The single most revealing property of wood as an indicator of wood quality is specific gravity (Timell 1986), as both pulp yield and lumber strength are determined by it. Specific gravity is the ratio of the mass of a substance to the mass of an equal volume of water; density is the ratio of a mass of a quantity of a substance to the volume of that quantity and is expressed in mass per unit substance, e.g., grams per millilitre (g/cm3 or g/ml). The terms are essentially equivalent as long as the metric system is used. Upon drying, wood shrinks and its density increases. Minimum values are associated with green (water-saturated) wood and are referred to as basic specific gravity (Timell 1986).

Which property of wood reveals the most about its quality?

specific gravity

In addition to lumber strength, what important indicator of wood's quality can be determined using specific gravity?

pulp yield

What measurement is expressed in mass per unit substance?

density

When wood dries and shrinks, what happens to its density?

increases

When wood is described as "green," what does "green" mean?

water-saturated


Wood density is determined by multiple growth and physiological factors compounded into “one fairly easily measured wood characteristic” (Elliott 1970).

Along with growth, what kind of factors determine the density of wood?

physiological

Into how many characteristics are the factors of wood combined?

one

What author called wood's density "fairly easily measured"?

Elliott


Age, diameter, height, radial growth, geographical location, site and growing conditions, silvicultural treatment, and seed source, all to some degree influence wood density. Variation is to be expected. Within an individual tree, the variation in wood density is often as great as or even greater than that between different trees (Timell 1986). Variation of specific gravity within the bole of a tree can occur in either the horizontal or vertical direction. :)

What should be anticipated because of the many factors that influence wood's density?

Variation

What specific type of growth has an effect on the density of wood?

radial

Which part of a tree can have vertical or horizontal variation in its specific gravity?

bole

Variation in what measurement is sometimes greater within one tree than from one tree to another?

density

What tiny object's source plays a role in determining wood density?

seed


It is common to classify wood as either softwood or hardwood. The wood from conifers (e.g. pine) is called softwood, and the wood from dicotyledons (usually broad-leaved trees, e.g. oak) is called hardwood. These names are a bit misleading, as hardwoods are not necessarily hard, and softwoods are not necessarily soft. The well-known balsa (a hardwood) is actually softer than any commercial softwood. Conversely, some softwoods (e.g. yew) are harder than many hardwoods.

What term do we use for the wood that comes from pine trees?

softwood

What kind of wood does an oak tree have?

hardwood

Is balsa a softwood or a hardwood?

hardwood

What's an example of a softwood that isn't "soft," and is actually harder than a lot of hardwoods?

yew

What's the scientific name for trees like the oak with broad leaves?

dicotyledons


There is a strong relationship between the properties of wood and the properties of the particular tree that yielded it. The density of wood varies with species. The density of a wood correlates with its strength (mechanical properties). For example, mahogany is a medium-dense hardwood that is excellent for fine furniture crafting, whereas balsa is light, making it useful for model building. One of the densest woods is black ironwood.

What kind of relationship exists between a tree's properties and its wood's properties?

strong

What property of wood varies according to species?

density

What property of wood has a correlation to its density?

strength

Is mahogany a hardwood or a softwood?

hardwood

What hobby is balsa wood often used for?

model building


The chemical composition of wood varies from species to species, but is approximately 50% carbon, 42% oxygen, 6% hydrogen, 1% nitrogen, and 1% other elements (mainly calcium, potassium, sodium, magnesium, iron, and manganese) by weight. Wood also contains sulfur, chlorine, silicon, phosphorus, and other elements in small quantity.

What approximate percentage of carbon does wood have?

What element makes up about 6% of the chemical composition of wood?

hydrogen

About what percentage of wood is composed of nitrogen?

Which element in wood composes about 42% of its weight?

oxygen

What element joins potassium, calcium, manganese, iron, and sodium to make a combined 1% of the chemical composition of wood?

magnesium


Aside from water, wood has three main components. Cellulose, a crystalline polymer derived from glucose, constitutes about 41–43%. Next in abundance is hemicellulose, which is around 20% in deciduous trees but near 30% in conifers. It is mainly five-carbon sugars that are linked in an irregular manner, in contrast to the cellulose. Lignin is the third component at around 27% in coniferous wood vs. 23% in deciduous trees. Lignin confers the hydrophobic properties reflecting the fact that it is based on aromatic rings. These three components are interwoven, and direct covalent linkages exist between the lignin and the hemicellulose. A major focus of the paper industry is the separation of the lignin from the cellulose, from which paper is made.

How many main components make up wood, not counting water?

three

What's the name for the crystalline polymer derived from glucose?

Cellulose

After cellulose, what component is most plentiful in wood?

hemicellulose

What kind of trees have about 30% hemicellulose?

conifers

Which of the three main components of wood is used to manufacture paper?

cellulose


In chemical terms, the difference between hardwood and softwood is reflected in the composition of the constituent lignin. Hardwood lignin is primarily derived from sinapyl alcohol and coniferyl alcohol. Softwood lignin is mainly derived from coniferyl alcohol.

What component of wood determines whether it is hardwood or softwood?

lignin

Which wood has lignin that comes primarily from one type of alcohol?

Softwood

Which type of alcohol mainly becomes softwood lignin?

coniferyl

In addition to coniferyl alcohol, what other alcohol is in hardwood lignin?

sinapyl

Which kind of wood contains lignin derived from two main alcohol sources?

Hardwood


Aside from the lignocellulose, wood consists of a variety of low molecular weight organic compounds, called extractives. The wood extractives are fatty acids, resin acids, waxes and terpenes. For example, rosin is exuded by conifers as protection from insects. The extraction of these organic materials from wood provides tall oil, turpentine, and rosin.

What's the name for the low molecular weight organic compounds in wood?

extractives

Along with fatty acids, what kind of acids are in the extractives in wood?

resin

Wood extractives include resin and fatty acids, terpenes, and what other component?

waxes

What do conifers use rosin to protect themselves from?

insects

Along with tall oil and rosin, what commercial product do we get from wood's extractives?

turpentine


Wood has a long history of being used as fuel, which continues to this day, mostly in rural areas of the world. Hardwood is preferred over softwood because it creates less smoke and burns longer. Adding a woodstove or fireplace to a home is often felt to add ambiance and warmth.

What type of wood is preferred as fuel?

Hardwood

What type of wood burns quickly and makes more smoke than hardwood?

softwood

What type of areas use more wood for fuel?

rural

What benefit besides the cozy atmosphere would a wood-burning fireplace add to a home?

warmth


Wood has been an important construction material since humans began building shelters, houses and boats. Nearly all boats were made out of wood until the late 19th century, and wood remains in common use today in boat construction. Elm in particular was used for this purpose as it resisted decay as long as it was kept wet (it also served for water pipe before the advent of more modern plumbing).

What wood is decay-resistant when wet?

Elm

What plumbing component was once made out of elm?

water pipe

Until the late 19th century, what vessels were almost always wooden?

boats

What significant purpose has wood been used for as long as humans have built shelters?

construction material

Other than boats, what do people often build with wood?

houses


Wood to be used for construction work is commonly known as lumber in North America. Elsewhere, lumber usually refers to felled trees, and the word for sawn planks ready for use is timber. In Medieval Europe oak was the wood of choice for all wood construction, including beams, walls, doors, and floors. Today a wider variety of woods is used: solid wood doors are often made from poplar, small-knotted pine, and Douglas fir.

What term is used in North America for wood used in construction?

lumber

Outside of North America, if someone said "lumber," to what would they be referring?

felled trees

What do people outside of North America call the sawn boards used for building?

timber

What was the preferred wood for construction in Medieval Europe?

oak

For modern solid wood doors, what wood is often used in addition to small-knotted pine or poplar?

Douglas fir


New domestic housing in many parts of the world today is commonly made from timber-framed construction. Engineered wood products are becoming a bigger part of the construction industry. They may be used in both residential and commercial buildings as structural and aesthetic materials.

What type of construction is often used now to build homes in much of the world?

timber-framed

In addition to residential applications, what type of buildings often have engineered wood components?

commercial

Along with decorative components, what type of building materials can be engineered from wood?

structural

What industry benefits greatly from engineered wood products?

construction


In buildings made of other materials, wood will still be found as a supporting material, especially in roof construction, in interior doors and their frames, and as exterior cladding.

What might wood be used for in a building made from brick or other materials?

supporting material

What crucial part of a house is often constructed from wood?

roof

Wood might be used to construct what exterior component of a building?

cladding

Inside a building, what wooden things might you open to enter or leave rooms?

doors


Engineered wood products, glued building products "engineered" for application-specific performance requirements, are often used in construction and industrial applications. Glued engineered wood products are manufactured by bonding together wood strands, veneers, lumber or other forms of wood fiber with glue to form a larger, more efficient composite structural unit.

What holds together an engineered wood product?

glue

Engineered wood products are often used in construction, but what other major type of applications do they have?

industrial

What requirements do engineered wood products meet?

application-specific performance requirements

What efficient type of unit does the process of "engineering" wood result in?

composite structural unit

Wood fibers from wood strands, lumber, and what other source can be glued together to make larger units?

veneers


These products include glued laminated timber (glulam), wood structural panels (including plywood, oriented strand board and composite panels), laminated veneer lumber (LVL) and other structural composite lumber (SCL) products, parallel strand lumber, and I-joists. Approximately 100 million cubic meters of wood was consumed for this purpose in 1991. The trends suggest that particle board and fiber board will overtake plywood.

What category do composite panels, strand board, and plywood all fit into?

wood structural panels

What's another word for glued laminated timber?

glulam

What does LVL stand for?

laminated veneer lumber

If current building trends continue, what material will be replaced by particle and fiber board?

plywood

About how many cubic meters of wood was used in 1991 to make products like glulam, LVL, and structural composite lumber?

100 million


Wood unsuitable for construction in its native form may be broken down mechanically (into fibers or chips) or chemically (into cellulose) and used as a raw material for other building materials, such as engineered wood, as well as chipboard, hardboard, and medium-density fiberboard (MDF). Such wood derivatives are widely used: wood fibers are an important component of most paper, and cellulose is used as a component of some synthetic materials. Wood derivatives can also be used for kinds of flooring, for example laminate flooring.

What material results from chemically breaking down wood?

cellulose

What's the abbreviation for medium-density fiberboard?

MDF

How is wood broken down into chips and fibers?

mechanically

What type of flooring can be made from wood derivatives?

laminate

What widely-used product is almost always made of wood fibers?

paper


Wood has always been used extensively for furniture, such as chairs and beds. It is also used for tool handles and cutlery, such as chopsticks, toothpicks, and other utensils, like the wooden spoon.

What category of products usually made from wood includes chairs?

furniture

What wooden utensil could you stir a pot of soup with?

wooden spoon

Which parts of tools are sometimes made out of wood?

handles

What pieces of furniture that most people use every night can be made out of wood?

beds

What special wooden utensils do many people use to eat Chinese takeout?

chopsticks


Further developments include new lignin glue applications, recyclable food packaging, rubber tire replacement applications, anti-bacterial medical agents, and high strength fabrics or composites. As scientists and engineers further learn and develop new techniques to extract various components from wood, or alternatively to modify wood, for example by adding components to wood, new more advanced products will appear on the marketplace. Moisture content electronic monitoring can also enhance next generation wood protection.

What could we monitor electronically that could help inform new methods of wood protection?

Moisture content

Development in the wood manufacturing industry include using lignin to make what substance?

glue

Instead of rubber, what important part of a car might someday be replaced by components of wood?

tire

What material might be developed from wood that could make clothes that resist wear and tear?

high strength fabrics

In addition to extracting components from wood, what might scientist do by adding components, for example, to make innovative products?

modify wood


Wood has long been used as an artistic medium. It has been used to make sculptures and carvings for millennia. Examples include the totem poles carved by North American indigenous people from conifer trunks, often Western Red Cedar (Thuja plicata), and the Millennium clock tower, now housed in the National Museum of Scotland in Edinburgh. It is also used in woodcut printmaking, and for engraving.

Along with sculptures, what type of art have people been making out of wood for centuries?

carvings

What did indigenous people in North America make out of the trunks of conifers?

totem poles

What type of tree was often used for totem poles?

Western Red Cedar

What city in Scotland would you visit to see the Millennium clock tower?

Edinburgh

What museum exhibits the Millennium clock tower?

National Museum of Scotland


Certain types of musical instruments, such as those of the violin family, the guitar, the clarinet and recorder, the xylophone, and the marimba, are traditionally made mostly or entirely of wood. The choice of wood may make a significant difference to the tone and resonant qualities of the instrument, and tonewoods have widely differing properties, ranging from the hard and dense african blackwood (used for the bodies of clarinets) to the light but resonant European spruce (Picea abies), which is traditionally used for the soundboards of violins. The most valuable tonewoods, such as the ripple sycamore (Acer pseudoplatanus), used for the backs of violins, combine acoustic properties with decorative color and grain which enhance the appearance of the finished instrument.

What kind of wood are clarinet bodies made from?

african blackwood

What expensive wood with a prized color is used to make the backs of violins?

ripple sycamore

What category of wood is often used for musical instruments?

tonewoods

What's the common name for Picea abies?

European spruce

Along with resonance, what property of an instrument will be affected by the wood used to make it?

tone


Despite their collective name, not all woodwind instruments are made entirely of wood. The reeds used to play them, however, are usually made from Arundo donax, a type of monocot cane plant.

What type of instruments with a misleading name aren't always made completely out of wood?

woodwind instruments

What are woodwind instrument's reeds often made out of?

Arundo donax

Is the Arundo donax a monocot or dicot cane plant?

monocot

What objects do musicians have to have in order to play woodwind instruments?

reeds


Many types of sports equipment are made of wood, or were constructed of wood in the past. For example, cricket bats are typically made of white willow. The baseball bats which are legal for use in Major League Baseball are frequently made of ash wood or hickory, and in recent years have been constructed from maple even though that wood is somewhat more fragile. NBA courts have been traditionally made out of parquetry.

What wood is usually used for cricket bats?

white willow

Ash and hickory are often used for baseball bats to comply with the rules of what organization?

Major League Baseball

What is commonly used for the basketball courts the NBA plays on?

parquetry

What wood has recently started being used to make baseball bats in addition to hickory and ash?

maple

Compared to hickory and ash, what adjective might be used for a maple baseball bat?

fragile


Many other types of sports and recreation equipment, such as skis, ice hockey sticks, lacrosse sticks and archery bows, were commonly made of wood in the past, but have since been replaced with more modern materials such as aluminium, fiberglass, carbon fiber, titanium, and composite materials. One noteworthy example of this trend is the golf club commonly known as the wood, the head of which was traditionally made of persimmon wood in the early days of the game of golf, but is now generally made of synthetic materials.

What pieces of equipment for shooting arrows used to be wooden?

archery bows

Which pieces of ice hockey equipment were once made out of wood?

sticks

When the golf club called the "wood" was actually made out of it, what type of wood was used?

persimmon

What is the golf club known as the "wood" usually made out of today?

synthetic materials

What other modern material has joined composites, carbon fiber, titanium, and aluminum to replace wood in the manufacture of sporting equipment?

fiberglass


Little is known about the bacteria that degrade cellulose. Symbiotic bacteria in Xylophaga may play a role in the degradation of sunken wood; while bacteria such as Alphaproteobacteria, Flavobacteria, Actinobacteria, Clostridia, and Bacteroidetes have been detected in wood submerged over a year.

What component of wood is degraded by bacteria that scientists are still trying to learn about?

cellulose

What type of bacteria are present in Xylophaga?

Symbiotic

What type of wood is it possible the bacteria in Xylophaga help break down?

sunken

How long was the wood submerged in water in the study that discovered the types of bacteria in it?

over a year

What bacteria starting with the letter "F" were found in wood after it was underwater for more than a year?

Flavobacteria


Somalis (Somali: Soomaali, Arabic: صومال) are an ethnic group inhabiting the Horn of Africa (Somali Peninsula). The overwhelming majority of Somalis speak the Somali language, which is part of the Cushitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic family. They are predominantly Sunni Muslim. Ethnic Somalis number around 16-20 million and are principally concentrated in Somalia (around 12.3 million), Ethiopia (4.6 million), Kenya (2.4 million), and Djibouti (464,600), with many also residing in parts of the Middle East, North America and Europe.

What language family is Somali a part of?

Afro-Asiatic

What part of the Afro-Asiatic language family is Somali a part of?

Cushitic

What is the majority religion of Somalis?

Sunni Muslim

How many people of Somali ethnicity live in Somalia?

12.3 million

What country has the second largest Somali population?

Ethiopia


Irir Samaale, the oldest common ancestor of several Somali clans, is generally regarded as the source of the ethnonym Somali. The name "Somali" is, in turn, held to be derived from the words soo and maal, which together mean "go and milk" — a reference to the ubiquitous pastoralism of the Somali people. Another plausible etymology proposes that the term Somali is derived from the Arabic for "wealthy" (dhawamaal), again referring to Somali riches in livestock.

From whom are several Somali clans descended?

Irir Samaale

From what words is the term 'Somali' generally regarded as being derived?

soo and maal

What does 'soo and maal' mean in English?

go and milk

What word in Arabic means 'wealthy' in English?

dhawamaal

What resource traditionally comprised Somali wealth?

livestock


An Ancient Chinese document from the 9th century referred to the northern Somali coast — which was then called "Berbera" by Arab geographers in reference to the region's "Berber" (Cushitic) inhabitants — as Po-pa-li. The first clear written reference of the sobriquet Somali, however, dates back to the 15th century. During the wars between the Sultanate of Ifat based at Zeila and the Solomonic Dynasty, the Abyssinian Emperor had one of his court officials compose a hymn celebrating a military victory over the Sultan of Ifat's eponymous troops.

What did the Arabs call the northern Somali coast in the 9th century?

Berbera

What did the Chinese call the northern Somali coast in the 9th century?

Po-pa-li

In what century was the term 'Somali' first used?

Who ordered that a hymn be composed that first mentioned the Somalis?

the Abyssinian Emperor

Where was the Sultanate of Ifat located?

Zeila


Ancient rock paintings in Somalia which date back to 5000 years have been found in the northern part of the country, depicting early life in the territory. The most famous of these is the Laas Geel complex, which contains some of the earliest known rock art on the African continent and features many elaborate pastoralist sketches of animal and human figures. In other places, such as the northern Dhambalin region, a depiction of a man on a horse is postulated as being one of the earliest known examples of a mounted huntsman.

How long ago were rock paintings found in Somalia created?

5000 years

Where are the most notable rock paintings located?

the Laas Geel complex

Along with animals, what is depicted on the rock paintings of Laas Geel?

human figures

Where does a notable rock painting of a man on horseback exist?

the northern Dhambalin region

In what geographic part of Somalia are these rock paintings commonly found?

northern


Inscriptions have been found beneath many of the rock paintings, but archaeologists have so far been unable to decipher this form of ancient writing. During the Stone age, the Doian culture and the Hargeisan culture flourished here with their respective industries and factories.

Along with the Hargesian culture, what culture was present in Somalia in the Stone age?

the Doian culture

What undeciphered writings were found alongside the rock paintings?

Inscriptions

During what period did the Doian culture thrive?

the Stone age


The oldest evidence of burial customs in the Horn of Africa comes from cemeteries in Somalia dating back to 4th millennium BC. The stone implements from the Jalelo site in northern Somalia are said to be the most important link in evidence of the universality in palaeolithic times between the East and the West.

In what country is the oldest evidence of ceremonial burial in the Horn of Africa located?

Somalia

From what millennium do the oldest cemeteries in the Horn of Africa date?

4th millennium BC

At what site were important paleolithic stone tools found?

the Jalelo site

In what geographic part of Somalia were important paleolithic stone tools found?

northern


In antiquity, the ancestors of the Somali people were an important link in the Horn of Africa connecting the region's commerce with the rest of the ancient world. Somali sailors and merchants were the main suppliers of frankincense, myrrh and spices, items which were considered valuable luxuries by the Ancient Egyptians, Phoenicians, Mycenaeans and Babylonians.

What economic activity in the Horn of Africa did the ancient Somalis connect to the rest of the world?

commerce

Along with myrrh and spices, what important luxury did ancient Somali merchants provide?

frankincense

Along with the ancient Phoenicians, Egyptians and Babylonians, what ancient people regarded myrrh as a luxury?

Mycenaeans


According to most scholars, the ancient Land of Punt and its inhabitants formed part of the ethnogenesis of the Somali people. The ancient Puntites were a nation of people that had close relations with Pharaonic Egypt during the times of Pharaoh Sahure and Queen Hatshepsut. The pyramidal structures, temples and ancient houses of dressed stone littered around Somalia are said to date from this period.

What ancient land was connected to the modern Somali people?

Land of Punt

What nation did the Land of Put have a close relationship with?

Pharaonic Egypt

Who was a Queen of Egypt during the time when Punt and Egypt were close?

Hatshepsut

Along with houses of dressed stone, what ancient architecture may have been influenced by Egypt?

pyramidal structures


In the classical era, several ancient city-states such as Opone, Essina, Sarapion, Nikon, Malao, Damo and Mosylon near Cape Guardafui, which competed with the Sabaeans, Parthians and Axumites for the wealthy Indo-Greco-Roman trade, also flourished in Somalia.

Near what headland was Mosylon located?

Cape Guardafui

Along with Mosylon, Malao, Nikon, Sarapion, Opone and Essina, what city-state flourished in ancient Somalia?

Damo

Along with the Parthians and Axumites, who were the commercial competitors of the ancient Somalis?

Sabaeans

What trade did the ancient Somalis and others compete for?

Indo-Greco-Roman


The birth of Islam on the opposite side of Somalia's Red Sea coast meant that Somali merchants, sailors and expatriates living in the Arabian Peninsula gradually came under the influence of the new religion through their converted Arab Muslim trading partners. With the migration of fleeing Muslim families from the Islamic world to Somalia in the early centuries of Islam and the peaceful conversion of the Somali population by Somali Muslim scholars in the following centuries, the ancient city-states eventually transformed into Islamic Mogadishu, Berbera, Zeila, Barawa and Merca, which were part of the Berberi civilization. The city of Mogadishu came to be known as the City of Islam, and controlled the East African gold trade for several centuries.

What body of water separated Somalia from the land where Islam was born?

Red Sea

In what location was Islam born?

the Arabian Peninsula

What civilization was Mogadishu a part of?

Berberi

What was another name for Mogadishu?

the City of Islam

The trade of what luxury in East Africa was once centered on Mogadishu?

gold


The Sultanate of Ifat, led by the Walashma dynasty with its capital at Zeila, ruled over parts of what is now eastern Ethiopia, Djibouti, and northern Somalia. The historian al-Umari records that Ifat was situated near the Red Sea coast, and states its size as 15 days travel by 20 days travel. Its army numbered 15,000 horsemen and 20,000 foot soldiers. Al-Umari also credits Ifat with seven "mother cities": Belqulzar, Kuljura, Shimi, Shewa, Adal, Jamme and Laboo.

What dynasty ruled the Sultanate of Ifat?

the Walashma dynasty

What was the capital of the Sultanate of Ifat?

Zeila

Along with parts of Ethiopia and Somalia, in what modern-day country was the Sultanate of Ifat located?

Djibouti

According to al-Umari, how many cavalry did the Sultanate of Ifat have?

Near what body of water did al-Umari say Ifat was located?

the Red Sea


In the Middle Ages, several powerful Somali empires dominated the regional trade including the Ajuran Sultanate, which excelled in hydraulic engineering and fortress building, the Sultanate of Adal, whose general Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi (Ahmed Gurey) was the first commander to use cannon warfare on the continent during Adal's conquest of the Ethiopian Empire, and the Sultanate of the Geledi, whose military dominance forced governors of the Omani empire north of the city of Lamu to pay tribute to the Somali Sultan Ahmed Yusuf.

What Somali polity of the Middle Ages was known for its fortresses?

the Ajuran Sultanate

What state employed Abmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi?

the Sultanate of Adal

What was another name by which Abmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi was known?

Ahmed Gurey

What state did Adal conquer?

the Ethiopian Empire

What Somali leader received tribute from the Omani empire?

Sultan Ahmed Yusuf


In the late 19th century, after the Berlin conference had ended, European empires sailed with their armies to the Horn of Africa. The imperial clouds wavering over Somalia alarmed the Dervish leader Mohammed Abdullah Hassan, who gathered Somali soldiers from across the Horn of Africa and began one of the longest anti-colonial wars ever. The Dervish State successfully repulsed the British empire four times and forced it to retreat to the coastal region. As a result of its successes against the British, the Dervish State received support from the Ottoman and German empires. The Turks also named Hassan Emir of the Somali nation, and the Germans promised to officially recognize any territories the Dervishes were to acquire. After a quarter of a century of holding the British at bay, the Dervishes were finally defeated in 1920, when Britain for the first time in Africa used airplanes to bomb the Dervish capital of Taleex. As a result of this bombardment, former Dervish territories were turned into a protectorate of Britain. Italy similarly faced the same opposition from Somali Sultans and armies and did not acquire full control of parts of modern Somalia until the Fascist era in late 1927. This occupation lasted till 1941 and was replaced by a British military administration.

What states supported the Dervish State?

the Ottoman and German empires

In what year did the British defeat the Dervishes?

What was the capital of the Dervish State?

Taleex

In what year did Fascist Italy achieve full control of Somalia?

In what year did the Italian occupation of Somalia end?


Following World War II, Britain retained control of both British Somaliland and Italian Somaliland as protectorates. In 1945, during the Potsdam Conference, the United Nations granted Italy trusteeship of Italian Somaliland, but only under close supervision and on the condition — first proposed by the Somali Youth League (SYL) and other nascent Somali political organizations, such as Hizbia Digil Mirifle Somali (HDMS) and the Somali National League (SNL) — that Somalia achieve independence within ten years. British Somaliland remained a protectorate of Britain until 1960.

Along with British Somaliland, what country in the region was a British protectorate after the Second World War?

Italian Somaliland

At what meeting did the United Nations give Italy trusteeship of Italian Somaliland?

the Potsdam Conference

Along with the Somali Youth League and Somali National League, what was an early Somali political organization?

Hizbia Digil Mirifle Somali

How many years would Italy have to allow Italian Somaliland to become independent?

ten

In what year was the British protectorate over British Somaliland ended?


To the extent that Italy held the territory by UN mandate, the trusteeship provisions gave the Somalis the opportunity to gain experience in political education and self-government. These were advantages that British Somaliland, which was to be incorporated into the new Somali state, did not have. Although in the 1950s British colonial officials attempted, through various administrative development efforts, to make up for past neglect, the protectorate stagnated. The disparity between the two territories in economic development and political experience would cause serious difficulties when it came time to integrate the two parts. Meanwhile, in 1948, under pressure from their World War II allies and to the dismay of the Somalis, the British "returned" the Haud (an important Somali grazing area that was presumably 'protected' by British treaties with the Somalis in 1884 and 1886) and the Ogaden to Ethiopia, based on a treaty they signed in 1897 in which the British ceded Somali territory to the Ethiopian Emperor Menelik in exchange for his help against plundering by Somali clans. Britain included the proviso that the Somali nomads would retain their autonomy, but Ethiopia immediately claimed sovereignty over them. This prompted an unsuccessful bid by Britain in 1956 to buy back the Somali lands it had turned over. Britain also granted administration of the almost exclusively Somali-inhabited Northern Frontier District (NFD) to Kenyan nationalists despite an informal plebiscite demonstrating the overwhelming desire of the region's population to join the newly formed Somali Republic.

Along with the Haud, what area of Somalia was given to Ethiopia by the British?

the Ogaden

In what year did the British give the Haud to Ethiopia?

The Ogaden was given to Ethiopia on the basis of a treaty signed by the British with what Ethiopian leader?

Emperor Menelik

In what year did Britain try to purchase Somali lands from Ethiopia?

What people constituted almost the entire population of the Northern Frontier District?

Somali


A referendum was held in neighboring Djibouti (then known as French Somaliland) in 1958, on the eve of Somalia's independence in 1960, to decide whether or not to join the Somali Republic or to remain with France. The referendum turned out in favour of a continued association with France, largely due to a combined yes vote by the sizable Afar ethnic group and resident Europeans. There was also widespread vote rigging, with the French expelling thousands of Somalis before the referendum reached the polls. The majority of those who voted no were Somalis who were strongly in favour of joining a united Somalia, as had been proposed by Mahmoud Harbi, Vice President of the Government Council. Harbi was killed in a plane crash two years later. Djibouti finally gained its independence from France in 1977, and Hassan Gouled Aptidon, a Somali who had campaigned for a yes vote in the referendum of 1958, eventually wound up as Djibouti's first president (1977–1991).

What was Djibouti called in 1958?

French Somaliland

In what year did Somalia become independent?

What was Mahmoud Harbi's title?

Vice President of the Government Council

When did Djibouti achieve independence?

Who was the first president of Djibouti?

Hassan Gouled Aptidon


British Somaliland became independent on 26 June 1960 as the State of Somaliland, and the Trust Territory of Somalia (the former Italian Somaliland) followed suit five days later. On 1 July 1960, the two territories united to form the Somali Republic, albeit within boundaries drawn up by Italy and Britain. A government was formed by Abdullahi Issa Mohamud and Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal other members of the trusteeship and protectorate governments, with Haji Bashir Ismail Yusuf as President of the Somali National Assembly, Aden Abdullah Osman Daar as the President of the Somali Republic and Abdirashid Ali Shermarke as Prime Minister (later to become President from 1967 to 1969). On 20 July 1961 and through a popular referendum, the people of Somalia ratified a new constitution, which was first drafted in 1960. In 1967, Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal became Prime Minister, a position to which he was appointed by Shermarke. Egal would later become the President of the autonomous Somaliland region in northwestern Somalia.

On what date did British Somaliland gain independence?

26 June 1960

What was British Somaliland known as upon achieving independence?

the State of Somaliland

What state formed the Somali Republic with British Somaliland?

the Trust Territory of Somalia

On what date did the former British Somaliland and Italian Somaliland unite?

1 July 1960

Who was the first President of the Somali Republic?

Aden Abdullah Osman Daar


On 15 October 1969, while paying a visit to the northern town of Las Anod, Somalia's then President Abdirashid Ali Shermarke was shot dead by one of his own bodyguards. His assassination was quickly followed by a military coup d'état on 21 October 1969 (the day after his funeral), in which the Somali Army seized power without encountering armed opposition — essentially a bloodless takeover. The putsch was spearheaded by Major General Mohamed Siad Barre, who at the time commanded the army.

On what date was Abdirashid Ali Shermarke assassinated?

15 October 1969

Who assassinated Abdirashid Ali Shermarke?

one of his own bodyguards

On what day, the day after the funeral of Abdirashid Ali Shermarke, did a coup occur?

21 October 1969

Who was the commander of the army when the coup occurred?

Mohamed Siad Barre

What was Mohamed Siad Barre's rank?

Major General


Alongside Barre, the Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC) that assumed power after President Sharmarke's assassination was led by Lieutenant Colonel Salaad Gabeyre Kediye and Chief of Police Jama Korshel. The SRC subsequently renamed the country the Somali Democratic Republic, dissolved the parliament and the Supreme Court, and suspended the constitution.

Along with Jama Korshel, who led the Supreme Revolutionary Council?

Salaad Gabeyre Kediye

What was Jama Korshel's title?

Chief of Police

What was the military rank of Salaad Gabeyre Kediye?

Lieutenant Colonel

What name did the Supreme Revolutionary Council give to Somalia?

the Somali Democratic Republic

Along with dissolving the Supreme Court and parliament, what action did the Supreme Revolutionary Council take?

suspended the constitution


The revolutionary army established large-scale public works programs and successfully implemented an urban and rural literacy campaign, which helped dramatically increase the literacy rate. In addition to a nationalization program of industry and land, the new regime's foreign policy placed an emphasis on Somalia's traditional and religious links with the Arab world, eventually joining the Arab League (AL) in 1974. That same year, Barre also served as chairman of the Organization of African Unity (OAU), the predecessor of the African Union (AU).

What did the new government nationalize along with land?

industry

What international body did the new government join?

the Arab League

In what year did the new government enter the Arab League?

What organization would the Organization of African Unity later become?

the African Union

What rate did the new government's programs significantly increase?

literacy


Somali people in the Horn of Africa are divided among different countries (Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia, and northeastern Kenya) that were artificially and some might say arbitrarily partitioned by the former imperial powers. Pan-Somalism is an ideology that advocates the unification of all ethnic Somalis once part of Somali empires such as the Ajuran Empire, the Adal Sultanate, the Gobroon Dynasty and the Dervish State under one flag and one nation. The Siad Barre regime actively promoted Pan-Somalism, which eventually led to the Ogaden War between Somalia on one side, and Ethiopia, Cuba and the Soviet Union on the other.

Along with Kenya, Djibouti and Somalia, in what Horn of Africa country do Somali people live?

Ethiopia

In what geographic portion of Kenya can Somali people be found?

northeastern

What is the name of the idea that believes all ethnic Somalis should live in the same country?

Pan-Somalism

Along with the Soviet Union, what country supported Ethiopia in its war against Somalia?

Cuba

What was the name of the conflict between Somalia and the Soviet Union, Cuba and Ethiopia?

the Ogaden War


According to Y chromosome studies by Sanchez et al. (2005), Cruciani et al. (2004, 2007), the Somalis are paternally closely related to other Afro-Asiatic-speaking groups in Northeast Africa. Besides comprising the majority of the Y-DNA in Somalis, the E1b1b1a (formerly E3b1a) haplogroup also makes up a significant proportion of the paternal DNA of Ethiopians, Sudanese, Egyptians, Berbers, North African Arabs, as well as many Mediterranean populations. Sanchez et al. (2005) observed the M78 subclade of E1b1b in about 77% of their Somali male samples. According to Cruciani et al. (2007), the presence of this subhaplogroup in the Horn region may represent the traces of an ancient migration from Egypt/Libya. After haplogroup E1b1b, the second most frequently occurring Y-DNA haplogroup among Somalis is the West Asian haplogroup T (M70). It is observed in slightly more than 10% of Somali males. Haplogroup T, like haplogroup E1b1b, is also typically found among populations of Northeast Africa, North Africa, the Near East and the Mediterranean.

In what year did Sanchez publish his study on Somali ethnicity?

What language group speakers are ethnic Somalis closely related to?

Afro-Asiatic

What haplogroup is present in a significant number of Somalis?

Based on the presence of the M78 subclade, where do some researchers think Somalis originated?

Egypt/Libya

What percentage of Somali males had DNA containing the M78 subclade of E1b1b?


According to mtDNA studies by Holden (2005) and Richards et al. (2006), a significant proportion of the maternal lineages of Somalis consists of the M1 haplogroup. This mitochondrial clade is common among Ethiopians and North Africans, particularly Egyptians and Algerians. M1 is believed to have originated in Asia, where its parent M clade represents the majority of mtDNA lineages. This haplogroup is also thought to possibly correlate with the Afro-Asiatic language family:

When did Richards publish his mtDNA research?

Along with Egyptians, Algerians and Somalis, what people commonly possess the M1 haplogroup?

Ethiopians

On what continent is the M1 haplogroup believed to have originated?

Asia

Who authored an mtDNA study in 2005?

Holden

What family of languages is the M1 haplogroup associated with?

Afro-Asiatic


According to an autosomal DNA study by Hodgson et al. (2014), the Afro-Asiatic languages were likely spread across Africa and the Near East by an ancestral population(s) carrying a newly identified non-African genetic component, which the researchers dub the "Ethio-Somali". This Ethio-Somali component is today most common among Afro-Asiatic-speaking populations in the Horn of Africa. It reaches a frequency peak among ethnic Somalis, representing the majority of their ancestry. The Ethio-Somali component is most closely related to the Maghrebi non-African genetic component, and is believed to have diverged from all other non-African ancestries at least 23,000 years ago. On this basis, the researchers suggest that the original Ethio-Somali carrying population(s) probably arrived in the pre-agricultural period from the Near East, having crossed over into northeastern Africa via the Sinai Peninsula. The population then likely split into two branches, with one group heading westward toward the Maghreb and the other moving south into the Horn.

When did Hodgson publish his DNA study?

According to Hodgson, what ancestral people spread the Afro-Asiatic languages?

Ethio-Somali

According to Hodgson, what people is mostly descended from Ethio-Somalis?

Somalis

According to Hodgson, how long ago did the Ethio-Somalis diverge from other non-African ancestries?

at least 23,000 years ago

According to Hodgson, where did the Ethio-Somalis originate?

the Near East


The analysis of HLA antigens has also helped clarify the possible background of the Somali people, as the distribution of haplotype frequencies vary among population groups. According to Mohamoud et al. (2006):

In what year did Mahamoud publish his research?


The history of Islam in Somalia is as old as the religion itself. The early persecuted Muslims fled to various places in the region, including the city of Zeila in modern-day northern Somalia, so as to seek protection from the Quraysh. Somalis were among the first populations on the continent to embrace Islam. With very few exceptions, Somalis are entirely Muslims, the majority belonging to the Sunni branch of Islam and the Shafi`i school of Islamic jurisprudence, although a few are also adherents of the Shia Muslim denomination.

In what geographic part of Somalia is Zeila located?

northern

From whom were the early Muslims fleeing?

the Quraysh

Along with the Shafi'i, to what sect of Islam do most Somalis belong?

Sunni

What is the majority religion in Somalia?

Islam

A small minority of Somalis belong to what branch of Islam?

Shia


Qur'anic schools (also known as dugsi) remain the basic system of traditional religious instruction in Somalia. They provide Islamic education for children, thereby filling a clear religious and social role in the country. Known as the most stable local, non-formal system of education providing basic religious and moral instruction, their strength rests on community support and their use of locally made and widely available teaching materials. The Qur'anic system, which teaches the greatest number of students relative to other educational sub-sectors, is oftentimes the only system accessible to Somalis in nomadic as compared to urban areas. A study from 1993 found, among other things, that "unlike in primary schools where gender disparity is enormous, around 40 per cent of Qur'anic school pupils are girls; but the teaching staff have minimum or no qualification necessary to ensure intellectual development of children." To address these concerns, the Somali government on its own part subsequently established the Ministry of Endowment and Islamic Affairs, under which Qur'anic education is now regulated.

What is another name for a Qur'anic school?

dugsi

What percentage of students at Qur'anic schools are female?

What government body regulates Qur'anic education?

the Ministry of Endowment and Islamic Affairs


In the Somali diaspora, multiple Islamic fundraising events are held every year in cities like Birmingham, London, Toronto and Minneapolis, where Somali scholars and professionals give lectures and answer questions from the audience. The purpose of these events is usually to raise money for new schools or universities in Somalia, to help Somalis that have suffered as a consequence of floods and/or droughts, or to gather funds for the creation of new mosques like the Abuubakar-As-Saddique Mosque, which is currently undergoing construction in the Twin cities.

Along with Minneapolis, London and Birmingham, what city contains a notable population of Somalis?

Toronto

What is the name of the mosque under construction in Minneapolis?

the Abuubakar-As-Saddique Mosque

Along with floods, what natural disaster often spurs Islamic fundraising?

droughts

Along with universities, the construction of what educational buildings are sometimes the focus of Islamic fundraising?

schools


In addition, the Somali community has produced numerous important Muslim figures over the centuries, many of whom have significantly shaped the course of Islamic learning and practice in the Horn of Africa, the Arabian Peninsula and well beyond.

Along with the Horn of Africa, what is a notable location where Somali Islamic figures have been influential?

the Arabian Peninsula


The clan groupings of the Somali people are important social units, and clan membership plays a central part in Somali culture and politics. Clans are patrilineal and are often divided into sub-clans, sometimes with many sub-divisions. The tombs of the founders of the Darod, Dir and Isaaq major clans as well as the Abgaal sub-clan of the Hawiye are all located in northern Somalia. Tradition holds this general area as an ancestral homeland of the Somali people.

What is a basic social unit of Somali society?

clan

In what geographical portion of Somalia is the tomb of the founder of the Dir clan located?

northern

Of what clan is the Abgaal a sub-clan?

Hawiye


Somali society is traditionally ethnically endogamous. So to extend ties of alliance, marriage is often to another ethnic Somali from a different clan. Thus, for example, a recent study observed that in 89 marriages contracted by men of the Dhulbahante clan, 55 (62%) were with women of Dhulbahante sub-clans other than those of their husbands; 30 (33.7%) were with women of surrounding clans of other clan families (Isaaq, 28; Hawiye, 3); and 3 (4.3%) were with women of other clans of the Darod clan family (Majerteen 2, Ogaden 1).

What practice is often used to bind different clans together?

marriage

According to a recent study, how many men of the Dhulbahante clan married women from the Hawiye clan?

According to a recent study, how many Dhulbahante men married women of a different Dhulbahante sub-clan?

To what clan family do the Ogaden belong?

Darod

What percentage of Dhulbahante men married women of the Majerteen or Ogaden?


In 1975, the most prominent government reforms regarding family law in a Muslim country were set in motion in the Somali Democratic Republic, which put women and men, including husbands and wives, on complete equal footing. The 1975 Somali Family Law gave men and women equal division of property between the husband and wife upon divorce and the exclusive right to control by each spouse over his or her personal property.

What law gave Somali husbands and wives equal rights over personal property?

1975 Somali Family Law

What was the official name of the country in which the 1975 Somali Family Law was passed?

the Somali Democratic Republic

In addition to giving spouses equal rights over their personal property during marriage, what did the Somali Family Law give them?

equal division of property between the husband and wife upon divorce


Somalis constitute the largest ethnic group in Somalia, at approximately 85% of the nation's inhabitants. They are traditionally nomads, but since the late 20th century, many have moved to urban areas. While most Somalis can be found in Somalia proper, large numbers also live in Ethiopia, Djibouti, Kenya, Yemen, the Middle East, South Asia and Europe due to their seafaring tradition.

What is the biggest ethnic group in Somalia?

Somalis

What percentage of Somalians are ethnic Somalis?

During what century did the nomad lifestyle decline among Somalis?

Why do many Somalis live in South Asia and Europe?

their seafaring tradition

Along with Djibouti and Ethiopia, in what African country outside Somalia can Somalis be found?

Kenya


Civil strife in the early 1990s greatly increased the size of the Somali diaspora, as many of the best educated Somalis left for the Middle East, Europe and North America. In Canada, the cities of Toronto, Ottawa, Calgary, Edmonton, Montreal, Vancouver, Winnipeg and Hamilton all harbor Somali populations. Statistics Canada's 2006 census ranks people of Somali descent as the 69th largest ethnic group in Canada.

What led to an increase in the number of Somalis leaving the country?

Civil strife

Along with the Middle East and North America, to what continent did the Somali diaspora go in the 1990s?

Europe

Along with Ottawa, Calgary, Edmonton, Montreal, Winnipeg, Hamilton and Vancouver, what Canadian city has a significant Somali population?

Toronto

As of 2006, where did Somalis rank in terms of population by ethnicity in Canada?


While the distribution of Somalis per country in Europe is hard to measure because the Somali community on the continent has grown so quickly in recent years, an official 2010 estimate reported 108,000 Somalis living in the United Kingdom. Somalis in Britain are largely concentrated in the cities of London, Sheffield, Bristol, Birmingham, Cardiff, Liverpool, Manchester, Leeds, and Leicester, with London alone accounting for roughly 78% of Britain's Somali population. There are also significant Somali communities in Sweden: 57,906 (2014); the Netherlands: 37,432 (2014); Norway: 38,413 (2015); Denmark: 18,645 (2014); and Finland: 16,721 (2014).

About how many Somalis live in the UK?

What percentage of Somalis living in Britain reside in London?

As of 2014, how many Somalis lived in Sweden?

In 2014, how many Somalis resided in Norway?

How many Somalis lived in Finland as of 2014?


In the United States, Minneapolis, Saint Paul, Columbus, San Diego, Seattle, Washington, D.C., Houston, Atlanta, Los Angeles, Portland, Denver, Nashville, Green Bay, Lewiston, Portland, Maine and Cedar Rapids have the largest Somali populations.

What country is Cedar Rapids located in?

the United States


An estimated 20,000 Somalis emigrated to the U.S. state of Minnesota some ten years ago and the Twin Cities (Minneapolis and Saint Paul) now have the highest population of Somalis in North America. The city of Minneapolis hosts hundreds of Somali-owned and operated businesses offering a variety of products, including leather shoes, jewelry and other fashion items, halal meat, and hawala or money transfer services. Community-based video rental stores likewise carry the latest Somali films and music. The number of Somalis has especially surged in the Cedar-Riverside area of Minneapolis.

Along with Saint Paul, what city constitutes the Twin Cities?

Minneapolis

About how many Somalis moved to Minnesota ten years ago?

What area of Minneapolis contains a notable number of Somalis?

Cedar-Riverside

What is hawala?

money transfer services

What sort of meat is sold in Somali businesses in Minneapolis?

halal


There is a sizable Somali community in the United Arab Emirates. Somali-owned businesses line the streets of Deira, the Dubai city centre, with only Iranians exporting more products from the city at large. Internet cafés, hotels, coffee shops, restaurants and import-export businesses are all testimony to the Somalis' entrepreneurial spirit. Star African Air is also one of three Somali-owned airlines which are based in Dubai.

In what Middle Eastern country is there a notable Somali population?

the United Arab Emirates

What is another name for the city center of Dubai?

Deira

People of what nationality export more products from Dubai than Somalis?

Iranians

What is the name of an airline owned by Dubai-based Somalis?

Star African Air

How many Dubai-based airlines are owned by Somalis?

three


Besides their traditional areas of inhabitation in Greater Somalia, a Somali community mainly consisting of entrepreneurs, academics, and students also exists in Egypt. In addition, there is an historical Somali community in the general Sudan area. Primarily concentrated in the north and Khartoum, the expatriate community mainly consists of students as well as some businesspeople. More recently, Somali entrepreneurs have established themselves in Kenya, investing over $1.5 billion in the Somali enclave of Eastleigh alone. In South Africa, Somali businesspeople also provide most of the retail trade in informal settlements around the Western Cape province.

Near what city in Sudan do many Somalis reside?

Khartoum

In what geographical portion of Sudan do some Somalis live?

north

Along with businesspeople, what sort of Somalis live in Sudan?

students

In what Somali enclave in Kenya have Somalis invested over $1.5 billion?

Eastleigh

In what province of South Africa do Somalis congregate?

Western Cape


The Somali language is a member of the Cushitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic family. Its nearest relatives are the Afar and Saho languages. Somali is the best documented of the Cushitic languages, with academic studies of it dating from before 1900.

What language family does the Somali language belong to?

Afro-Asiatic

What branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family does the Somali language belong to?

Cushitic

Along with Saho, what language is closely related to Somali?

Afar

Among the Cushitic languages, which is the most well-documented?

Somali

Before what year did studies on the Somali language exist?


The exact number of speakers of Somali is unknown. One source estimates that there are 7.78 million speakers of Somali in Somalia itself and 12.65 million speakers globally. The Somali language is spoken by ethnic Somalis in Greater Somalia and the Somali diaspora.

About how many people in Somalia speak Somali?

7.78 million

In millions, about how many global Somali speakers are there?

Along with Greater Somalia ethnic Somalis, who speaks Somali?

the Somali diaspora


Somali dialects are divided into three main groups: Northern, Benaadir and Maay. Northern Somali (or Northern-Central Somali) forms the basis for Standard Somali. Benaadir (also known as Coastal Somali) is spoken on the Benadir coast from Adale to south of Merca, including Mogadishu, as well as in the immediate hinterland. The coastal dialects have additional phonemes which do not exist in Standard Somali. Maay is principally spoken by the Digil and Mirifle (Rahanweyn) clans in the southern areas of Somalia.

Along with Northern and Maay, what is the third main group of Somali dialects?

Benaadir

What dialect is Standard Somali based on?

Northern Somali

What is another name for Benaadir?

Coastal Somali

What dialect is spoken on Mogadishu?

Benaadir

In what geographic part of Somalia do the Rahanweyn live?

southern


A number of writing systems have been used over the years for transcribing the language. Of these, the Somali alphabet is the most widely used, and has been the official writing script in Somalia since the government of former President of Somalia Mohamed Siad Barre formally introduced it in October 1972. The script was developed by the Somali linguist Shire Jama Ahmed specifically for the Somali language, and uses all letters of the English Latin alphabet except p, v and z. Besides Ahmed's Latin script, other orthographies that have been used for centuries for writing Somali include the long-established Arabic script and Wadaad's writing. Indigenous writing systems developed in the twentieth century include the Osmanya, Borama and Kaddare scripts, which were invented by Osman Yusuf Kenadid, Abdurahman Sheikh Nuur and Hussein Sheikh Ahmed Kaddare, respectively.

What is the most frequently used writing script for the Somali language?

the Somali alphabet

Who introduced the Somali alphabet?

Mohamed Siad Barre

In what month and year was the Somali alphabet introduced?

October 1972

Who created the Somali alphabet?

Shire Jama Ahmed

Who invented the Osmanya script?

Osman Yusuf Kenadid


In addition to Somali, Arabic, which is also an Afro-Asiatic tongue, is an official national language in both Somalia and Djibouti. Many Somalis speak it due to centuries-old ties with the Arab world, the far-reaching influence of the Arabic media, and religious education. Somalia and Djibouti are also both members of the Arab League.

Other than Somali, what is an official language of Somalia?

Arabic

To what language family does Arabic belong?

Afro-Asiatic

In what neighboring country is Arabic also an official language?

Djibouti

What organization do both Djibouti and Somalia belong to?

the Arab League

For how long has Somalia had connections to the Arab world?

centuries


The culture of Somalia is an amalgamation of traditions developed independently and through interaction with neighbouring and far away civilizations, such as other parts of Northeast Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, India and Southeast Asia.

Civilizations from what geographic part of Africa influenced Somali culture?

Northeast

Civilizations from what geographic part of Asia influenced Somali culture?

Southeast

What Asian country notable influenced Somali culture?

India

Along with Northeast Africa, Southeast Asia and India, what locale had a significant influence on Somali culture?

the Arabian Peninsula


The textile-making communities in Somalia are a continuation of an ancient textile industry, as is the culture of wood carving, pottery and monumental architecture that dominates Somali interiors and landscapes. The cultural diffusion of Somali commercial enterprise can be detected in its cuisine, which contains Southeast Asian influences. Due to the Somali people's passionate love for and facility with poetry, Somalia has often been referred to by scholars as a "Nation of Poets" and a "Nation of Bards" including, among others, the Canadian novelist Margaret Laurence.

Somali food contains influences from what region?

Southeast Asian

Along with textiles, wood carving and pottery, what ancient cultural activity still dominates Somalia today?

monumental architecture

Who called Somalia a "Nation of Bards"?

Margaret Laurence

Of what nationality is the person who called Somalia a "Nation of Bards"?

Canadian

What is the profession of the individual who referred to Somalia as a "Nation of Bards"?

novelist


All of these traditions, including festivals, martial arts, dress, literature, sport and games such as Shax, have immensely contributed to the enrichment of Somali heritage.

What is a notable game that is played in Somalia?

Shax

Along with sport, games, literature, dress and festivals, what is a notable Somali cultural tradition?

martial arts


Somalis have a rich musical heritage centered on traditional Somali folklore. Most Somali songs are pentatonic. That is, they only use five pitches per octave in contrast to a heptatonic (seven note) scale, such as the major scale. At first listen, Somali music might be mistaken for the sounds of nearby regions such as Ethiopia, Sudan or Arabia, but it is ultimately recognizable by its own unique tunes and styles. Somali songs are usually the product of collaboration between lyricists (midho), songwriters (lahan) and singers ('odka or "voice").

What scale is used by most Somali songs?

pentatonic

How many notes are in a hepatonic scale?

seven

What is an exaple of a hepatonic scale?

the major scale

Along with Arabia and Ethiopia, what land has songs that sound similar to those of Somalia?

Sudan

What does midho mean in English?

lyricists


Growing out of the Somali people's rich storytelling tradition, the first few feature-length Somali films and cinematic festivals emerged in the early 1960s, immediately after independence. Following the creation of the Somali Film Agency (SFA) regulatory body in 1975, the local film scene began to expand rapidly. The Somali filmmaker Ali Said Hassan concurrently served as the SFA's representative in Rome. In the 1970s and early 1980s, popular musicals known as riwaayado were the main driving force behind the Somali movie industry. Epic and period films as well as international co-productions followed suit, facilitated by the proliferation of video technology and national television networks. Said Salah Ahmed during this period directed his first feature film, The Somali Darwish (The Somalia Dervishes), devoted to the Dervish State. In the 1990s and 2000s, a new wave of more entertainment-oriented movies emerged. Referred to as Somaliwood, this upstart, youth-based cinematic movement has energized the Somali film industry and in the process introduced innovative storylines, marketing strategies and production techniques. The young directors Abdisalam Aato of Olol Films and Abdi Malik Isak are at the forefront of this quiet revolution.

In what decade were the first Somali feature films made?

In what year was the SFA founded?

Who was the representative of the Somali Film Agency in Rome?

Ali Said Hassan

What are riwaaydo?

popular musicals

What was the name of Said Salah Ahmed's first feature?

The Somali Darwish


Somali art is the artistic culture of the Somali people, both historic and contemporary. These include artistic traditions in pottery, music, architecture, wood carving and other genres. Somali art is characterized by its aniconism, partly as a result of the vestigial influence of the pre-Islamic mythology of the Somalis coupled with their ubiquitous Muslim beliefs. However, there have been cases in the past of artistic depictions representing living creatures, such as certain ancient rock paintings in northern Somalia, the golden birds on the Mogadishan canopies, and the plant decorations on religious tombs in southern Somalia. More typically, intricate patterns and geometric designs, bold colors and monumental architecture were the norm.

What is a notable characteristic of Somali art?

aniconism

Along with wood carving, architecture and pottery, what is a notable Somali artistic tradition?

music

In what geographic region of Somalia are ancient rock paintings located?

northern

What animals are depicted on the Mogadishan canopies?

birds

In what area of Somalia can one find the tombs decorated with plants?

southern


Additionally, henna is an important part of Somali culture. It is worn by Somali women on their hands, arms, feet and neck during weddings, Eid, Ramadan, and other festive occasions. Somali henna designs are similar to those in the Arabian peninsula, often featuring flower motifs and triangular shapes. The palm is also frequently decorated with a dot of henna and the fingertips are dipped in the dye. Henna parties are usually held before the wedding takes place. Somali women have likewise traditionally applied kohl (kuul) to their eyes. Usage of the eye cosmetic in the Horn region is believed to date to the ancient Land of Punt.

What do Somali women wear on their feet during Eid?

henna

Along with triangular shapes, what are common henna designs in Somalia?

flower motifs

What do Somali women traditionally put around their eyes?

kohl

From what ancient region did kuul application come?

Land of Punt

What activity is often held before Somali weddings?

Henna parties


Football is the most popular sport amongst Somalis. Important competitions are the Somalia League and Somalia Cup. The multi-ethnic Ocean Stars, Somalia's national team, first participated at the Olympic Games in 1972 and has sent athletes to compete in most Summer Olympic Games since then. The equally diverse Somali beach soccer team also represents the country in international beach soccer competitions. In addition, several international footballers such as Mohammed Ahamed Jama, Liban Abdi, Ayub Daud and Abdisalam Ibrahim have played in European top divisions.

What sport do Somalis most enjoy?

Football

What is the name of the Somali national football team?

Ocean Stars

In what year did the Ocean Stars first compete in the Olympics?

Along with Liban Abdi, Ayub Daud and Abdisalam Ibrahim, who is a notable Somali football player?

Mohammed Ahamed Jama

Along with the Somalia Cup, what is an important Somali football competition?

the Somalia League


The FIBA Africa Championship 1981 was hosted by Somalia from 15–23 December 1981. The games were played in Mogadishu, and the Somali national team received the bronze prize. Abdi Bile won the 1500 m event at the World Championships in 1987, running the fastest final 800 m of any 1,500 meter race in history. He was a two-time Olympian (1984 and 1996) and dominated the event in the late 1980s. Hussein Ahmed Salah, a Somalia-born former long-distance runner from Djibouti, won a bronze medal in the marathon at the 1988 Summer Olympics. He also won silver medals in this event at the 1987 and 1991 World Championships, as well as the 1985 IAAF World Marathon Cup. Mo Farah is a double Olympic gold medal winner and world champion, and holds the European track record for 10,000 metres, the British road record for 10,000 metres, the British indoor record in the 3000 metres, the British track record for 5000 metres and the European indoor record for 5000 metres. Mohammed Ahmed (athlete) is a Canadian long-distance runner who represented Canada in the 10,000 meter races at the 2012 Summer Olympics and the 2013 World Championships in Athletics.

When did the 1981 FIBA African Championship take place?

15–23 December 1981

Who hosted the 1981 FIBA African Championship?

Somalia

In what city did the 1981 FIBA African Championship take place?

Mogadishu

For what nation did Hussein Ahmed Salah compete?

Djibouti

Who did Mohammed Ahmed compete for in the Olympics?

Canada


In the martial arts, Faisal Jeylani Aweys and Mohamed Deq Abdulle also took home a silver medal and fourth place, respectively, at the 2013 Open World Taekwondo Challenge Cup in Tongeren. The Somali National Olympic committee has devised a special support program to ensure continued success in future tournaments. Additionally, Mohamed Jama has won both world and European titles in K1 and Thai Boxing.

Who came in fourth in the 2013 Open World Taekwondo Challenge Cup?

Mohamed Deq Abdulle

What medal did Faisal Jeylani Aweys win in the 2013 Open World Taekwondo Challenge Cup?

silver

Where did the 2013 Open World Taekwondo Challenge Cup take place?

Tongeren

Along with Thai Boxing, in what has Mohamed Jama won a European title?


When not dressed in Westernized clothing such as jeans and t-shirts, Somali men typically wear the macawis, which is a sarong-like garment worn around the waist. On their heads, they often wrap a colorful turban or wear the koofiyad, an embroidered fez.

What is a koofiyad?

an embroidered fez

What do Somali men wear when they aren't wearing Western clothing?

the macawis

Where is the macawis worn?

around the waist

What piece of clothing is the macawis similar to?

sarong

Aside from the koofiyad, what do Somali men wear on their head?

turban


Due to Somalia's proximity to and close ties with the Arabian Peninsula, many Somali men also wear the jellabiya (jellabiyad or qamiis in Somali), a long white garment common in the Arab world.

What is the jellabiya?

a long white garment

Along with jellabiyad, what is the jellabiya called in Somali?

qamiis

In what region do men commonly wear the jellabiya?

the Arab world


During regular, day-to-day activities, Somali women usually wear the guntiino, a long stretch of cloth tied over the shoulder and draped around the waist. It is usually made out of alandi, which is a textile common in the Horn region and some parts of North Africa. The garment can be worn in different styles. It can also be made with other fabrics, including white cloth with gold borders. For more formal settings, such as at weddings or religious celebrations like Eid, women wear the dirac. It is a long, light, diaphanous voile dress made of silk, chiffon, taffeta or saree fabric. The gown is worn over a full-length half-slip and a brassiere. Known as the gorgorad, the underskirt is made out of silk and serves as a key part of the overall outfit. The dirac is usually sparkly and very colorful, the most popular styles being those with gilded borders or threads. The fabric is typically acquired from Somali clothing stores in tandem with the gorgorad. In the past, dirac fabric was also frequently purchased from South Asian merchandisers.

What is the regular garment of Somali women?

the guntiino

What is the guntiino normally made from?

alandi

What is the usual formal attire for Somali women?

the dirac

Along with silk, saree fabric or chiffon, what might the dirac be made out of?

taffeta

What is the underskirt of the dirac called?

the gorgorad


Married women tend to sport headscarves referred to as shaash. They also often cover their upper body with a shawl, which is known as garbasaar. Unmarried or young women, however, do not always cover their heads. Traditional Arabian garb, such as the jilbab and abaya, is also commonly worn.

What is the name of the headscarf worn by married women?

shaash

What is the name of the shawl that married women wear on their upper bodies?

garbasaar

Along with abaya, what is a traditional Arab garment sometimes worn by Somali women?

the jilbab


Additionally, Somali women have a long tradition of wearing gold jewelry, particularly bangles. During weddings, the bride is frequently adorned in gold. Many Somali women by tradition also wear gold necklaces and anklets.

What is the jewelry worn by Somali women commonly made from?

gold

Along with anklets, what pieces of jewelry are traditionally worn by Somali women?

necklaces

What type of jewelry do Somali women wear at their weddings?

gold


The Somali flag is an ethnic flag conceived to represent ethnic Somalis. It was created in 1954 by the Somali scholar Mohammed Awale Liban, after he had been selected by the labour trade union of the Trust Territory of Somalia to come up with a design. Upon independence in 1960, the flag was adopted as the national flag of the nascent Somali Republic. The five-pointed Star of Unity in the flag's center represents the Somali ethnic group inhabiting the five territories in Greater Somalia.

In what year was the Somali flag invented?

Who devised the Somali flag?

Mohammed Awale Liban

What was Mohammed Awale Liban by profession?

scholar

What is the star at the center of the Somali flag called?

Star of Unity

How many points does the Star of Unity have?

five


Somali cuisine varies from region to region and consists of a fusion of diverse culinary influences. It is the product of Somalia's rich tradition of trade and commerce. Despite the variety, there remains one thing that unites the various regional cuisines: all food is served halal. There are therefore no pork dishes, alcohol is not served, nothing that died on its own is eaten, and no blood is incorporated.

What is the one culinary tradition that is present among all Somali regional cuisines?

all food is served halal

What type of meat is never present in halal dishes?

pork

What beverage is not halal?

alcohol

Along with alcohol, what liquid is never present in halal food?

blood


Qado or lunch is often elaborate. Varieties of bariis (rice), the most popular probably being basmati, usually serve as the main dish. Spices like cumin, cardamom, cloves, cinnamon, and garden sage are used to aromatize these different rice delicacies. Somalis eat dinner as late as 9 pm. During Ramadan, supper is often served after Tarawih prayers; sometimes as late as 11 pm.

What is the English word for qado?

lunch

What is bariis in English?

rice

What is the most popular variety of bariis?

basmati

When is the latest a Somali might eat dinner during Ramadan?

11 pm

After what event during Ramadan is dinner served?

Tarawih prayers


Xalwo (halva) is a popular confection eaten during festive occasions, such as Eid celebrations or wedding receptions. It is made from sugar, corn starch, cardamom powder, nutmeg powder and ghee. Peanuts are also sometimes added to enhance texture and flavor. After meals, homes are traditionally perfumed using frankincense (lubaan) or incense (cuunsi), which is prepared inside an incense burner referred to as a dabqaad.

What is another term for xalwo?

halva

Along with wedding receptions, when is xalwo often consumed?

Eid celebrations

What do the Somalis call frankincense?

lubaan

What is the English word for cunnsi?

incense

What do the Somalis call incense burners?

dabqaad


Somali scholars have for centuries produced many notable examples of Islamic literature ranging from poetry to Hadith. With the adoption of the Latin alphabet in 1972 to transcribe the Somali language, numerous contemporary Somali authors have also released novels, some of which have gone on to receive worldwide acclaim. Of these modern writers, Nuruddin Farah is probably the most celebrated. Books such as From a Crooked Rib and Links are considered important literary achievements, works which have earned Farah, among other accolades, the 1998 Neustadt International Prize for Literature. Farah Mohamed Jama Awl is another prominent Somali writer who is perhaps best known for his Dervish era novel, Ignorance is the enemy of love. Young upstart Nadifa Mohamed was also awarded the 2010 Betty Trask Prize. Additionally, Mohamed Ibrahim Warsame 'Hadrawi' is considered by many to be the greatest living Somali poet, and several of his works have been translated internationally.

When did Somalis begin to render their language using the Latin alphabet?

Who is the most well-known modern Somali writer?

Nuruddin Farah

In what year did Nuruddin Farah win the Neustadt International Prize for Literature?

Who wrote Ignorance is the enemy of love?

Farah Mohamed Jama Awl

Who won the 2010 Betty Trask Prize?

Nadifa Mohamed


Somalis for centuries have practiced a form of customary law, which they call Xeer. Xeer is a polycentric legal system where there is no monopolistic agent that determines what the law should be or how it should be interpreted.

What is the Somali system of customary law?

Xeer


The Xeer legal system is assumed to have developed exclusively in the Horn of Africa since approximately the 7th century. There is no evidence that it developed elsewhere or was greatly influenced by any foreign legal system. The fact that Somali legal terminology is practically devoid of loan words from foreign languages suggests that Xeer is truly indigenous.

In what century did the Xeer system begin?

In what region did the Xeer system develop?

the Horn of Africa

What fact about Somali legal terms implies that Xeer developed locally?

devoid of loan words


The Xeer legal system also requires a certain amount of specialization of different functions within the legal framework. Thus, one can find odayal (judges), xeer boggeyaal (jurists), guurtiyaal (detectives), garxajiyaal (attorneys), murkhaatiyal (witnesses) and waranle (police officers) to enforce the law.

In the Xeer system, what are judges called?

odayal

What does xeer boggeyaal mean in English?

jurists

What does the Xeer system call attorneys?

garxajiyaal

By what term are witnesses known in the Xeer system?

murkhaatiyal

What does the Xeer system call cops?

waranle


Somali architecture is a rich and diverse tradition of engineering and designing. It involves multiple different construction types, such as stone cities, castles, citadels, fortresses, mosques, mausoleums, towers, tombs, tumuli, cairns, megaliths, menhirs, stelae, dolmens, stone circles, monuments, temples, enclosures, cisterns, aqueducts, and lighthouses. Spanning the ancient, medieval and early modern periods in Greater Somalia, it also includes the fusion of Somalo-Islamic architecture with Western designs in contemporary times.

Along with Somalo-Islamic architecture, what influences modern Somali architecture?

Western designs

Along with the early modern and ancient, during what period did Somali architecture exist?

medieval

What material was used to make Somali cities?

stone


In ancient Somalia, pyramidical structures known in Somali as taalo were a popular burial style, with hundreds of these dry stone monuments scattered around the country today. Houses were built of dressed stone similar to the ones in Ancient Egypt. There are also examples of courtyards and large stone walls enclosing settlements, such as the Wargaade Wall.

What do Somalis call their ancient pyramids?

taalo

What were taalo used for?

burial

What were ancient Somali houses made out of?

dressed stone

Ancient Somali houses were similar to houses in what country?

Egypt

What is a notable stone wall built in ancient Somalia?

the Wargaade Wall


The peaceful introduction of Islam in the early medieval era of Somalia's history brought Islamic architectural influences from Arabia and Persia. This had the effect of stimulating a shift in construction from drystone and other related materials to coral stone, sundried bricks, and the widespread use of limestone in Somali architecture. Many of the new architectural designs, such as mosques, were built on the ruins of older structures. This practice would continue over and over again throughout the following centuries.

During what period was the Muslim faith introduced to Somalia?

early medieval

Along with Arabian influences, where did architectural influences come from in the medieval period?

Persia

In the medieval period, what buildings were notably built atop older ruins?

mosques

Along with sundried bricks and coral stone, what construction material was widely used after the introduction of Islam?

limestone

Before Islam was introduced, what was a common building material in Somalia?

drystone


The scholarly term for research concerning Somalis and Greater Somalia is known as Somali Studies. It consists of several disciplines such as anthropology, sociology, linguistics, historiography and archaeology. The field draws from old Somali chronicles, records and oral literature, in addition to written accounts and traditions about Somalis from explorers and geographers in the Horn of Africa and the Middle East. Since 1980, prominent Somalist scholars from around the world have also gathered annually to hold the International Congress of Somali Studies.

What is the academic study of the Somali people called?

Somali Studies

Along with sociology, linguistics, historiography and archaeology, what field is part of Somali Studies?

anthropology

Along with chronicles and records, what indigenous sources are used in Somali Studies?

oral literature

What is the name of the annual gathering of Somali Studies scholars?

the International Congress of Somali Studies

When did the International Congress of Somali Studies begin?


In European history, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. It began with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance and the Age of Discovery. The Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history: Antiquity, Medieval period, and Modern period. The Medieval period is itself subdivided into the Early, the High, and the Late Middle Ages.

In what century did the Middle Ages begin?

What century saw the end of the Middle Ages?

What event marked the beginning of the Middle Ages?

the collapse of the Western Roman Empire

Along with the Renaissance, what era occurred at the end of the Middle Ages?

Age of Discovery

What is the first period of the three that Western history is traditionally divided into?

Antiquity


Depopulation, deurbanisation, invasion, and movement of peoples, which had begun in Late Antiquity, continued in the Early Middle Ages. The barbarian invaders, including various Germanic peoples, formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire. In the 7th century, North Africa and the Middle East—once part of the Eastern Roman Empire—came under the rule of the Caliphate, an Islamic empire, after conquest by Muhammad's successors. Although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break with Antiquity was not complete. The still-sizeable Byzantine Empire survived in the east and remained a major power. The empire's law code, the Code of Justinian, was rediscovered in Northern Italy in 1070 and became widely admired later in the Middle Ages. In the West, most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions. Monasteries were founded as campaigns to Christianise pagan Europe continued. The Franks, under the Carolingian dynasty, briefly established the Carolingian Empire during the later 8th and early 9th century. It covered much of Western Europe, but later succumbed to the pressures of internal civil wars combined with external invasions—Vikings from the north, Magyars from the east, and Saracens from the south.

Along with the movement of peoples, invasion and depopulation, what event started in Late Antiquity and continued into the Middle Ages?

deurbanisation

In what state did barbarian invaders establish kingdoms?

the Western Roman Empire

What empire was North Africa previously a part of?

the Eastern Roman Empire

In what century did the Caliphate conquer North Africa?

In what year did Italians discover the Code of Justinian?


During the High Middle Ages, which began after 1000, the population of Europe increased greatly as technological and agricultural innovations allowed trade to flourish and the Medieval Warm Period climate change allowed crop yields to increase. Manorialism, the organisation of peasants into villages that owed rent and labour services to the nobles, and feudalism, the political structure whereby knights and lower-status nobles owed military service to their overlords in return for the right to rent from lands and manors, were two of the ways society was organised in the High Middle Ages. The Crusades, first preached in 1095, were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from the Muslims. Kings became the heads of centralised nation states, reducing crime and violence but making the ideal of a unified Christendom more distant. Intellectual life was marked by scholasticism, a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason, and by the founding of universities. The theology of Thomas Aquinas, the paintings of Giotto, the poetry of Dante and Chaucer, the travels of Marco Polo, and the architecture of Gothic cathedrals such as Chartres are among the outstanding achievements toward the end of this period, and into the Late Middle Ages.

What year marked the beginning of the High Middle Ages?

What event led to larger crop yields in the High Middle Ages?

the Medieval Warm Period

What was the name of the economic system that organized peasants into villages owing labor and rent to nobles?

Manorialism

What was the name of the political system that gave rents to knights in return for military service?

feudalism

In what year did the Crusades begin?


The Late Middle Ages was marked by difficulties and calamities including famine, plague, and war, which significantly diminished the population of Europe; between 1347 and 1350, the Black Death killed about a third of Europeans. Controversy, heresy, and schism within the Church paralleled the interstate conflict, civil strife, and peasant revolts that occurred in the kingdoms. Cultural and technological developments transformed European society, concluding the Late Middle Ages and beginning the early modern period.

When did the Black Death end?

In what period of the Middle Ages did the Black Death occur?

Late

What portion of the European population died in the Black Death?

a third

What era occurred after the Late Middle Ages?

the early modern period

Along with controversy and schism, what upset the peace of the Church during the Late Middle Ages?

heresy


The Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing European history: classical civilisation, or Antiquity; the Middle Ages; and the Modern Period.

Along with Antiquity and the Middle Ages, what is the other major division of European history?

the Modern Period

How many major periods is European history divided into?

three

What is another name for Antiquity?

classical civilisation


Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the "Six Ages" or the "Four Empires", and considered their time to be the last before the end of the world. When referring to their own times, they spoke of them as being "modern". In the 1330s, the humanist and poet Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua (or "ancient") and to the Christian period as nova (or "new"). Leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodisation in his History of the Florentine People (1442). Bruni and later historians argued that Italy had recovered since Petrarch's time, and therefore added a third period to Petrarch's two. The "Middle Ages" first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas or "middle season". In early usage, there were many variants, including medium aevum, or "middle age", first recorded in 1604, and media saecula, or "middle ages", first recorded in 1625. The alternative term "medieval" (or occasionally "mediaeval") derives from medium aevum. Tripartite periodisation became standard after the German 17th century historian Christoph Cellarius divided history into three periods: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern.

Along with the Six Ages, what other scheme did writers in the Middle Ages use to divide history?

Four Empires

What writer referred to the Christian period as new?

Petrarch

Who wrote the History of the Florentine People?

Leonardo Bruni

When was the History of the Florentine People published?

Who first divided history into the ancient, medieval and modern periods?

Christoph Cellarius


The most commonly given starting point for the Middle Ages is 476, first used by Bruni.[A] For Europe as a whole, 1500 is often considered to be the end of the Middle Ages, but there is no universally agreed upon end date. Depending on the context, events such as Christopher Columbus's first voyage to the Americas in 1492, the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453, or the Protestant Reformation in 1517 are sometimes used. English historians often use the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 to mark the end of the period. For Spain, dates commonly used are the death of King Ferdinand II in 1516, the death of Queen Isabella I of Castile in 1504, or the conquest of Granada in 1492. Historians from Romance-speaking countries tend to divide the Middle Ages into two parts: an earlier "High" and later "Low" period. English-speaking historians, following their German counterparts, generally subdivide the Middle Ages into three intervals: "Early", "High", and "Late". In the 19th century, the entire Middle Ages were often referred to as the "Dark Ages",[B] but with the adoption of these subdivisions, use of this term was restricted to the Early Middle Ages, at least among historians.

What date is usually given as the beginning of the Middle Ages?

Who was the first writer to date the Middle Ages from 476?

Bruni

When is the Middle Ages generally considered to have ended?

In what year did the Turks conquer Constantinople?

When did Ferdinand II die?


The Roman Empire reached its greatest territorial extent during the 2nd century AD; the following two centuries witnessed the slow decline of Roman control over its outlying territories. Economic issues, including inflation, and external pressure on the frontiers combined to make the 3rd century politically unstable, with emperors coming to the throne only to be rapidly replaced by new usurpers. Military expenses increased steadily during the 3rd century, mainly in response to the war with Sassanid Persia, which revived in the middle of the 3rd century. The army doubled in size, and cavalry and smaller units replaced the legion as the main tactical unit. The need for revenue led to increased taxes and a decline in numbers of the curial, or landowning, class, and decreasing numbers of them willing to shoulder the burdens of holding office in their native towns. More bureaucrats were needed in the central administration to deal with the needs of the army, which led to complaints from civilians that there were more tax-collectors in the empire than tax-payers.

In what century did the Roman Empire achieve its greatest extent?

the 2nd century AD

In what century did the revival of Persia occur under the Sassanids?

3rd century

How much did the size of the Roman army increase in the 3rd century?

doubled

What did the need for increased revenue to pay for the Roman army lead to an increase in?

taxes

What is another term for the Roman landowning class?

curial


The Emperor Diocletian (r. 284–305) split the empire into separately administered eastern and western halves in 286; the empire was not considered divided by its inhabitants or rulers, as legal and administrative promulgations in one division were considered valid in the other.[C] In 330, after a period of civil war, Constantine the Great (r. 306–337) refounded the city of Byzantium as the newly renamed eastern capital, Constantinople. Diocletian's reforms strengthened the governmental bureaucracy, reformed taxation, and strengthened the army, which bought the empire time but did not resolve the problems it was facing: excessive taxation, a declining birthrate, and pressures on its frontiers, among others. Civil war between rival emperors became common in the middle of the 4th century, diverting soldiers from the empire's frontier forces and allowing invaders to encroach. For much of the 4th century, Roman society stabilised in a new form that differed from the earlier classical period, with a widening gulf between the rich and poor, and a decline in the vitality of the smaller towns. Another change was the Christianisation, or conversion of the empire to Christianity, a gradual process that lasted from the 2nd to the 5th centuries.

In what year did Diocletian begin his reign?

When was the Roman Empire split into western and eastern administrative divisions?

What was the name of the city previously located on the site of Constantinople?

Byzantium

During what century was the Roman conversion to Christianity considered complete?

When did the rule of Constantine end?


In 376, the Ostrogoths, fleeing from the Huns, received permission from Emperor Valens (r. 364–378) to settle in the Roman province of Thracia in the Balkans. The settlement did not go smoothly, and when Roman officials mishandled the situation, the Ostrogoths began to raid and plunder.[D] Valens, attempting to put down the disorder, was killed fighting the Ostrogoths at the Battle of Adrianople on 9 August 378. As well as the threat from such tribal confederacies from the north, internal divisions within the empire, especially within the Christian Church, caused problems. In 400, the Visigoths invaded the Western Roman Empire and, although briefly forced back from Italy, in 410 sacked the city of Rome. In 406 the Alans, Vandals, and Suevi crossed into Gaul; over the next three years they spread across Gaul and in 409 crossed the Pyrenees Mountains into modern-day Spain. The Migration Period began, where various people, initially largely Germanic peoples, moved across Europe. The Franks, Alemanni, and the Burgundians all ended up in northern Gaul while the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes settled in Britain. In the 430s the Huns began invading the empire; their king Attila (r. 434–453) led invasions into the Balkans in 442 and 447, Gaul in 451, and Italy in 452. The Hunnic threat remained until Attila's death in 453, when the Hunnic confederation he led fell apart. These invasions by the tribes completely changed the political and demographic nature of what had been the Western Roman Empire.

In what year did the Ostrogoths settle in the Roman Empire?

Who invited the Ostrogoths to settle in the Roman Empire?

Valens

In what province did the Ostrogoths settle?

Thracia

At what battle was the Emperor Valens killed?

the Battle of Adrianople

When did the Battle of Adrianople occur?

9 August 378


By the end of the 5th century the western section of the empire was divided into smaller political units, ruled by the tribes that had invaded in the early part of the century. The deposition of the last emperor of the west, Romulus Augustus, in 476 has traditionally marked the end of the Western Roman Empire.[E] The Eastern Roman Empire, often referred to as the Byzantine Empire after the fall of its western counterpart, had little ability to assert control over the lost western territories. The Byzantine emperors maintained a claim over the territory, but none of the new kings in the west dared to elevate himself to the position of emperor of the west, Byzantine control of most of the Western Empire could not be sustained; the reconquest of the Italian peninsula and Mediterranean periphery by Justinian (r. 527–565) was the sole, and temporary, exception.

Who was the last Western Roman Emperor?

Romulus Augustus

When did the reign of the last Western Roman Emperor end?

What is another name for the Eastern Roman Empire?

Byzantine Empire

What Eastern Roman Emperor reconquered Italy?

Justinian

When did Justinian's reign end?


The political structure of Western Europe changed with the end of the united Roman Empire. Although the movements of peoples during this period are usually described as "invasions", they were not just military expeditions but migrations of entire peoples into the empire. Such movements were aided by the refusal of the western Roman elites to support the army or pay the taxes that would have allowed the military to suppress the migration. The emperors of the 5th century were often controlled by military strongmen such as Stilicho (d. 408), Aspar (d. 471), Ricimer (d. 472), or Gundobad (d. 516), who were partly or fully of non-Roman background. When the line of western emperors ceased, many of the kings who replaced them were from the same background. Intermarriage between the new kings and the Roman elites was common. This led to a fusion of Roman culture with the customs of the invading tribes, including the popular assemblies that allowed free male tribal members more say in political matters than was common in the Roman state. Material artefacts left by the Romans and the invaders are often similar, and tribal items were often modelled on Roman objects. Much of the scholarly and written culture of the new kingdoms was also based on Roman intellectual traditions. An important difference was the gradual loss of tax revenue by the new polities. Many of the new political entities no longer supported their armies through taxes, instead relying on granting them land or rents. This meant there was less need for large tax revenues and so the taxation systems decayed. Warfare was common between and within the kingdoms. Slavery declined as the supply weakened, and society became more rural.[F]

When did Aspar die?

Aspar

What year saw the death of Gundobad?

What notable Roman figure died in 408?

Stilicho

The loss of what led to the differentiation between the Western Roman Empire and the new kingdoms?

tax revenue

Rather than taxes, what did the new kingdoms use to support their armies?

land or rents