traditions?

Helvetic


When war broke out between France and its rivals, Russian and Austrian forces invaded Switzerland. The Swiss refused to fight alongside the French in the name of the Helvetic Republic. In 1803 Napoleon organised a meeting of the leading Swiss politicians from both sides in Paris. The result was the Act of Mediation which largely restored Swiss autonomy and introduced a Confederation of 19 cantons. Henceforth, much of Swiss politics would concern balancing the cantons' tradition of self-rule with the need for a central government.

During the Helvetic Republic, which forces invaded Switzerland when war broke out between France and its rivals?

Russian and Austrian

Who refused to fight alongside the Helvetic Republic when it was invaded by the Russians and Austrians?

The Swiss

What Act was the result of a meeting of Swiss politicians organized by Napolean?

Act of Mediation

What was the Act of Mediation responsible for restoring?

Swiss autonomy

How many cantons were introduced as a Confederation by the Act of Mediation?


The restoration of power to the patriciate was only temporary. After a period of unrest with repeated violent clashes such as the Züriputsch of 1839, civil war (the Sonderbundskrieg) broke out in 1847 when some Catholic cantons tried to set up a separate alliance (the Sonderbund). The war lasted for less than a month, causing fewer than 100 casualties, most of which were through friendly fire. Yet however minor the Sonderbundskrieg appears compared with other European riots and wars in the 19th century, it nevertheless had a major impact on both the psychology and the society of the Swiss and of Switzerland.

What did Catholic cantons attempt to set up which caused a civil war in 1839?

a separate alliance (the Sonderbund)

What was responsible for most of the 1100 casualties incurred during the Swiss civil war in 1839?

friendly fire

How long did the Swiss civil war in 1839 last?

less than a month

What was the name of the Swiss civil war in 1839?

the Sonderbundskrieg

How big was the impact the Sonderbundskrieg had on the psychology and society of the Swiss and Switzerland?

major


Thus, while the rest of Europe saw revolutionary uprisings, the Swiss drew up a constitution which provided for a federal layout, much of it inspired by the American example. This constitution provided for a central authority while leaving the cantons the right to self-government on local issues. Giving credit to those who favoured the power of the cantons (the Sonderbund Kantone), the national assembly was divided between an upper house (the Council of States, two representatives per canton) and a lower house (the National Council, with representatives elected from across the country). Referenda were made mandatory for any amendment of this constitution.

What example inspired much of a new Swiss constitution providing for a federal layout?

American

Under the new Swiss constitution, what did the cantons have the right to self-govern?

local issues

How many houses was the Swiss national assembly divided into?

two

What was the name of the upper house, which included 2 representatives from each canton?

Council of States

What was the name of the lower house, whose representatives were elected throughout the country?

National Council


During World War II, detailed invasion plans were drawn up by the Germans, but Switzerland was never attacked. Switzerland was able to remain independent through a combination of military deterrence, concessions to Germany, and good fortune as larger events during the war delayed an invasion. Under General Henri Guisan central command, a general mobilisation of the armed forces was ordered. The Swiss military strategy was changed from one of static defence at the borders to protect the economic heartland, to one of organised long-term attrition and withdrawal to strong, well-stockpiled positions high in the Alps known as the Reduit. Switzerland was an important base for espionage by both sides in the conflict and often mediated communications between the Axis and Allied powers.

Though invasion plans were drawn up the the Germans, which war did Switzerland escape attack during?

World War II

Who was the head of the Swiss central command during World War II?

General Henri Guisan

What did General Henry Guisan order a general mobilisation of during World War II?

armed forces

What was the original goal of the Swiss military strategy?

protect the economic heartland

What were the Reduit?

strong, well-stockpiled positions high in the Alps


Switzerland's trade was blockaded by both the Allies and by the Axis. Economic cooperation and extension of credit to the Third Reich varied according to the perceived likelihood of invasion and the availability of other trading partners. Concessions reached a peak after a crucial rail link through Vichy France was severed in 1942, leaving Switzerland completely surrounded by the Axis. Over the course of the war, Switzerland interned over 300,000 refugees and the International Red Cross, based in Geneva, played an important part during the conflict. Strict immigration and asylum policies as well as the financial relationships with Nazi Germany raised controversy, but not until the end of the 20th century.

Who blockaded Switzerland's trade during World War II?

by both the Allies and by the Axis

What was severed in 1942, leaving Switzerland completely surrounded by the Axis?

a crucial rail link through Vichy France

How many refugees did Switzerland intern during World War II?

over 300,000

When did the financial relationship Switzerland had with Nazi Germany begin to raise controversy?

end of the 20th century

Where was the International Red Cross based?

Geneva


Switzerland was the last Western republic to grant women the right to vote. Some Swiss cantons approved this in 1959, while at the federal level it was achieved in 1971 and, after resistance, in the last canton Appenzell Innerrhoden (one of only two remaining Landsgemeinde) in 1990. After obtaining suffrage at the federal level, women quickly rose in political significance, with the first woman on the seven member Federal Council executive being Elisabeth Kopp, who served from 1984–1989, and the first female president being Ruth Dreifuss in 1999.

Who did Switzerland finally grant the right to vote to following the rest of the Western republic?

women

When were Switzerland women granted the right to vote on a federal level?

Who was the first woman to serve on the Federal Council?

Elisabeth Kopp

Who was Switzerland's first female president?

Ruth Dreifuss

In what year did Ruth Dreifuss become president?


In 2002 Switzerland became a full member of the United Nations, leaving the Vatican City as the last widely recognised state without full UN membership. Switzerland is a founding member of the EFTA, but is not a member of the European Economic Area. An application for membership in the European Union was sent in May 1992, but not advanced since the EEA was rejected in December 1992 when Switzerland was the only country to launch a referendum on the EEA. There have since been several referenda on the EU issue; due to a mixed reaction from the population the membership application has been frozen. Nonetheless, Swiss law is gradually being adjusted to conform with that of the EU, and the government has signed a number of bilateral agreements with the European Union. Switzerland, together with Liechtenstein, has been completely surrounded by the EU since Austria's entry in 1995. On 5 June 2005, Swiss voters agreed by a 55% majority to join the Schengen treaty, a result that was regarded by EU commentators as a sign of support by Switzerland, a country that is traditionally perceived as independent and reluctant to enter supranational bodies.

In what year did Switzerland become a full member of the United Nations?

What did Swiss voters agree to join on June 5, 2005?

Schengen treaty

What percentage of Swiss voters voted to join the Schengen treaty?

Though Switzerland is a founding member of the EFTA, what are they not a member of?

European Economic Area

What has completely surrounded Switzerland and Liechtenstein since 1995?

the EU


Extending across the north and south side of the Alps in west-central Europe, Switzerland encompasses a great diversity of landscapes and climates on a limited area of 41,285 square kilometres (15,940 sq mi). The population is about 8 million, resulting in an average population density of around 195 people per square kilometre (500/sq mi). The more mountainous southern half of the country is far more sparsely populated than the northern half. In the largest Canton of Graubünden, lying entirely in the Alps, population density falls to 27 /km² (70 /sq mi).

How large is Switzerland?

41,285 square kilometres (15,940 sq mi)

What is the average population density of Switzerland?

195 people per square kilometre (500/sq mi)

What is the population density of the largest Canton of Graubunden, located in the Alps?

27 /km² (70 /sq mi)

Which half of Switzerland is more mountainous?

southern

Which mountain range does Switzerland extend over on both the north and south sides?

Alps


Switzerland lies between latitudes 45° and 48° N, and longitudes 5° and 11° E. It contains three basic topographical areas: the Swiss Alps to the south, the Swiss Plateau or Central Plateau, and the Jura mountains on the west. The Alps are a high mountain range running across the central-south of the country, comprising about 60% of the country's total area. The majority of the Swiss population live in the Swiss Plateau. Among the high valleys of the Swiss Alps many glaciers are found, totalling an area of 1,063 square kilometres (410 sq mi). From these originate the headwaters of several major rivers, such as the Rhine, Inn, Ticino and Rhône, which flow in the four cardinal directions into the whole of Europe. The hydrographic network includes several of the largest bodies of freshwater in Central and Western Europe, among which are included Lake Geneva (also called le Lac Léman in French), Lake Constance (known as Bodensee in German) and Lake Maggiore. Switzerland has more than 1500 lakes, and contains 6% of Europe's stock of fresh water. Lakes and glaciers cover about 6% of the national territory. The largest lake is Lake Geneva, in western Switzerland shared with France. The Rhône is both the main source and outflow of Lake Geneva. Lake Constance is the second largest Swiss lake and, like the Lake Geneva, an intermediate step by the Rhine at the border to Austria and Germany. While the Rhône flows into the Mediterranean Sea at the French Camarque region and the Rhine flows into the North Sea at Rotterdam in the Netherlands, about 1000 km apart, both springs are only about 22 km apart from each other in the Swiss Alps.

Which basic topographical area is in the south of Switzerland?

Swiss Alps

Which basic topographical area is in central Switzerland?

Swiss Plateau

Which basic topographical area is in western Switzerland?

Jura mountains

How much of Switzerland's total area do the Alps comprise?

What is the largest lake in Switzerland?

Lake Geneva


48 of Switzerland's mountains are 4,000 metres (13,000 ft) above sea in altitude or higher. At 4,634 m (15,203 ft), Monte Rosa is the highest, although the Matterhorn (4,478 m or 14,692 ft) is often regarded as the most famous. Both are located within the Pennine Alps in the canton of Valais. The section of the Bernese Alps above the deep glacial Lauterbrunnen valley, containing 72 waterfalls, is well known for the Jungfrau (4,158 m or 13,642 ft) Eiger and Mönch, and the many picturesque valleys in the region. In the southeast the long Engadin Valley, encompassing the St. Moritz area in canton of Graubünden, is also well known; the highest peak in the neighbouring Bernina Alps is Piz Bernina (4,049 m or 13,284 ft).

What is the highest mountain in Switzerland?

Monte Rosa

What is often regarded as the most famous mountain in Switzerland?

Matterhorn

How many of Switzerland's mountains are at least 4000 meters above sea level?

Where are both Monte Rosa and Matterhorn located?

Pennine Alps in the canton of Valais


The Swiss climate is generally temperate, but can vary greatly between the localities, from glacial conditions on the mountaintops to the often pleasant near Mediterranean climate at Switzerland's southern tip. There are some valley areas in the southern part of Switzerland where some cold-hardy palm trees are found. Summers tend to be warm and humid at times with periodic rainfall so they are ideal for pastures and grazing. The less humid winters in the mountains may see long intervals of stable conditions for weeks, while the lower lands tend to suffer from inversion, during these periods, thus seeing no sun for weeks.

Where are Switzerland's glacial conditions located?

mountaintops

What is typical weather in Switzerland during the summer months?

warm and humid at times with periodic rainfall

What can the lower lands, suffering from inversion, sometimes lack for weeks?

sun

What is the climate on Switzerland's southern tip?

Mediterranean


A weather phenomenon known as the föhn (with an identical effect to the chinook wind) can occur at all times of the year and is characterised by an unexpectedly warm wind, bringing air of very low relative humidity to the north of the Alps during rainfall periods on the southern face of the Alps. This works both ways across the alps but is more efficient if blowing from the south due to the steeper step for oncoming wind from the south. Valleys running south to north trigger the best effect. The driest conditions persist in all inner alpine valleys that receive less rain because arriving clouds lose a lot of their content while crossing the mountains before reaching these areas. Large alpine areas such as Graubünden remain drier than pre-alpine areas and as in the main valley of the Valais wine grapes are grown there.

What is the weather phenomena characterized by an unexpected warm wind bringing low reletive humidity to the northern Alps during rainfall in the southern Alps?

föhn

At what time of year can the fohn occur?

all times

Where do clouds lose most of their content before getting to the inner alpine valleys?

crossing the mountains

What type of grapes are grown in the valley of Valais?

wine

During the fohn, from which direction is the blowing wind more efficient?

the south


Switzerland's ecosystems can be particularly fragile, because the many delicate valleys separated by high mountains often form unique ecologies. The mountainous regions themselves are also vulnerable, with a rich range of plants not found at other altitudes, and experience some pressure from visitors and grazing. The climatic, geological and topographical conditions of the alpine region make for a very fragile ecosystem that is particularly sensitive to climate change. Nevertheless, according to the 2014 Environmental Performance Index, Switzerland ranks first among 132 nations in safeguarding the environment, due to its high scores on environmental public health, its heavy reliance on renewable sources of energy (hydropower and geothermal energy), and its control of greenhouse gas emissions.

What rank was Switzerland in safeguarding the environment according to the 2014 Environmental Performance Index?

first among 132 nations

What do mountainous regions have that make their ecosystems particularly fragile?

plants not found at other altitudes

What is the ecosystem in the alpine region particularly sensitive to?

climate change

What sources of energy does Switzerland heavily rely on?

renewable


The Federal Constitution adopted in 1848 is the legal foundation of the modern federal state. It is among the oldest constitutions in the world. A new Constitution was adopted in 1999, but did not introduce notable changes to the federal structure. It outlines basic and political rights of individuals and citizen participation in public affairs, divides the powers between the Confederation and the cantons and defines federal jurisdiction and authority. There are three main governing bodies on the federal level: the bicameral parliament (legislative), the Federal Council (executive) and the Federal Court (judicial).

When was Switzerland's Federal Constitution adopted?

When was a new Constitution adopted in Switzerland?

How many main governing bodies are on the federal level in Switzerland?

three

What is the legislative body of the Swiss government called?

bicameral parliament

What is the executive body of the Swiss government called?

Federal Council


The Swiss Parliament consists of two houses: the Council of States which has 46 representatives (two from each canton and one from each half-canton) who are elected under a system determined by each canton, and the National Council, which consists of 200 members who are elected under a system of proportional representation, depending on the population of each canton. Members of both houses serve for 4 years. When both houses are in joint session, they are known collectively as the Federal Assembly. Through referendums, citizens may challenge any law passed by parliament and through initiatives, introduce amendments to the federal constitution, thus making Switzerland a direct democracy.

How many members are on the National Council?

How long do members of both houses of the Swiss Parliament serve?

4 years

What are both houses of the Swiss Parliament collectively known as when both are in joint session?

Federal Assembly

What can citizens use to challenge any law passed by Parliament?

referendums

What can citizens use to introduce amendments to the federal constitution?

initiatives


The Federal Council constitutes the federal government, directs the federal administration and serves as collective Head of State. It is a collegial body of seven members, elected for a four-year mandate by the Federal Assembly which also exercises oversight over the Council. The President of the Confederation is elected by the Assembly from among the seven members, traditionally in rotation and for a one-year term; the President chairs the government and assumes representative functions. However, the president is a primus inter pares with no additional powers, and remains the head of a department within the administration.

What serves as the collective Head of State?

The Federal Council

How many members are in the Federal Council?

seven

Who elects the members of the Federal Council?

Federal Assembly

What is the traditional term for the President of the Confederation?

one-year

Who elects the President of the Confederation from its 7 members?

the Assembly


Direct democracy and federalism are hallmarks of the Swiss political system. Swiss citizens are subject to three legal jurisdictions: the commune, canton and federal levels. The 1848 federal constitution defines a system of direct democracy (sometimes called half-direct or representative direct democracy because it is aided by the more commonplace institutions of a representative democracy). The instruments of this system at the federal level, known as civic rights (Volksrechte, droits civiques), include the right to submit a constitutional initiative and a referendum, both of which may overturn parliamentary decisions.

How many legal jurisdictions are Swiss citizens subject to?

three

What are the legal jurisdictions that Swiss citizens are subject to?

commune, canton and federal levels

What type of democracy was defined in the 1848 federal constitution?

direct

What two things do citizens have the right to submit to overturn parliamentary decisions?

a constitutional initiative and a referendum

What are the two hallmarks of the Swiss political system?

Direct democracy and federalism


Similarly, the federal constitutional initiative allows citizens to put a constitutional amendment to a national vote, if 100,000 voters sign the proposed amendment within 18 months.[note 8] Parliament can supplement the proposed amendment with a counter-proposal, and then voters must indicate a preference on the ballot in case both proposals are accepted. Constitutional amendments, whether introduced by initiative or in Parliament, must be accepted by a double majority of the national popular vote and the cantonal popular votes.[note 9]

How many voters are needed to put a constitutional amendment to a national vote?

How long do citizens have to collect enough votes for a national vote on a constitutional amendment?

18 months

What can Parliament supplement the amendment proposed by the citizens with?

a counter-proposal

What must voters do on the ballot when Parliament adds a supplement?

indicate a preference

How much of the national popular vote and the cantonal popular vote is needed to pass a constitutional amendment?

a double majority


The cantons have a permanent constitutional status and, in comparison with the situation in other countries, a high degree of independence. Under the Federal Constitution, all 26 cantons are equal in status. Each canton has its own constitution, and its own parliament, government and courts. However, there are considerable differences between the individual cantons, most particularly in terms of population and geographical area. Their populations vary between 15,000 (Appenzell Innerrhoden) and 1,253,500 (Zürich), and their area between 37 km2 (14 sq mi) (Basel-Stadt) and 7,105 km2 (2,743 sq mi) (Graubünden). The Cantons comprise a total of 2,485 municipalities. Within Switzerland there are two enclaves: Büsingen belongs to Germany, Campione d'Italia belongs to Italy.

According to the Federal Constitution, how many cantons are equal in status?

all 26

What are the two major differences between cantons?

population and geographical area

What is the population of the largest canton?

1,253,500 (Zürich)

What is the population of the smallest canton?

15,000 (Appenzell Innerrhoden)

How large is the smallest canton?

37 km2 (14 sq mi) (Basel-Stadt)


Traditionally, Switzerland avoids alliances that might entail military, political, or direct economic action and has been neutral since the end of its expansion in 1515. Its policy of neutrality was internationally recognised at the Congress of Vienna in 1815. Only in 2002 did Switzerland become a full member of the United Nations and it was the first state to join it by referendum. Switzerland maintains diplomatic relations with almost all countries and historically has served as an intermediary between other states. Switzerland is not a member of the European Union; the Swiss people have consistently rejected membership since the early 1990s. However, Switzerland does participate in the Schengen Area.

When was Switzerland's policy of neutrality internationally recognized?

Congress of Vienna in 1815

What was Switzerland the first state to join the U.N. by?

referendum

What have the Swiss people continually rejected membership in since the 1990's?

European Union

How long has Switzerland traditionally been neutral?

since the end of its expansion in 1515

How does Switzerland treat alliances that might entail military or political action?

avoids


A large number of international institutions have their seats in Switzerland, in part because of its policy of neutrality. Geneva is the birthplace of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement and the Geneva Conventions and, since 2006, hosts the United Nations Human Rights Council. Even though Switzerland is one of the most recent countries to have joined the United Nations, the Palace of Nations in Geneva is the second biggest centre for the United Nations after New York, and Switzerland was a founding member and home to the League of Nations.

How long has Switzerland hosted the United Nations Human Rights Council?

since 2006

What is the second biggest centre for the U.N.?

Palace of Nations in Geneva

Where did the Red Crescent Movement begin?

Geneva

Where is the League of Nations located?

Switzerland


Apart from the United Nations headquarters, the Swiss Confederation is host to many UN agencies, like the World Health Organization (WHO), the International Labour Organization (ILO), the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and about 200 other international organisations, including the World Trade Organization and the World Intellectual Property Organization. The annual meetings of the World Economic Forum in Davos bring together top international business and political leaders from Switzerland and foreign countries to discuss important issues facing the world, including health and the environment. Additionally the headquarters of the Bank for International Settlements (BIS) are located in Basel since 1930.

Besides the U.N. Headquarters, who hosts many U.N. agencies?

Swiss Confederation

What does the ILO stand for?

International Labour Organization

What is disucussed at the World Economic Forum in Davos?

important issues facing the world, including health and the environment

What does BIS stand for?

Bank for International Settlements

What does UNHCR stand for?

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees


The structure of the Swiss militia system stipulates that the soldiers keep their Army issued equipment, including all personal weapons, at home. Some organizations and political parties find this practice controversial but mainstream Swiss opinion is in favour of the system. Compulsory military service concerns all male Swiss citizens; women can serve voluntarily. Men usually receive military conscription orders for training at the age of 18. About two thirds of the young Swiss are found suited for service; for those found unsuited, various forms of alternative service exist. Annually, approximately 20,000 persons are trained in recruit centres for a duration from 18 to 21 weeks. The reform "Army XXI" was adopted by popular vote in 2003, it replaced the previous model "Army 95", reducing the effectives from 400,000 to about 200,000. Of those, 120,000 are active in periodic Army training and 80,000 are non-training reserves.

Where do Swiss militia keep their Army issued equipment?

at home

Who has compulsory military service in Switzerland?

all male Swiss citizens

Who can serve in the Swiss military voluntarily?

women

What replaced Army 95 in 2003?

Army XXI

In Army XXI, how many are active in periodic army training?


Switzerland has a stable, prosperous and high-tech economy and enjoys great wealth, being ranked as the wealthiest country in the world per capita in multiple rankings. In 2011 it was ranked as the wealthiest country in the world in per capita terms (with "wealth" being defined to include both financial and non-financial assets), while the 2013 Credit Suisse Global Wealth Report showed that Switzerland was the country with the highest average wealth per adult in 2013. It has the world's nineteenth largest economy by nominal GDP and the thirty-sixth largest by purchasing power parity. It is the twentieth largest exporter, despite its small size. Switzerland has the highest European rating in the Index of Economic Freedom 2010, while also providing large coverage through public services. The nominal per capita GDP is higher than those of the larger Western and Central European economies and Japan. If adjusted for purchasing power parity, Switzerland ranks 8th in the world in terms of GDP per capita, according to the World Bank and IMF (ranked 15th according to the CIA Worldfactbook).

How does the Swiss economy rank worldwide by nominal GDP?

nineteenth largest

How does the Swiss economy rank worldwide by purchasing power parity?

thirty-sixth largest

What ranking does Switzerland hold in terms of GDP per capita, adjusting for purchasing power, according to the World Bank?

8th in the world

Which rating was assigned to Switzerland by the Index of Economic Freedom of 2010?

highest European rating


The World Economic Forum's Global Competitiveness Report currently ranks Switzerland's economy as the most competitive in the world, while ranked by the European Union as Europe's most innovative country. For much of the 20th century, Switzerland was the wealthiest country in Europe by a considerable margin (by GDP – per capita). In 2007 the gross median household income in Switzerland was an estimated 137,094 USD at Purchasing power parity while the median income was 95,824 USD. Switzerland also has one of the world's largest account balances as a percentage of GDP.

What did the World Economic Forum's Global Competetiveness Report Rank Switzerland's economy as?

the most competitive in the world

What was the gross median estimate of household income in Switzerland in 2007?

137,094 USD at Purchasing power parity

What was Switzerland's median income in 2007?

95,824 USD

How did the European Union rank Switzerland's economy?

Europe's most innovative country


Switzerland's most important economic sector is manufacturing. Manufacturing consists largely of the production of specialist chemicals, health and pharmaceutical goods, scientific and precision measuring instruments and musical instruments. The largest exported goods are chemicals (34% of exported goods), machines/electronics (20.9%), and precision instruments/watches (16.9%). Exported services amount to a third of exports. The service sector – especially banking and insurance, tourism, and international organisations – is another important industry for Switzerland.

What is Switzerland's most important economic sector?

manufacturing

What accounts for 34% of Switzerland's exported goods?

chemicals

What accounts for 20.9% of Switzerland's exported goods?

machines/electronics

What accounts for 16.9% of Switzerland's exported goods?

precision instruments/watches

What percentage of exports are exported services?

a third


Around 3.8 million people work in Switzerland; about 25% of employees belonged to a trade union in 2004. Switzerland has a more flexible job market than neighbouring countries and the unemployment rate is very low. The unemployment rate increased from a low of 1.7% in June 2000 to a peak of 4.4% in December 2009. The unemployment rate is 3.2% in 2014. Population growth from net immigration is quite high, at 0.52% of population in 2004. The foreign citizen population was 21.8% in 2004, about the same as in Australia. GDP per hour worked is the world's 16th highest, at 49.46 international dollars in 2012.

What percentage of employees belonged to a trade union in 2004?

about 25%

How many people work in Switzerland?

Around 3.8 million

What was the unemployment rate in Switzerland in 2014?

What was the foreign citizen population percentage in Switzerland in 2014?

What was the peak unemployment rate reached in December, 2009?


Switzerland has an overwhelmingly private sector economy and low tax rates by Western World standards; overall taxation is one of the smallest of developed countries. Switzerland is a relatively easy place to do business, currently ranking 20th of 189 countries in the Ease of Doing Business Index. The slow growth Switzerland experienced in the 1990s and the early 2000s has brought greater support for economic reforms and harmonization with the European Union. According to Credit Suisse, only about 37% of residents own their own homes, one of the lowest rates of home ownership in Europe. Housing and food price levels were 171% and 145% of the EU-25 index in 2007, compared to 113% and 104% in Germany.

How is Switzerland ranked of 189 countries in the Ease of Doing Business Index?

According to Credit Suisse, what percentage of residents own their homes?

about 37%

How do Switzerland's tax rates compare by Western World standards?

low


The Swiss Federal budget had a size of 62.8 billion Swiss francs in 2010, which is an equivalent 11.35% of the country's GDP in that year; however, the regional (canton) budgets and the budgets of the municipalities are not counted as part of the federal budget and the total rate of government spending is closer to 33.8% of GDP. The main sources of income for the federal government are the value-added tax (33%) and the direct federal tax (29%) and the main expenditure is located in the areas of social welfare and finance & tax. The expenditures of the Swiss Confederation have been growing from 7% of GDP in 1960 to 9.7% in 1990 and to 10.7% in 2010. While the sectors social welfare and finance & tax have been growing from 35% in 1990 to 48.2% in 2010, a significant reduction of expenditures has been occurring in the sectors of agriculture and national defense; from 26.5% in to 12.4% (estimation for the year 2015).

What size was the Swiss Federal budget in 2010?

62.8 billion Swiss francs

What are the two main sources of income for the federal government?

value-added tax (33%) and the direct federal tax (29%)

Which sectors are the main source of expenditures for the federal government?

social welfare and finance & tax

Which sectors have experienced a reduction in federal government expenditures?

agriculture and national defense

How much were expenditures estimated to be cut in agriculture and national defense in 2015?

from 26.5% in to 12.4%


Agricultural protectionism—a rare exception to Switzerland's free trade policies—has contributed to high food prices. Product market liberalisation is lagging behind many EU countries according to the OECD. Nevertheless, domestic purchasing power is one of the best in the world. Apart from agriculture, economic and trade barriers between the European Union and Switzerland are minimal and Switzerland has free trade agreements worldwide. Switzerland is a member of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA).

What has contributed to high food prices in Switzerland?

Agricultural protectionism

What type of trade agreements does Switzerland have worldwide?

free

What is the EFTA?

European Free Trade Association

What is Switzerland's world ranking in domestic purchasing power?

one of the best

According to the OECD, what is Switzerland lagging behind many EU countries in?

Product market liberalisation


Education in Switzerland is very diverse because the constitution of Switzerland delegates the authority for the school system to the cantons. There are both public and private schools, including many private international schools. The minimum age for primary school is about six years in all cantons, but most cantons provide a free "children's school" starting at four or five years old. Primary school continues until grade four, five or six, depending on the school. Traditionally, the first foreign language in school was always one of the other national languages, although recently (2000) English was introduced first in a few cantons.

Who has authority of school systems in Switzerland?

the cantons

What is the minimum age for primary school in all cantons?

six

What do most cantons provide for free when children are 4 or 5 years old?

children's school

When was English introduced as a first foreign language in many cantons?

How long does primary school continue?

until grade four, five or six