In styles that owe as much to videogame pixel art and popculture as to traditional mosaic, street art has seen a novel reinvention and expansion of mosaic artwork. The most prominent artist working with mosaics in street art is the French Invader. He has done almost all his work in two very distinct mosaic styles, the first of which are small "traditional" tile mosaics of 8 bit video game character, installed in cities across the globe, and the second of which are a style he refers to as "Rubikcubism", which uses a kind of dual layer mosaic via grids of scrambled Rubik's Cubes. Although he is the most prominent, other street and urban artists do work in Mosaic styles as well.

What has recently seen an expansion of mosaic artwork?

street art

Who is the most famous street artist who works with mosaics?

the French Invader

The French invader coined his own style of mosaic named what?

Rubikcubism

What does the French Invader usually create with the traditional style of mosaic?

8 bit video game character

How does the French Invader create "Rubikcubism" styled mosaics?

grids of scrambled Rubik's Cubes


Portuguese pavement (in Portuguese, Calçada Portuguesa) is a kind of two-tone stone mosaic paving created in Portugal, and common throughout the Lusosphere. Most commonly taking the form of geometric patterns from the simple to the complex, it also is used to create complex pictorial mosaics in styles ranging from iconography to classicism and even modern design. In Portuguese-speaking countries, many cities have a large amount of their sidewalks and even, though far more occasionally, streets done in this mosaic form. Lisbon in particular maintains almost all walkways in this style.

Portuguese pavement is known by what other name?

Calçada Portuguesa

What is Portuguese pavement?

two-tone stone mosaic paving

What is the most common pattern for Portuguese pavement?

geometric

Which city has almost all of its sidewalks in Portuguese pavement?

Lisbon

What other cityscape is done with Portuguese pavement?

streets


The indirect method of applying tesserae is often used for very large projects, projects with repetitive elements or for areas needing site specific shapes. Tiles are applied face-down to a backing paper using an adhesive, and later transferred onto walls, floors or craft projects. This method is most useful for extremely large projects as it gives the maker time to rework areas, allows the cementing of the tiles to the backing panel to be carried out quickly in one operation and helps ensure that the front surfaces of the mosaic tiles and mosaic pieces are flat and in the same plane on the front, even when using tiles and pieces of differing thicknesses. Mosaic murals, benches and tabletops are some of the items usually made using the indirect method, as it results in a smoother and more even surface.

How were larger mosaics usually constructed?

face-down to a backing paper

Why was adding a step i production useful for larger projects?

gives the maker time to rework

What is the style called of putting tessere on a backing paper?

the indirect method

What besides benches and tabletops was usually created using the indirect method?

murals

The indirect method also helped for projects with what kinds of areas?

repetitive


The double indirect method can be used when it is important to see the work during the creation process as it will appear when completed. The tesserae are placed face-up on a medium (often adhesive-backed paper, sticky plastic or soft lime or putty) as it will appear when installed. When the mosaic is complete, a similar medium is placed atop it. The piece is then turned over, the original underlying material is carefully removed, and the piece is installed as in the indirect method described above. In comparison to the indirect method, this is a complex system to use and requires great skill on the part of the operator, to avoid damaging the work. Its greatest advantage lies in the possibility of the operator directly controlling the final result of the work, which is important e.g. when the human figure is involved. This method was created in 1989 by Maurizio Placuzzi and registered for industrial use (patent n. 0000222556) under the name of his company, Sicis International Srl, now Sicis The Art Mosaic Factory Srl.

When is the double indirect method of mosaic useful?

when it is important to see the work

What is the most powerful aspect of the double indirect method?

directly controlling the final result of the work

When was the double indirect method invented?

Who invented the double indirect method?

Maurizio Placuzzi

What is used as a backing adhesive for the double indirect method besides putty or paper?

sticky plastic


A tile mosaic is a digital image made up of individual tiles, arranged in a non-overlapping fashion, e.g. to make a static image on a shower room or bathing pool floor, by breaking the image down into square pixels formed from ceramic tiles (a typical size is 1 in × 1 in (25 mm × 25 mm), as for example, on the floor of the University of Toronto pool, though sometimes larger tiles such as 2 in × 2 in (51 mm × 51 mm) are used). These digital images are coarse in resolution and often simply express text, such as the depth of the pool in various places, but some such digital images are used to show a sunset or other beach theme.

What is the typical size of a ceramic mosaic tile?

1 in × 1 in

What is usually the purpose of a tile mosaic in pools?

express text

Where is the most common application of tile mosaics?

on a shower room or bathing pool floor

How should the tiles be aligned next to each other?

in a non-overlapping fashion


With high cost of labor in developed countries, production automation has become increasingly popular. Rather than being assembled by hand, mosaics designed using computer aided design (CAD) software can be assembled by a robot. Production can be greater than 10 times faster with higher accuracy. But these "computer" mosaics have a different look than hand-made "artisanal" mosaics. With robotic production, colored tiles are loaded into buffers, and then the robot picks and places tiles individually according to a command file from the design software.

Why has production automation become popular?

high cost of labor in developed countries

Which software can aid in the design of robotically created mosaics?

CAD

How much faster is automated creation over handmade?

10 times faster

How does the robot pick the tiles it places?

a command file

What is not the same between hand made and robotic amde mosaics?

different look


The original Latin word "universitas" refers in general to "a number of persons associated into one body, a society, company, community, guild, corporation, etc." At the time of the emergence of urban town life and medieval guilds, specialised "associations of students and teachers with collective legal rights usually guaranteed by charters issued by princes, prelates, or the towns in which they were located" came to be denominated by this general term. Like other guilds, they were self-regulating and determined the qualifications of their members.

From what language does Universitas come from?

Latin

Around the beginning of what two things did word universitas start to become prevalent?

urban town life and medieval guilds

What did a universitas have in common with similar guilds?

they were self-regulating

Which individuals usually approved charters for universitas?

princes, prelates

What is the original greek word for university?

I'm not sure.

What does the greek work "universitas" mean?

I'm not sure.

Who issued charters to guilds?

I'm not sure.

How did universities differ from guilds?

I'm not sure.

From what language does "emergence" come from?

I'm not sure.

Around the beginning of what two things did the word emergence start to become prevalent?

I'm not sure.

What did an emergence have in common with similar guilds?

I'm not sure.

Which individuals usually approved charters for generals?

I'm not sure.

What was not guaranteed by charters?

I'm not sure.


An important idea in the definition of a university is the notion of academic freedom. The first documentary evidence of this comes from early in the life of the first university. The University of Bologna adopted an academic charter, the Constitutio Habita, in 1158 or 1155, which guaranteed the right of a traveling scholar to unhindered passage in the interests of education. Today this is claimed as the origin of "academic freedom". This is now widely recognised internationally - on 18 September 1988, 430 university rectors signed the Magna Charta Universitatum, marking the 900th anniversary of Bologna's foundation. The number of universities signing the Magna Charta Universitatum continues to grow, drawing from all parts of the world.

In terms of academics what is a core requirement of a university?

academic freedom

What was the first university?

University of Bologna

What charter is said to be the first establishing academic freedom in a university?

the Constitutio Habita

What did the Constitutio Habita say students were allowed?

unhindered passage in the interests of education

On what date was the Magna Carta Universitatum signed?

18 September 1988

What kind of freedom was not initially assosiated with universities?

I'm not sure.

What charter was adopted in the 11th century?

I'm not sure.

What university restricted the right of of scholars to travel?

I'm not sure.

What did the Constitution Habita guarantee to all travelers?

I'm not sure.

In terms of academics what is a core requirement of a rector?

I'm not sure.

What was the first monestery?

I'm not sure.

What charter is said to be the first establishing education in a university?

I'm not sure.

What did the Magna Charta Universitatum say students were allowed?

I'm not sure.

What marked the 430th anniversary of Bologna's foundation?

I'm not sure.


European higher education took place for hundreds of years in Christian cathedral schools or monastic schools (scholae monasticae), in which monks and nuns taught classes; evidence of these immediate forerunners of the later university at many places dates back to the 6th century. The earliest universities were developed under the aegis of the Latin Church by papal bull as studia generalia and perhaps from cathedral schools. It is possible, however, that the development of cathedral schools into universities was quite rare, with the University of Paris being an exception. Later they were also founded by Kings (University of Naples Federico II, Charles University in Prague, Jagiellonian University in Kraków) or municipal administrations (University of Cologne, University of Erfurt). In the early medieval period, most new universities were founded from pre-existing schools, usually when these schools were deemed to have become primarily sites of higher education. Many historians state that universities and cathedral schools were a continuation of the interest in learning promoted by monasteries.

What is a scholae monasticae?

monastic schools

Who presided over classes at a scholae monasticae?

monks and nuns

In the chronology of academic institutions, where are Christian cathedral schools compared to universities?

immediate forerunners

What church is said to be responsible for the formation of universities?

Latin Church

During which era did universities grow out of already extant schools?

early medieval period

Where did education originally take place across the world?

I'm not sure.

What type of schools forbid women to teach?

I'm not sure.

What began in the 600's?

I'm not sure.

What church encouraged but did not get directly involved in forming universities?

I'm not sure.

What caused most existing schools to decline?

I'm not sure.

Who presided over universities?

I'm not sure.

During which era did universities grow out of monasteries?

I'm not sure.

What were the earliest monasteries developed under?

I'm not sure.

What are three monasteries started by Kings?

I'm not sure.

Where were most new universities funded from?

I'm not sure.


All over Europe rulers and city governments began to create universities to satisfy a European thirst for knowledge, and the belief that society would benefit from the scholarly expertise generated from these institutions. Princes and leaders of city governments perceived the potential benefits of having a scholarly expertise develop with the ability to address difficult problems and achieve desired ends. The emergence of humanism was essential to this understanding of the possible utility of universities as well as the revival of interest in knowledge gained from ancient Greek texts.

Why did rulers and governments in Europe form universities?

to satisfy a European thirst for knowledge

What outlook developed the creation of the university system?

humanism

Which ancient texts began to see more study after universities were formed?

Greek

What type of governments were involved in creating universities?

city governments

Who established universities around the world?

I'm not sure.

What increased the study of Latin text?

I'm not sure.

Who established unuiversities for their own benefit?

I'm not sure.

What outlook slowed the spread of universities?

I'm not sure.

Why did rulers and governments in Europe form texts?

I'm not sure.

What outlook developed the creation of the European system?

I'm not sure.

Which ancient texts began to see more study after governments were formed?

I'm not sure.

What types of governments were involved in creating rulers?

I'm not sure.

Who perceived the benefits of rulers?

I'm not sure.


The rediscovery of Aristotle's works–more than 3000 pages of it would eventually be translated –fuelled a spirit of inquiry into natural processes that had already begun to emerge in the 12th century. Some scholars believe that these works represented one of the most important document discoveries in Western intellectual history. Richard Dales, for instance, calls the discovery of Aristotle's works "a turning point in the history of Western thought." After Aristotle re-emerged, a community of scholars, primarily communicating in Latin, accelerated the process and practice of attempting to reconcile the thoughts of Greek antiquity, and especially ideas related to understanding the natural world, with those of the church. The efforts of this "scholasticism" were focused on applying Aristotelian logic and thoughts about natural processes to biblical passages and attempting to prove the viability of those passages through reason. This became the primary mission of lecturers, and the expectation of students.

Roughly how many pages of the works of Aristotle were translated by the 12th century?

more than 3000 pages

Richard Dales believes that the work of Aristotle represents the turning point of what?

Western thought

What word described the early attempts to understand the work of Aristotle?

scholasticism

What faculty did scholars attempt to use to prove the thoughts of Aristotle?

reason

What language did 12th century scholars studying Aristotle speak in?

Latin

What began to emerge in the 1200's?

I'm not sure.

What is considered one of the most important discoveries in the world?

I'm not sure.

Who called the discovery of Aristotle's work a turning point in Western Science?

I'm not sure.

Who used Greek to communicate?

I'm not sure.

What focused on using Aristotelian logic to disprove the bible?

I'm not sure.

Roughly how many pages of the works of Richard Dales were translated by the 12th century?

I'm not sure.

What did Aristotle believe that the work of Richard Dales represent the turning point of?

I'm not sure.

What word described the early attempts to understand the work of Dales?

I'm not sure.

What faculty did scholars attempt to use to prove the thoughts of Aristotle?

I'm not sure.

What language did 12th century scholars studying Dale speak in?

I'm not sure.


The university culture developed differently in northern Europe than it did in the south, although the northern (primarily Germany, France and Great Britain) and southern universities (primarily Italy) did have many elements in common. Latin was the language of the university, used for all texts, lectures, disputations and examinations. Professors lectured on the books of Aristotle for logic, natural philosophy, and metaphysics; while Hippocrates, Galen, and Avicenna were used for medicine. Outside of these commonalities, great differences separated north and south, primarily in subject matter. Italian universities focused on law and medicine, while the northern universities focused on the arts and theology. There were distinct differences in the quality of instruction in these areas which were congruent with their focus, so scholars would travel north or south based on their interests and means. There was also a difference in the types of degrees awarded at these universities. English, French and German universities usually awarded bachelor's degrees, with the exception of degrees in theology, for which the doctorate was more common. Italian universities awarded primarily doctorates. The distinction can be attributed to the intent of the degree holder after graduation – in the north the focus tended to be on acquiring teaching positions, while in the south students often went on to professional positions. The structure of northern universities tended to be modeled after the system of faculty governance developed at the University of Paris. Southern universities tended to be patterned after the student-controlled model begun at the University of Bologna. Among the southern universities, a further distinction has been noted between those of northern Italy, which followed the pattern of Bologna as a "self-regulating, independent corporation of scholars" and those of southern Italy and Iberia, which were "founded by royal and imperial charter to serve the needs of government."

Which language was used in lectures in early European universities?

Latin

For what subjects did professors use the work of Hippocrates?

medicine

What type of subjects did the universities of northern Europe focus on?

arts and theology

What type of degree was given out at a English university?

bachelor's degrees

What developed differently in eastern and western Europe?

I'm not sure.

What language was used for university texts and lectures but not disputations and examinations?

I'm not sure.

Who lectured onAvicenna for metaphysics?

I'm not sure.

Why did southern universities mostly award bachelor's degrees?

I'm not sure.

Who did universities in southern Italy model their self regulating pattern after?

I'm not sure.

Which language was used in lectures in art universities?

I'm not sure.

For what subjects did professors use the work of Bolonga?

I'm not sure.

What types of subjects did the universities of Bolonga focus on?

I'm not sure.

What type of degree was given out at the University of Bolonga?

I'm not sure.

What type of degree would one likely get in iberia?

I'm not sure.


Their endowment by a prince or monarch and their role in training government officials made these Mediterranean universities similar to Islamic madrasas, although madrasas were generally smaller and individual teachers, rather than the madrasa itself, granted the license or degree. Scholars like Arnold H. Green and Hossein Nasr have argued that starting in the 10th century, some medieval Islamic madrasahs became universities. George Makdisi and others, however, argue that the European university has no parallel in the medieval Islamic world. Other scholars regard the university as uniquely European in origin and characteristics.

What type of university was an Islamic madrasa akin to?

Mediterranean universities

What type of individual funded a Mediterranean university?

prince or monarch

In which century did Islamic madrasas start to transform into universities?

From where did a degree come in a madrasa?

individual teachers

What did many towns establish in the Islamic world?

I'm not sure.

What did madrasa grant to students?

I'm not sure.

Who said madrasahs developed from universities?

I'm not sure.

What Islamic schools developed from universities in the 10th century?

I'm not sure.

What happened to madrasa in the 10000's?

I'm not sure.

What type of university was an a European university akin to?

I'm not sure.

What type of individual funded a European university?

I'm not sure.

In which century did Islamic madrasas start to transform into Hossein?

I'm not sure.

From where did a degree come in a university?

I'm not sure.

What did some monarchs become in the 10th centurty?

I'm not sure.


Many scholars (including Makdisi) have argued that early medieval universities were influenced by the religious madrasahs in Al-Andalus, the Emirate of Sicily, and the Middle East (during the Crusades). Other scholars see this argument as overstated. Lowe and Yasuhara have recently drawn on the well-documented influences of scholarship from the Islamic world on the universities of Western Europe to call for a reconsideration of the development of higher education, turning away from a concern with local institutional structures to a broader consideration within a global context.

Madrasas in which specific location are said to have guided the formation of medieval universities?

Al-Andalus

Al-Andalus was an Emirate of which entity?

Sicily

Some scholars think that universities come from what, rather than solely local influences?

a global context

During what notable Middle East conflict is it believed by some that Universities received influence from madrasas?

the Crusades

Who argues that many religious madrashas were influenced by medieval universities?

I'm not sure.

What does Lowe argue was influenced by religious madrasa?

I'm not sure.

Who does Yasuhare say was influenced by Western Universities?

I'm not sure.

During what conflict did western universities influence madrasa?

I'm not sure.

Madrasas in which specific location are said to have guided the formation of the islamic world?

I'm not sure.

Lowe was an Emirate of which entity?

I'm not sure.

During what notable Middle East conflict is it believed by some that Universities received influence from Yasuhara?

I'm not sure.

Who have drawn on the influences of scholarship from the European world?

I'm not sure.

Who argued that early madrasahs were influenced by early midieval universities?

I'm not sure.


During the Early Modern period (approximately late 15th century to 1800), the universities of Europe would see a tremendous amount of growth, productivity and innovative research. At the end of the Middle Ages, about 400 years after the first university was founded, there were twenty-nine universities spread throughout Europe. In the 15th century, twenty-eight new ones were created, with another eighteen added between 1500 and 1625. This pace continued until by the end of the 18th century there were approximately 143 universities in Europe and Eastern Europe, with the highest concentrations in the German Empire (34), Italian countries (26), France (25), and Spain (23) – this was close to a 500% increase over the number of universities toward the end of the Middle Ages. This number does not include the numerous universities that disappeared, or institutions that merged with other universities during this time. It should be noted that the identification of a university was not necessarily obvious during the Early Modern period, as the term is applied to a burgeoning number of institutions. In fact, the term "university" was not always used to designate a higher education institution. In Mediterranean countries, the term studium generale was still often used, while "Academy" was common in Northern European countries.

What was the time span of the Early Modern period?

late 15th century to 1800

At the completion of the Middle Ages how long had universities existed?

about 400 years

How many universities were within Europe at the closure of the middle ages?

twenty-nine

How many universities were within Europe by the completion of the 18th century?

The German Empire had how many universities?

what period occured from egan in 1500 and ended in the 18th century?

I'm not sure.

What began to happen to universities in the 1500's?

I'm not sure.

How long did it take for the world to establish 29 schools of higher education?

I'm not sure.

How many new universities were created in the 1500's?

I'm not sure.

How many universities exicted across Europe by the end of the 1800's?

I'm not sure.

What was the time span of the German Empire?

I'm not sure.

At the completion of the Middle Ages how long had countries existed?

I'm not sure.

How many universities were within Germany at the closure of the middle-ages?

I'm not sure.

How many universities were within Northern Europe by the completion of the 18th century?

I'm not sure.

The Mediterranean Empire had how many universities?

I'm not sure.


The propagation of universities was not necessarily a steady progression, as the 17th century was rife with events that adversely affected university expansion. Many wars, and especially the Thirty Years' War, disrupted the university landscape throughout Europe at different times. War, plague, famine, regicide, and changes in religious power and structure often adversely affected the societies that provided support for universities. Internal strife within the universities themselves, such as student brawling and absentee professors, acted to destabilize these institutions as well. Universities were also reluctant to give up older curricula, and the continued reliance on the works of Aristotle defied contemporary advancements in science and the arts. This era was also affected by the rise of the nation-state. As universities increasingly came under state control, or formed under the auspices of the state, the faculty governance model (begun by the University of Paris) became more and more prominent. Although the older student-controlled universities still existed, they slowly started to move toward this structural organization. Control of universities still tended to be independent, although university leadership was increasingly appointed by the state.

What war most curtailed the spread of universities in the 17th century?

the Thirty Years' War

Which university is said to have started faculty governance?

University of Paris

Which entity started to appoint the administration of universities in the 17th century?

the state

The control of universities by the state can be attributed to the advancement in the development of what?

the nation-state.

How would one describe the control of universities before nation-states in the 17th century?

student-controlled

What spread across Europe at a steady pace?

I'm not sure.

What slowed the spread of universities in the 1700's?

I'm not sure.

What encouraged the establishment of new niversities in the 17th century?

I'm not sure.

Who favored amtempory advancements over the works of Aristotle?

I'm not sure.

What war most curtailed the spread of universities in the 18th century?

I'm not sure.

Which university is said to have started the arts?

I'm not sure.

Which entity started to appoint the administration of universities in the 18th century?

I'm not sure.

The control of science by the state can be attributed to the advancement in the development of what?

I'm not sure.

How would one describe the control of universities before nation-states in the 18th century?

I'm not sure.


Although the structural model provided by the University of Paris, where student members are controlled by faculty "masters," provided a standard for universities, the application of this model took at least three different forms. There were universities that had a system of faculties whose teaching addressed a very specific curriculum; this model tended to train specialists. There was a collegiate or tutorial model based on the system at University of Oxford where teaching and organization was decentralized and knowledge was more of a generalist nature. There were also universities that combined these models, using the collegiate model but having a centralized organization.

What were the faculty who supervised students in the University of Paris called?

masters

The structure of the University of Paris served as what for other universities?

a standard

How many styles did the University of Paris model end up taking when applied to other universities?

at least three

Which university had teaching which was more general, and not centralized?

University of Oxford

What type of student did schools that focus on very specific topics aim to create?

specialists

What student run university provided the standard for other universities?

I'm not sure.

How many different forms did the student run model take?

I'm not sure.

What centralized model was used by Oxford?

I'm not sure.

What type of organiization was always used with the collegiate model?

I'm not sure.

What were the faculty who supervised students in Oxford called?

I'm not sure.

How many styles did the University of Oxford model end up taking when applied to other universities?

I'm not sure.

Which university had teaching which was more centralized and not general?

I'm not sure.

What type of student did schools that focus on very controlled topics aim to create?

I'm not sure.

What did the University of Paris address?

I'm not sure.


Early Modern universities initially continued the curriculum and research of the Middle Ages: natural philosophy, logic, medicine, theology, mathematics, astronomy (and astrology), law, grammar and rhetoric. Aristotle was prevalent throughout the curriculum, while medicine also depended on Galen and Arabic scholarship. The importance of humanism for changing this state-of-affairs cannot be underestimated. Once humanist professors joined the university faculty, they began to transform the study of grammar and rhetoric through the studia humanitatis. Humanist professors focused on the ability of students to write and speak with distinction, to translate and interpret classical texts, and to live honorable lives. Other scholars within the university were affected by the humanist approaches to learning and their linguistic expertise in relation to ancient texts, as well as the ideology that advocated the ultimate importance of those texts. Professors of medicine such as Niccolò Leoniceno, Thomas Linacre and William Cop were often trained in and taught from a humanist perspective as well as translated important ancient medical texts. The critical mindset imparted by humanism was imperative for changes in universities and scholarship. For instance, Andreas Vesalius was educated in a humanist fashion before producing a translation of Galen, whose ideas he verified through his own dissections. In law, Andreas Alciatus infused the Corpus Juris with a humanist perspective, while Jacques Cujas humanist writings were paramount to his reputation as a jurist. Philipp Melanchthon cited the works of Erasmus as a highly influential guide for connecting theology back to original texts, which was important for the reform at Protestant universities. Galileo Galilei, who taught at the Universities of Pisa and Padua, and Martin Luther, who taught at the University of Wittenberg (as did Melanchthon), also had humanist training. The task of the humanists was to slowly permeate the university; to increase the humanist presence in professorships and chairs, syllabi and textbooks so that published works would demonstrate the humanistic ideal of science and scholarship.

What was the source of educational material in Early Modern age universities?

the curriculum and research of the Middle Ages

What sources did Early Modern age universities rely on for medical curricula?

Galen and Arabic scholarship

The concentration on students to live honorable lives is an example of what form of thought?

Humanist

Niccolò Leoniceno was a professor of what subject?

medicine

Which individual added a humanist view into the Corpus Juris?

Andreas Alciatus

What curriculum did early modern universities deviate from?

I'm not sure.

Who's curriculumn was not deeply impacted by humanism?

I'm not sure.

What Greek's teachings encouraged students to live honorable lives?

I'm not sure.

What did Niccolo Leoniceno ifuse Corpus Juris with?

I'm not sure.

Who aggressivly infultrated the university system?

I'm not sure.

What was the source of educational material in Early Modern age scholarships?

I'm not sure.

What sources did Early Modern age universities rely on for Protestant curricula?

I'm not sure.

The concentration on professors to live honorable lives is an example of what form of thought?

I'm not sure.

Galileo Galilei was a professor of what subject?

I'm not sure.

Which individual added a humanist view into the Middle Ages?

I'm not sure.


Although the initial focus of the humanist scholars in the university was the discovery, exposition and insertion of ancient texts and languages into the university, and the ideas of those texts into society generally, their influence was ultimately quite progressive. The emergence of classical texts brought new ideas and led to a more creative university climate (as the notable list of scholars above attests to). A focus on knowledge coming from self, from the human, has a direct implication for new forms of scholarship and instruction, and was the foundation for what is commonly known as the humanities. This disposition toward knowledge manifested in not simply the translation and propagation of ancient texts, but also their adaptation and expansion. For instance, Vesalius was imperative for advocating the use of Galen, but he also invigorated this text with experimentation, disagreements and further research. The propagation of these texts, especially within the universities, was greatly aided by the emergence of the printing press and the beginning of the use of the vernacular, which allowed for the printing of relatively large texts at reasonable prices.

Discovery and exposition were examples of the focus of what type of university scholar?

humanist

A concentration on the study of the self resulted in what field of study?

the humanities

What work did Vesalius push the study of?

Galen

What spread the use of texts by Galen within universities?

the printing press

Research was an example of the focus of what type of university scholar?

I'm not sure.

A concentration on the study of classical texts resulted in what field of study?

I'm not sure.

What work did students push the study of?

I'm not sure.

What spread the use of texts by Vesalius within universities?

I'm not sure.

What manifested in the adaptation and expansion of discovery?

I'm not sure.


There are several major exceptions on tuition fees. In many European countries, it is possible to study without tuition fees. Public universities in Nordic countries were entirely without tuition fees until around 2005. Denmark, Sweden and Finland then moved to put in place tuition fees for foreign students. Citizens of EU and EEA member states and citizens from Switzerland remain exempted from tuition fees, and the amounts of public grants granted to promising foreign students were increased to offset some of the impact.

In multiple countries in Europe students can attend a university with what kind if financial burden?

without tuition fees

Until what year were public universities in nordic nation free of tuition?

around 2005

What kind of students pay fees in public universities in Denmark?

foreign students

In terms of Universities in Denmark what is the fee status for citizens of EFA states?

exempted from tuition fees

What happened to public grants in nordic universities that continued to allow foreign students?

increased

Until what year were public universities in the UK free of tuition?

I'm not sure.

What kind of students pay fees in public universities in the UK?

I'm not sure.

What happened to public grants in nordic universities that continued to allow domestic students?

I'm not sure.

What three countries moved to put in place tuition fees for domestic students?

I'm not sure.

What were decreased to offset some of the impact?

I'm not sure.


Colloquially, the term university may be used to describe a phase in one's life: "When I was at university..." (in the United States and Ireland, college is often used instead: "When I was in college..."). In Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Nigeria, the Netherlands, Spain and the German-speaking countries university is often contracted to uni. In Ghana, New Zealand and in South Africa it is sometimes called "varsity" (although this has become uncommon in New Zealand in recent years). "Varsity" was also common usage in the UK in the 19th century.[citation needed] "Varsity" is still in common usage in Scotland.

In Ireland what word is mainly used instead of university?

college

Spain refers to a university in what other way?

uni

The nation of Ghana shortens university to what?

varsity

Scotland is said to frequently refer to university as what?

Varsity

In what century was it believed that the UK used the word varsity to refer to a university?

In Scotland what word is mainly used instead of university?

I'm not sure.

Mexico refers to a university in what other way?

I'm not sure.

The nation of Congo shortens university to what?

I'm not sure.

In what century was it believed that France used the word varsity to refer to a university?

I'm not sure.

What has become uncommon in Australia?

I'm not sure.


In Canada, "college" generally refers to a two-year, non-degree-granting institution, while "university" connotes a four-year, degree-granting institution. Universities may be sub-classified (as in the Macleans rankings) into large research universities with many PhD granting programs and medical schools (for example, McGill University); "comprehensive" universities that have some PhDs but aren't geared toward research (such as Waterloo); and smaller, primarily undergraduate universities (such as St. Francis Xavier).

A college teaches students for how many years in Canada?

two

What type of institution is a college in Canada?

non-degree-granting

How many years does a degree-granting university in Canada spend teaching students?

four

What is McGill University in Canada an example of?

medical schools

What type of university is St Francis Xavier in Canada?

undergraduate

A college teaches students for how many years in Macleans?

I'm not sure.

What type of institution is a college in Macleans?

I'm not sure.

How many years does a degree-granting university in Macleans spend teaching students?

I'm not sure.

What is an example of a university geared toward research?

I'm not sure.

What is an example of a primarily graduate university?

I'm not sure.


Although each institution is organized differently, nearly all universities have a board of trustees; a president, chancellor, or rector; at least one vice president, vice-chancellor, or vice-rector; and deans of various divisions. Universities are generally divided into a number of academic departments, schools or faculties. Public university systems are ruled over by government-run higher education boards. They review financial requests and budget proposals and then allocate funds for each university in the system. They also approve new programs of instruction and cancel or make changes in existing programs. In addition, they plan for the further coordinated growth and development of the various institutions of higher education in the state or country. However, many public universities in the world have a considerable degree of financial, research and pedagogical autonomy. Private universities are privately funded and generally have broader independence from state policies. However, they may have less independence from business corporations depending on the source of their finances.

How many vice presidents do most universities have?

at least one

What kind of board does a university commonly have?

a board of trustees

What are the different departments of a university called?

schools or faculties

Who controls public universities?

government-run higher education boards

Besides students, what is the source of funds of private universities?

business corporations

How many vice presidents do most businesses have?

I'm not sure.

What kind of board does a business commonly have?

I'm not sure.

What are the different departments of a business called?

I'm not sure.

Who controls public businesses?

I'm not sure.

Besides students, what is the source of funds of public universities?

I'm not sure.


The funding and organization of universities varies widely between different countries around the world. In some countries universities are predominantly funded by the state, while in others funding may come from donors or from fees which students attending the university must pay. In some countries the vast majority of students attend university in their local town, while in other countries universities attract students from all over the world, and may provide university accommodation for their students.

How does the financial backing of universities around the world differ?

varies widely

In nations that accept students from through the world what might the university offer to a student?

accommodation

Outside of state funded schools, and funds coming from donors, how might a university collect funds?

fees which students attending the university

How does the financial backing of students around the world differ?

I'm not sure.

What do other states do for students?

I'm not sure.

Where do the vast majority of students have funding from their hometown?

I'm not sure.

Who are students in some countries predominatly funded by?

I'm not sure.

Where does the funding and organization of students vary?

I'm not sure.


Universities created by bilateral or multilateral treaties between states are intergovernmental. An example is the Academy of European Law, which offers training in European law to lawyers, judges, barristers, solicitors, in-house counsel and academics. EUCLID (Pôle Universitaire Euclide, Euclid University) is chartered as a university and umbrella organisation dedicated to sustainable development in signatory countries, and the United Nations University engages in efforts to resolve the pressing global problems that are of concern to the United Nations, its peoples and member states. The European University Institute, a post-graduate university specialised in the social sciences, is officially an intergovernmental organisation, set up by the member states of the European Union.

What is a university formed through a bilateral treaty known as?

intergovernmental

In terms of intergovernmental universities, what is EUCLID?

Pôle Universitaire Euclide, Euclid University

What is a mission of EUCLID as it relates to signatory nations?

sustainable development

What type of school is the European University Institute?

post-graduate

What type of study does the European University Institute focus on?

social sciences

What is a university formed through a unilateral treaty known as?

I'm not sure.

What is a mission of EUCLID as it relates to the United Nations?

I'm not sure.

What type of school is the EUCLID?

I'm not sure.

What type of study does the EUCUD focus on?

I'm not sure.

What offers training in Asian law?

I'm not sure.


A national university is generally a university created or run by a national state but at the same time represents a state autonomic institution which functions as a completely independent body inside of the same state. Some national universities are closely associated with national cultural or political aspirations, for instance the National University of Ireland in the early days of Irish independence collected a large amount of information on the Irish language and Irish culture. Reforms in Argentina were the result of the University Revolution of 1918 and its posterior reforms by incorporating values that sought for a more equal and laic higher education system.

What was a focus of the National University of Ireland during the beginning of Irish Independence?

Irish language and Irish culture

In what nation did the University Revolution occur?

Argentina

In what year did Argentina's University Revolution occur?

What was the result of the University Revolution in Argentina?

Reforms

What was a focus of Argentina during the beginning of Irish independence?

I'm not sure.

In what year did Ireland's University Revolution occur?

I'm not sure.

What was the result of the University Revolution in Ireland?

I'm not sure.

What is generally a university created or run by private donors?

I'm not sure.

Who collected a large amount of information on the Argentina language?

I'm not sure.


In 1963, the Robbins Report on universities in the United Kingdom concluded that such institutions should have four main "objectives essential to any properly balanced system: instruction in skills; the promotion of the general powers of the mind so as to produce not mere specialists but rather cultivated men and women; to maintain research in balance with teaching, since teaching should not be separated from the advancement of learning and the search for truth; and to transmit a common culture and common standards of citizenship."

In what year did the Robbins report say that universities should have four objectives to remain balanced?

What nation did the 1963 Robbins Report focus on?

the United Kingdom

What should a university promote, according to the Robbins Report?

general powers of the mind

Universities should maintain what, according to the Robbins Report?

research in balance with teaching

The Robbins Report says universities should transmit what?

a common culture and common standards of citizenship

In what year did the Robbins report say that men and women should have four objectives to remain balanced?

I'm not sure.

What nation focused on teaching?

I'm not sure.

What should men and women promote, according to the Robbins Report?

I'm not sure.

Men and women should maintain what, according to the Robbins Report?

I'm not sure.

The Robbins report says men and women should transmit what?

I'm not sure.


Until the 19th century, religion played a significant role in university curriculum; however, the role of religion in research universities decreased in the 19th century, and by the end of the 19th century, the German university model had spread around the world. Universities concentrated on science in the 19th and 20th centuries and became increasingly accessible to the masses. In Britain, the move from Industrial Revolution to modernity saw the arrival of new civic universities with an emphasis on science and engineering, a movement initiated in 1960 by Sir Keith Murray (chairman of the University Grants Committee) and Sir Samuel Curran, with the formation of the University of Strathclyde. The British also established universities worldwide, and higher education became available to the masses not only in Europe.

Ending with what century did religion play a smaller part in the curriculum of universities?

what model of university structure was being used throughout the world at the finish of the 19th century?

the German university model

What was the focus of universities in the 20th century?

science

Who was Sir Keith Murray?

chairman of the University Grants Committee

What university did Sir Samuel Curran contribute to the creation of?

the University of Strathclyde

Ending with what century did German play a smaller part in the curriculum of universities?

I'm not sure.

What model of university structure was being used throughout the world at the finish of the 20th century?

I'm not sure.

What were the focus of grants in the 19th century?

I'm not sure.

Who formed a university in Germany?

I'm not sure.

What became less accessible to the masses?

I'm not sure.


By the end of the early modern period, the structure and orientation of higher education had changed in ways that are eminently recognizable for the modern context. Aristotle was no longer a force providing the epistemological and methodological focus for universities and a more mechanistic orientation was emerging. The hierarchical place of theological knowledge had for the most part been displaced and the humanities had become a fixture, and a new openness was beginning to take hold in the construction and dissemination of knowledge that were to become imperative for the formation of the modern state.

At the end of what period would universities become alike to contemporary universities?

the end of the early modern period

What type of focus did universities have at the end of the early modern period?

mechanistic

What replaced theological studies in universities at the completion of the early modern period?

humanities

The change in universities towards the completion of the early modern period is credited with the formation of what entity?

the modern state

The study of the humanities at the end of the early modern period replaced the study of the work of what individual?

Aristotle

At the end of what period would universities become a fixture?

I'm not sure.

What type of focus did universities have at the end of the modern state?

I'm not sure.

What replaced theological studies in universities at the completion of the modern state?

I'm not sure.

The change in universities towards the completion of the modern period is credited with the formation of what entity?

I'm not sure.

The study of the humanities at the end of the modern state replaced the work of what individual?

I'm not sure.


The epistemological tensions between scientists and universities were also heightened by the economic realities of research during this time, as individual scientists, associations and universities were vying for limited resources. There was also competition from the formation of new colleges funded by private benefactors and designed to provide free education to the public, or established by local governments to provide a knowledge hungry populace with an alternative to traditional universities. Even when universities supported new scientific endeavors, and the university provided foundational training and authority for the research and conclusions, they could not compete with the resources available through private benefactors.

Scientists and universities were competing for what?

limited resources

What type of education did private benefactors hope to provide to the public?

free

Governments created universities to serve as what?

an alternative to traditional universities

What type of entity created competition with government created universities?

private benefactors

Scientists and local governments were competing for what?

I'm not sure.

What type of education did scientists benefactors hope to provide to the public?

I'm not sure.

Governments created knowledge to serve as what?

I'm not sure.

Why did local governments establish research?

I'm not sure.

What could scientists not compete with?

I'm not sure.


Other historians find incongruity in the proposition that the very place where the vast number of the scholars that influenced the scientific revolution received their education should also be the place that inhibits their research and the advancement of science. In fact, more than 80% of the European scientists between 1450–1650 included in the Dictionary of Scientific Biography were university trained, of which approximately 45% held university posts. It was the case that the academic foundations remaining from the Middle Ages were stable, and they did provide for an environment that fostered considerable growth and development. There was considerable reluctance on the part of universities to relinquish the symmetry and comprehensiveness provided by the Aristotelian system, which was effective as a coherent system for understanding and interpreting the world. However, university professors still utilized some autonomy, at least in the sciences, to choose epistemological foundations and methods. For instance, Melanchthon and his disciples at University of Wittenberg were instrumental for integrating Copernican mathematical constructs into astronomical debate and instruction. Another example was the short-lived but fairly rapid adoption of Cartesian epistemology and methodology in European universities, and the debates surrounding that adoption, which led to more mechanistic approaches to scientific problems as well as demonstrated an openness to change. There are many examples which belie the commonly perceived intransigence of universities. Although universities may have been slow to accept new sciences and methodologies as they emerged, when they did accept new ideas it helped to convey legitimacy and respectability, and supported the scientific changes through providing a stable environment for instruction and material resources.

What percentage of scientists from 1450–1650 in the Dictionary of Scientific Biography were taught in a university?

more than 80%

On the part of universities what was their reaction to giving up the Aristotelian system?

considerable reluctance

What university was Melancthon from?

University of Wittenberg

What type of epistemology was adopted for a short period of time in European universities?

Cartesian

The acceptance of new concepts and sciences by universities brought these ideas what?

legitimacy and respectability

What percentage of students from 1450-1650 in the Dictionary of Scientific Biography were taught at a university?

I'm not sure.

What university was Cartesia from?

I'm not sure.

What type of epistemology was adopted for a short period of time in MIddle Eastern universities?

I'm not sure.


Regardless of the way the tension between universities, individual scientists, and the scientific revolution itself is perceived, there was a discernible impact on the way that university education was constructed. Aristotelian epistemology provided a coherent framework not simply for knowledge and knowledge construction, but also for the training of scholars within the higher education setting. The creation of new scientific constructs during the scientific revolution, and the epistemological challenges that were inherent within this creation, initiated the idea of both the autonomy of science and the hierarchy of the disciplines. Instead of entering higher education to become a "general scholar" immersed in becoming proficient in the entire curriculum, there emerged a type of scholar that put science first and viewed it as a vocation in itself. The divergence between those focused on science and those still entrenched in the idea of a general scholar exacerbated the epistemological tensions that were already beginning to emerge.

What type of epistemology served as the foundation of knowledge constructions and  training scholars in universities?

Aristotelian

The scientific revolution contributed to what, in terms of science?

autonomy

There was disagreement between universities and scientists over schools focusing on science, and the idea of what?

a general scholar

A hierarchy of scientific disciplines came out of what?

the scientific revolution

Where did students after the scientific revolution put science on the scale of importance?

first

What type of epistemology served as the foundation of knowledge constructions and training students in universities?

I'm not sure.

What did the scientific scholar contribute to, in terms of science?

I'm not sure.

What resulted in a hierarchy of scholars?

I'm not sure.

Where did scholars after the scientific revolution put science on the scale of importance?

I'm not sure.

What was there an indiscernible impact on?

I'm not sure.


Examining the influence of humanism on scholars in medicine, mathematics, astronomy and physics may suggest that humanism and universities were a strong impetus for the scientific revolution. Although the connection between humanism and the scientific discovery may very well have begun within the confines of the university, the connection has been commonly perceived as having been severed by the changing nature of science during the scientific revolution. Historians such as Richard S. Westfall have argued that the overt traditionalism of universities inhibited attempts to re-conceptualize nature and knowledge and caused an indelible tension between universities and scientists. This resistance to changes in science may have been a significant factor in driving many scientists away from the university and toward private benefactors, usually in princely courts, and associations with newly forming scientific societies.

The study of humanism among those studying math, astronomy and medicine is said to have caused what?

the scientific revolution

Resisting what caused many scientists to court private benefactors?

changes in science

Where might a scientist find a friendly private benefactor?

princely courts

Which historian argues that traditionalism in a university system hindered attempts to form new views on knowledge and nature?

Richard S. Westfall

The study of humanism among those studying history is said to have caused what?

I'm not sure.

Resisting what caused many students to court private benefactors?

I'm not sure.

Where might a student find a friendly private benefactor?

I'm not sure.

Which historian argues that traditionalism in a university system hindered attempts to form new views on medicine and mathematics?

I'm not sure.

What may have been a significant factor in driving students away from the university?

I'm not sure.


The priesthoods of public religion were held by members of the elite classes. There was no principle analogous to separation of church and state in ancient Rome. During the Roman Republic (509–27 BC), the same men who were elected public officials might also serve as augurs and pontiffs. Priests married, raised families, and led politically active lives. Julius Caesar became pontifex maximus before he was elected consul. The augurs read the will of the gods and supervised the marking of boundaries as a reflection of universal order, thus sanctioning Roman expansionism as a matter of divine destiny. The Roman triumph was at its core a religious procession in which the victorious general displayed his piety and his willingness to serve the public good by dedicating a portion of his spoils to the gods, especially Jupiter, who embodied just rule. As a result of the Punic Wars (264–146 BC), when Rome struggled to establish itself as a dominant power, many new temples were built by magistrates in fulfillment of a vow to a deity for assuring their military success.

The members of what class were priests in ancient Rome?

elite

What kind of political separation did not exist in Rome?

church and state

What was the time span of the Roman Republic?

509–27 BC

Which God exemplified just rule for the Romans?

Jupiter

As a result of what war were many new temples built by victorious generals?

Punic Wars


Roman religion was thus practical and contractual, based on the principle of do ut des, "I give that you might give." Religion depended on knowledge and the correct practice of prayer, ritual, and sacrifice, not on faith or dogma, although Latin literature preserves learned speculation on the nature of the divine and its relation to human affairs. Even the most skeptical among Rome's intellectual elite such as Cicero, who was an augur, saw religion as a source of social order. For ordinary Romans, religion was a part of daily life. Each home had a household shrine at which prayers and libations to the family's domestic deities were offered. Neighborhood shrines and sacred places such as springs and groves dotted the city. The Roman calendar was structured around religious observances. Women, slaves, and children all participated in a range of religious activities. Some public rituals could be conducted only by women, and women formed what is perhaps Rome's most famous priesthood, the state-supported Vestals, who tended Rome's sacred hearth for centuries, until disbanded under Christian domination.

What characteristics were not inherent in Roman religious practice?

faith or dogma

What was brought forth by religion in Rome?

social order

What religious feature did each Roman home have?

household shrine

What type of celebrations made up the Roman calendar?

religious observances

What religious group was in charge of Rome's sacred flame?

Vestals


The Romans are known for the great number of deities they honored, a capacity that earned the mockery of early Christian polemicists. The presence of Greeks on the Italian peninsula from the beginning of the historical period influenced Roman culture, introducing some religious practices that became as fundamental as the cult of Apollo. The Romans looked for common ground between their major gods and those of the Greeks (interpretatio graeca), adapting Greek myths and iconography for Latin literature and Roman art. Etruscan religion was also a major influence, particularly on the practice of augury.

How deities did the Romans have?

great number

What group was an influence to Roman culture?

Greeks

What sort  of practices did the Greeks offer to Rome's culture?

religious

What myths did the Romans adapt to their needs?

Greek

What religion influenced augury for the Romans?

Etruscan


Imported mystery religions, which offered initiates salvation in the afterlife, were a matter of personal choice for an individual, practiced in addition to carrying on one's family rites and participating in public religion. The mysteries, however, involved exclusive oaths and secrecy, conditions that conservative Romans viewed with suspicion as characteristic of "magic", conspiratorial (coniuratio), or subversive activity. Sporadic and sometimes brutal attempts were made to suppress religionists who seemed to threaten traditional morality and unity, as with the senate's efforts to restrict the Bacchanals in 186 BC.

What was the practice of religion to the Romans?

personal choice

What was the standard practice in Roman religious life?

public religion

What part of Roman religious practice involved secrecy?

mysteries

What group viewed the mysteries as suspicious or subversive?

conservative Romans

What did the mysteries seem to threaten that made the Romans occasionally attempt to ban them?

morality and unity


As the Romans extended their dominance throughout the Mediterranean world, their policy in general was to absorb the deities and cults of other peoples rather than try to eradicate them, since they believed that preserving tradition promoted social stability. One way that Rome incorporated diverse peoples was by supporting their religious heritage, building temples to local deities that framed their theology within the hierarchy of Roman religion. Inscriptions throughout the Empire record the side-by-side worship of local and Roman deities, including dedications made by Romans to local gods. By the height of the Empire, numerous international deities were cultivated at Rome and had been carried to even the most remote provinces, among them Cybele, Isis, Epona, and gods of solar monism such as Mithras and Sol Invictus, found as far north as Roman Britain. Because Romans had never been obligated to cultivate one god or one cult only, religious tolerance was not an issue in the sense that it is for competing monotheistic systems. The monotheistic rigor of Judaism posed difficulties for Roman policy that led at times to compromise and the granting of special exemptions, but sometimes to intractable conflict. For example, religious disputes helped cause the First Jewish–Roman War and the Bar Kokhba revolt.

What did the Romans tend to do with local religions and deities in conquered areas?

absorb

To the Romans what did them think promoted social stability?

preserving tradition

What facet of a foreign people did Rome add to itself to promote order?

religious heritage

To what areas of the Roman empire did the Romans take their deities?

remote provinces

What facet of religion was not an issue for Roman?

tolerance


In the wake of the Republic's collapse, state religion had adapted to support the new regime of the emperors. Augustus, the first Roman emperor, justified the novelty of one-man rule with a vast program of religious revivalism and reform. Public vows formerly made for the security of the republic now were directed at the wellbeing of the emperor. So-called "emperor worship" expanded on a grand scale the traditional Roman veneration of the ancestral dead and of the Genius, the divine tutelary of every individual. Imperial cult became one of the major ways in which Rome advertised its presence in the provinces and cultivated shared cultural identity and loyalty throughout the Empire. Rejection of the state religion was tantamount to treason. This was the context for Rome's conflict with Christianity, which Romans variously regarded as a form of atheism and novel superstitio.

After the Republic collapsed,  what addition was made to the religions of Rome?

emperors

Who was the first Roman emperor?

Augustus

For whose well being were public vows made in the empire?

emperor

What did the Romans use as a means of expanding their rule throughout the empire?

Imperial cult

As what during the time of the Roman empire  was rejection of the state religion viewed?

treason


Rome had a semi-divine ancestor in the Trojan refugee Aeneas, son of Venus, who was said to have established the nucleus of Roman religion when he brought the Palladium, Lares and Penates from Troy to Italy. These objects were believed in historical times to remain in the keeping of the Vestals, Rome's female priesthood. Aeneas had been given refuge by King Evander, a Greek exile from Arcadia, to whom were attributed other religious foundations: he established the Ara Maxima, "Greatest Altar," to Hercules at the site that would become the Forum Boarium, and he was the first to celebrate the Lupercalia, an archaic festival in February that was celebrated as late as the 5th century of the Christian era.

What mythical figure did the Romans consider to be semi-divine?

Aeneas

Of what did Aeneas establish the central feature?

Roman religion

Who were the keepers of Aeneas's sacred objects?

Vestals

What ancient festival was celebrated until the 5th century?

Lupercalia

To whom did Aeneas set up an alter in Rome?

Hercules


The myth of a Trojan founding with Greek influence was reconciled through an elaborate genealogy (the Latin kings of Alba Longa) with the well-known legend of Rome's founding by Romulus and Remus. The most common version of the twins' story displays several aspects of hero myth. Their mother, Rhea Silvia, had been ordered by her uncle the king to remain a virgin, in order to preserve the throne he had usurped from her father. Through divine intervention, the rightful line was restored when Rhea Silvia was impregnated by the god Mars. She gave birth to twins, who were duly exposed by order of the king but saved through a series of miraculous events.

What mythical characters were involved in the founding of Rome?

Romulus and Remus

What type of story was the Romulus and Remus tale?

hero myth

Who was the mother of Romulus and Remus?

Rhea Silvia

What god was the father of Romulus and Remus?

Mars

What type of events saved the twins of Roman myth?

miraculous


Romulus was credited with several religious institutions. He founded the Consualia festival, inviting the neighbouring Sabines to participate; the ensuing rape of the Sabine women by Romulus's men further embedded both violence and cultural assimilation in Rome's myth of origins. As a successful general, Romulus is also supposed to have founded Rome's first temple to Jupiter Feretrius and offered the spolia opima, the prime spoils taken in war, in the celebration of the first Roman triumph. Spared a mortal's death, Romulus was mysteriously spirited away and deified.

What type of organization did Romulus establish?

religious

What religious festival did Romulus found?

Consualia

According to myth, what god's temple did Romulus found?

Jupiter

What did Romulus offer to Jupiter in the first Roman Triumph?

spoils taken in war

Instead of death, what happened to Romulus?

deified


Each of Rome's legendary or semi-legendary kings was associated with one or more religious institutions still known to the later Republic. Tullus Hostilius and Ancus Marcius instituted the fetial priests. The first "outsider" Etruscan king, Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, founded a Capitoline temple to the triad Jupiter, Juno and Minerva which served as the model for the highest official cult throughout the Roman world. The benevolent, divinely fathered Servius Tullius established the Latin League, its Aventine Temple to Diana, and the Compitalia to mark his social reforms. Servius Tullius was murdered and succeeded by the arrogant Tarquinius Superbus, whose expulsion marked the beginning of Rome as a republic with annually elected magistrates.

To what were the first kings of Rome associated?

religious institutions

To what group of deities did Lucius Tarquinius Priscus  establish a temple?

Jupiter, Juno and Minerva

Where was the temple to the triad gods established?

Capitoline

What organization did Servius Tullius found?

Latin League,

The removal of whom marked the beginning of the Roman Republic?

Tarquinius Superbus


Rome offers no native creation myth, and little mythography to explain the character of its deities, their mutual relationships or their interactions with the human world, but Roman theology acknowledged that di immortales (immortal gods) ruled all realms of the heavens and earth. There were gods of the upper heavens, gods of the underworld and a myriad of lesser deities between. Some evidently favoured Rome because Rome honoured them, but none were intrinsically, irredeemably foreign or alien. The political, cultural and religious coherence of an emergent Roman super-state required a broad, inclusive and flexible network of lawful cults. At different times and in different places, the sphere of influence, character and functions of a divine being could expand, overlap with those of others, and be redefined as Roman. Change was embedded within existing traditions.

What type of myth did Rome not have?

creation

To the Romans who ruled all aspects of heaven and earth?

immortal gods

What did the Romans do for those deities that favored Rome?

Rome honoured them

What did Rome make the myriad various cults?

lawful

What was basic facet of Roman religious experience?

Change


Several versions of a semi-official, structured pantheon were developed during the political, social and religious instability of the Late Republican era. Jupiter, the most powerful of all gods and "the fount of the auspices upon which the relationship of the city with the gods rested", consistently personified the divine authority of Rome's highest offices, internal organization and external relations. During the archaic and early Republican eras, he shared his temple, some aspects of cult and several divine characteristics with Mars and Quirinus, who were later replaced by Juno and Minerva. A conceptual tendency toward triads may be indicated by the later agricultural or plebeian triad of Ceres, Liber and Libera, and by some of the complementary threefold deity-groupings of Imperial cult. Other major and minor deities could be single, coupled, or linked retrospectively through myths of divine marriage and sexual adventure. These later Roman pantheistic hierarchies are part literary and mythographic, part philosophical creations, and often Greek in origin. The Hellenization of Latin literature and culture supplied literary and artistic models for reinterpreting Roman deities in light of the Greek Olympians, and promoted a sense that the two cultures had a shared heritage.

To the Romans who was the most powerful of the gods?

Jupiter

What did Jupiter personify in regards to Rome's highest offices?

divine authority

What gods did Juno and Minerva replace in Roman religious practice?

Mars and Quirinus

From where does the practice of linking various gods into grouping come?

Greek in origin

Of what did the linking of Greek and Roman deities promote a feeling?

heritage


The impressive, costly, and centralised rites to the deities of the Roman state were vastly outnumbered in everyday life by commonplace religious observances pertaining to an individual's domestic and personal deities, the patron divinities of Rome's various neighborhoods and communities, and the often idiosyncratic blends of official, unofficial, local and personal cults that characterised lawful Roman religion. In this spirit, a provincial Roman citizen who made the long journey from Bordeaux to Italy to consult the Sibyl at Tibur did not neglect his devotion to his own goddess from home:

What type of religious practices outnumbered the state observances?

commonplace

To what did the mixture of official and individual religious practices  pertain?

lawful Roman

What were the characteristics of state religious observances?

impressive, costly, and centralised

Who made the choices of personal religious practices in Rome?

individual

What type of deities did Roman communities have?

patron


Roman calendars show roughly forty annual religious festivals. Some lasted several days, others a single day or less: sacred days (dies fasti) outnumbered "non-sacred" days (dies nefasti). A comparison of surviving Roman religious calendars suggests that official festivals were organized according to broad seasonal groups that allowed for different local traditions. Some of the most ancient and popular festivals incorporated ludi ("games," such as chariot races and theatrical performances), with examples including those held at Palestrina in honour of Fortuna Primigenia during Compitalia, and the Ludi Romani in honour of Liber. Other festivals may have required only the presence and rites of their priests and acolytes, or particular groups, such as women at the Bona Dea rites.

How many religious celebrations did Rome have?

forty

What type of day were there more of in Rome?

sacred days

With what were Roman festivals organized in accordance?

seasonal

What traditions did the seasonal festivals incorporate?

local

Instead of the public, what did some religious rites only require?

particular groups


Other public festivals were not required by the calendar, but occasioned by events. The triumph of a Roman general was celebrated as the fulfillment of religious vows, though these tended to be overshadowed by the political and social significance of the event. During the late Republic, the political elite competed to outdo each other in public display, and the ludi attendant on a triumph were expanded to include gladiator contests. Under the Principate, all such spectacular displays came under Imperial control: the most lavish were subsidised by emperors, and lesser events were provided by magistrates as a sacred duty and privilege of office. Additional festivals and games celebrated Imperial accessions and anniversaries. Others, such as the traditional Republican Secular Games to mark a new era (saeculum), became imperially funded to maintain traditional values and a common Roman identity. That the spectacles retained something of their sacral aura even in late antiquity is indicated by the admonitions of the Church Fathers that Christians should not take part.

What type of festivals happened when events warranted them?

fulfillment of religious vows

What is an example of an event organized religious celebration?

The triumph

In what aspect of the festival did political figures try to out do each other?

public display

Under what auspices did public displays  come during the Principate?

Imperial

Who paid for the most lavish of festival events?

emperors


The meaning and origin of many archaic festivals baffled even Rome's intellectual elite, but the more obscure they were, the greater the opportunity for reinvention and reinterpretation — a fact lost neither on Augustus in his program of religious reform, which often cloaked autocratic innovation, nor on his only rival as mythmaker of the era, Ovid. In his Fasti, a long-form poem covering Roman holidays from January to June, Ovid presents a unique look at Roman antiquarian lore, popular customs, and religious practice that is by turns imaginative, entertaining, high-minded, and scurrilous; not a priestly account, despite the speaker's pose as a vates or inspired poet-prophet, but a work of description, imagination and poetic etymology that reflects the broad humor and burlesque spirit of such venerable festivals as the Saturnalia, Consualia, and feast of Anna Perenna on the Ides of March, where Ovid treats the assassination of the newly deified Julius Caesar as utterly incidental to the festivities among the Roman people. But official calendars preserved from different times and places also show a flexibility in omitting or expanding events, indicating that there was no single static and authoritative calendar of required observances. In the later Empire under Christian rule, the new Christian festivals were incorporated into the existing framework of the Roman calendar, alongside at least some of the traditional festivals.

What did obscure festivals offer Romans the opportunity to do?

reinterpretation

What did Augustus wish to do for Roman religion?

reform

What poet wrote a long poem describing Roman religious holidays?

Ovid

What was lacking in the presentation of religious events in Rome?

authoritative calendar

Under whose rule were new Christian festivals added to previous Roman holidays?

Christian


The Latin word templum originally referred not to the temple building itself, but to a sacred space surveyed and plotted ritually through augury: "The architecture of the ancient Romans was, from first to last, an art of shaping space around ritual." The Roman architect Vitruvius always uses the word templum to refer to this sacred precinct, and the more common Latin words aedes, delubrum, or fanum for a temple or shrine as a building. The ruins of temples are among the most visible monuments of ancient Roman culture.

Around what aspect did the Romans a lot space?

ritual

What religious practice did Rome use to determine ritual?

augury

What Roman word was used to refer to the scared precinct?

templum

What common Latin words were used to mean a shrine or building?

aedes, delubrum, or fanum

What monuments were the some of most visible of Roman culture?

temples


All sacrifices and offerings required an accompanying prayer to be effective. Pliny the Elder declared that "a sacrifice without prayer is thought to be useless and not a proper consultation of the gods." Prayer by itself, however, had independent power. The spoken word was thus the single most potent religious action, and knowledge of the correct verbal formulas the key to efficacy. Accurate naming was vital for tapping into the desired powers of the deity invoked, hence the proliferation of cult epithets among Roman deities. Public prayers (prex) were offered loudly and clearly by a priest on behalf of the community. Public religious ritual had to be enacted by specialists and professionals faultlessly; a mistake might require that the action, or even the entire festival, be repeated from the start. The historian Livy reports an occasion when the presiding magistrate at the Latin festival forgot to include the "Roman people" among the list of beneficiaries in his prayer; the festival had to be started over. Even private prayer by an individual was formulaic, a recitation rather than a personal expression, though selected by the individual for a particular purpose or occasion.

What did each offering require to be valid in Roman religion?

prayer

What did Pliny the Elder think that a sacrifice without prayer was?

useless

What act alone had power in Roman thought?

Prayer

What knowledge was of importance in the potency of prayer?

correct verbal formulas

What was missing in the formulas of prayer in Rome?

personal expression


Sacrifice to deities of the heavens (di superi, "gods above") was performed in daylight, and under the public gaze. Deities of the upper heavens required white, infertile victims of their own sex: Juno a white heifer (possibly a white cow); Jupiter a white, castrated ox (bos mas) for the annual oath-taking by the consuls. Di superi with strong connections to the earth, such as Mars, Janus, Neptune and various genii – including the Emperor's – were offered fertile victims. After the sacrifice, a banquet was held; in state cults, the images of honoured deities took pride of place on banqueting couches and by means of the sacrificial fire consumed their proper portion (exta, the innards). Rome's officials and priests reclined in order of precedence alongside and ate the meat; lesser citizens may have had to provide their own.

When did the sacrifices to the deities of the heavens occur?

daylight

What color was the sacrifice mandated to be for heaven deities?

white

What type of sacrifices were offered to gods with earth connections?

fertile

What event was held after the sacrifice?

banquet

Who ate the meat of the sacrifice during the after sacrifice  banquet?

officials and priests


Chthonic gods such as Dis pater, the di inferi ("gods below"), and the collective shades of the departed (di Manes) were given dark, fertile victims in nighttime rituals. Animal sacrifice usually took the form of a holocaust or burnt offering, and there was no shared banquet, as "the living cannot share a meal with the dead". Ceres and other underworld goddesses of fruitfulness were sometimes offered pregnant female animals; Tellus was given a pregnant cow at the Fordicidia festival. Color had a general symbolic value for sacrifices. Demigods and heroes, who belonged to the heavens and the underworld, were sometimes given black-and-white victims. Robigo (or Robigus) was given red dogs and libations of red wine at the Robigalia for the protection of crops from blight and red mildew.

When were the gods below and the dead celebrated?

nighttime

What type of sacrifice victims were the dark gods offered?

dark, fertile

How was the sacrifice to the gods below handled?

burnt offering

What daylight event was not celebrated after the dark sacrifice?

shared banquet

What feature had importance in sacrifices?

Color


The same divine agencies who caused disease or harm also had the power to avert it, and so might be placated in advance. Divine consideration might be sought to avoid the inconvenient delays of a journey, or encounters with banditry, piracy and shipwreck, with due gratitude to be rendered on safe arrival or return. In times of great crisis, the Senate could decree collective public rites, in which Rome's citizens, including women and children, moved in procession from one temple to the next, supplicating the gods.

What elements had the power of benefit or harm in Roman religion?

divine agencies

What kind of intervention could be sought to avoid disasters?

Divine

What was expected when the divine intervention benefited the patron?

gratitude

What act was decreed in times of crisis in Rome?

public rites

What was the point of public procession to the god's temples?

supplicating the gods


Extraordinary circumstances called for extraordinary sacrifice: in one of the many crises of the Second Punic War, Jupiter Capitolinus was promised every animal born that spring (see ver sacrum), to be rendered after five more years of protection from Hannibal and his allies. The "contract" with Jupiter is exceptionally detailed. All due care would be taken of the animals. If any died or were stolen before the scheduled sacrifice, they would count as already sacrificed, since they had already been consecrated. Normally, if the gods failed to keep their side of the bargain, the offered sacrifice would be withheld. In the imperial period, sacrifice was withheld following Trajan's death because the gods had not kept the Emperor safe for the stipulated period. In Pompeii, the Genius of the living emperor was offered a bull: presumably a standard practise in Imperial cult, though minor offerings (incense and wine) were also made.

What type of circumstances were called for in times of extreme difficulties?

Extraordinary

What offering was Jupiter promised during the Second Punic War?

every animal born

From whom was Rome asking for protection?

Hannibal

What happened to the sacrifice if the god failed to uphold the agreement?

withheld

What was the offering for the Emperor in Pompeii?

bull


 The exta were the entrails of a sacrificed animal, comprising in Cicero's enumeration the gall bladder (fel), liver (iecur), heart (cor), and lungs (pulmones). The exta were exposed for litatio (divine approval) as part of Roman liturgy, but were "read" in the context of the disciplina Etrusca. As a product of Roman sacrifice, the exta and blood are reserved for the gods, while the meat (viscera) is shared among human beings in a communal meal. The exta of bovine victims were usually stewed in a pot (olla or aula), while those of sheep or pigs were grilled on skewers. When the deity's portion was cooked, it was sprinkled with mola salsa (ritually prepared salted flour) and wine, then placed in the fire on the altar for the offering; the technical verb for this action was porricere.

What were the exta of a sacrifice?

entrails

How were the exta read in Roman religious practice?

disciplina Etrusca

What part of the sacrifice were reserved for the gods?

exta and blood

What part of the sacrifice was shared among humans?

meat

Into what was the god's portion of the sacrifice placed?

fire on the altar


Human sacrifice in ancient Rome was rare but documented. After the Roman defeat at Cannae two Gauls and two Greeks were buried under the Forum Boarium, in a stone chamber "which had on a previous occasion [228 BC] also been polluted by human victims, a practice most repulsive to Roman feelings". Livy avoids the word "sacrifice" in connection with this bloodless human life-offering; Plutarch does not. The rite was apparently repeated in 113 BC, preparatory to an invasion of Gaul. Its religious dimensions and purpose remain uncertain.

What type of sacrifice was rare in Rome?

Human

What act was repulsive to Romans?

Human sacrifice

How were sacrifices of humans carried out in Rome?

buried

Before the invasion of what area was human sacrifice carried out?

Gaul

When was the invasion of Gaul by Rome?

113 BC


In the early stages of the First Punic War (264 BC) the first known Roman gladiatorial munus was held, described as a funeral blood-rite to the manes of a Roman military aristocrat. The gladiator munus was never explicitly acknowledged as a human sacrifice, probably because death was not its inevitable outcome or purpose. Even so, the gladiators swore their lives to the infernal gods, and the combat was dedicated as an offering to the di manes or other gods. The event was therefore a sacrificium in the strict sense of the term, and Christian writers later condemned it as human sacrifice.

During what war was the first gladiator munus held?

First Punic War

How was the gladiatorial combat described?

funeral blood-rite

What was not the ultimate purpose of gladiatorial rites?

death

In what way was gladiatorial combat considered?

as an offering

How did later Christians view Gladiatorial combats?

human sacrifice


The small woolen dolls called Maniae, hung on the Compitalia shrines, were thought a symbolic replacement for child-sacrifice to Mania, as Mother of the Lares. The Junii took credit for its abolition by their ancestor L. Junius Brutus, traditionally Rome's Republican founder and first consul. Political or military executions were sometimes conducted in such a way that they evoked human sacrifice, whether deliberately or in the perception of witnesses; Marcus Marius Gratidianus was a gruesome example.

Who was the founder of the Roman Republic?

L. Junius Brutus

What were stand-ins for child sacrifices to Mania?

woolen dolls

Who was Mania in Roman religion?

Mother of the Lares

What leader was the first consul of the Roman Republic?

L. Junius Brutus

What acts were sometimes arranged so as to be sacrifices?

executions


Officially, human sacrifice was obnoxious "to the laws of gods and men." The practice was a mark of the "Other", attributed to Rome's traditional enemies such as the Carthaginians and Gauls. Rome banned it on several occasions under extreme penalty. A law passed in 81 BC characterised human sacrifice as murder committed for magical purposes. Pliny saw the ending of human sacrifice conducted by the druids as a positive consequence of the conquest of Gaul and Britain. Despite an empire-wide ban under Hadrian, human sacrifice may have continued covertly in North Africa and elsewhere.

What act did Romans view as obnoxious?

human sacrifice

To whom was human sacrifice usually attributed?

enemies

What did Rome do about human sacrifice?

banned it

As what  did the law of 81 BC view human sacrifice?

murder

What ruler banned human sacrifice empire wide?

Hadrian


A pater familias was the senior priest of his household. He offered daily cult to his lares and penates, and to his di parentes/divi parentes at his domestic shrines and in the fires of the household hearth. His wife (mater familias) was responsible for the household's cult to Vesta. In rural estates, bailiffs seem to have been responsible for at least some of the household shrines (lararia) and their deities. Household cults had state counterparts. In Vergil's Aeneid, Aeneas brought the Trojan cult of the lares and penates from Troy, along with the Palladium which was later installed in the temple of Vesta.

Who was the senior priest of the household in Rome?

pater familias

Which individual in the household was responsible for the Vesta cult?

wife

Which ancient hero brought the lares cult to Rome?

Aeneas

From what city did Aeneas bring the lares cult?

Troy

What was put in the temple of Vesta?

Palladium


Religious law centered on the ritualised system of honours and sacrifice that brought divine blessings, according to the principle do ut des ("I give, that you might give"). Proper, respectful religio brought social harmony and prosperity. Religious neglect was a form of atheism: impure sacrifice and incorrect ritual were vitia (impious errors). Excessive devotion, fearful grovelling to deities and the improper use or seeking of divine knowledge were superstitio. Any of these moral deviations could cause divine anger (ira deorum) and therefore harm the State. The official deities of the state were identified with its lawful offices and institutions, and Romans of every class were expected to honour the beneficence and protection of mortal and divine superiors. Participation in public rites showed a personal commitment to their community and its values.

On what kind of system was Roman religious law focused?

ritualised

What form of religion was atheism considered to be?

Religious neglect

What results did proper religious practices produce?

harmony and prosperity.

What could deviations from proper religious practices cause?

divine anger

What did participation in public religious rites show about the individual?

commitment


Official cults were state funded as a "matter of public interest" (res publica). Non-official but lawful cults were funded by private individuals for the benefit of their own communities. The difference between public and private cult is often unclear. Individuals or collegial associations could offer funds and cult to state deities. The public Vestals prepared ritual substances for use in public and private cults, and held the state-funded (thus public) opening ceremony for the Parentalia festival, which was otherwise a private rite to household ancestors. Some rites of the domus (household) were held in public places but were legally defined as privata in part or whole. All cults were ultimately subject to the approval and regulation of the censor and pontifices.

What organization payed for the maintenance official cults?

state

Who funded non-official religious cults?

private individuals

What group benefited from non- official cults?

own communities

What group presented the opening ceremonies of the Parentalia festival?

Vestals

What individuals had the right to regulate all cults?

censor and pontifices


Rome had no separate priestly caste or class. The highest authority within a community usually sponsored its cults and sacrifices, officiated as its priest and promoted its assistants and acolytes. Specialists from the religious colleges and professionals such as haruspices and oracles were available for consultation. In household cult, the paterfamilias functioned as priest, and members of his familia as acolytes and assistants. Public cults required greater knowledge and expertise. The earliest public priesthoods were probably the flamines (the singular is flamen), attributed to king Numa: the major flamines, dedicated to Jupiter, Mars and Quirinus, were traditionally drawn from patrician families. Twelve lesser flamines were each dedicated to a single deity, whose archaic nature is indicated by the relative obscurity of some. Flamines were constrained by the requirements of ritual purity; Jupiter's flamen in particular had virtually no simultaneous capacity for a political or military career.

What was lacking as to the profession of a priest class in Rome?

separate priestly caste

What authority in a community sponsored religious rites?

highest

What type of religious participants were available for consultation?

Specialists

Which member of a family functioned as priest?

paterfamilias

What were the earliest priesthoods?

flamines


In the Regal era, a rex sacrorum (king of the sacred rites) supervised regal and state rites in conjunction with the king (rex) or in his absence, and announced the public festivals. He had little or no civil authority. With the abolition of monarchy, the collegial power and influence of the Republican pontifices increased. By the late Republican era, the flamines were supervised by the pontifical collegia. The rex sacrorum had become a relatively obscure priesthood with an entirely symbolic title: his religious duties still included the daily, ritual announcement of festivals and priestly duties within two or three of the latter but his most important priestly role – the supervision of the Vestals and their rites – fell to the more politically powerful and influential pontifex maximus.

Who supervised sacred rites during the era of kings?

rex sacrorum

What type of authority did the rex sacrorum lack?

civil

What group's power increased after the rise of the Roman Republic?

Republican pontifices

What individual became more powerful during the late Republic?

pontifex maximus

By the late Republic, what position had become largely symbolic?

rex sacrorum


Public priests were appointed by the collegia. Once elected, a priest held permanent religious authority from the eternal divine, which offered him lifetime influence, privilege and immunity. Therefore, civil and religious law limited the number and kind of religious offices allowed an individual and his family. Religious law was collegial and traditional; it informed political decisions, could overturn them, and was difficult to exploit for personal gain. Priesthood was a costly honour: in traditional Roman practice, a priest drew no stipend. Cult donations were the property of the deity, whose priest must provide cult regardless of shortfalls in public funding – this could mean subsidy of acolytes and all other cult maintenance from personal funds. For those who had reached their goal in the Cursus honorum, permanent priesthood was best sought or granted after a lifetime's service in military or political life, or preferably both: it was a particularly honourable and active form of retirement which fulfilled an essential public duty. For a freedman or slave, promotion as one of the Compitalia seviri offered a high local profile, and opportunities in local politics; and therefore business. During the Imperial era, priesthood of the Imperial cult offered provincial elites full Roman citizenship and public prominence beyond their single year in religious office; in effect, it was the first step in a provincial cursus honorum. In Rome, the same Imperial cult role was performed by the Arval Brethren, once an obscure Republican priesthood dedicated to several deities, then co-opted by Augustus as part of his religious reforms. The Arvals offered prayer and sacrifice to Roman state gods at various temples for the continued welfare of the Imperial family on their birthdays, accession anniversaries and to mark extraordinary events such as the quashing of conspiracy or revolt. Every January 3 they consecrated the annual vows and rendered any sacrifice promised in the previous year, provided the gods had kept the Imperial family safe for the contracted time.

What group selected public priests in Rome?

collegia

What was the term of office for a priest in Rome?

lifetime

What limited an individual's access to religious offices?

law

Because of the lack of pay, what was the type of honor in being a priest?

costly

What did a priesthood in the Imperial cult gain a provencial?

Roman citizenship


The Vestals were a public priesthood of six women devoted to the cultivation of Vesta, goddess of the hearth of the Roman state and its vital flame. A girl chosen to be a Vestal achieved unique religious distinction, public status and privileges, and could exercise considerable political influence. Upon entering her office, a Vestal was emancipated from her father's authority. In archaic Roman society, these priestesses were the only women not required to be under the legal guardianship of a man, instead answering directly to the Pontifex Maximus.

How many Vestals were there in Rome?

six

Of what was Vesta the goddess?

hearth

Of what were the Vestals protectors?

vital flame

What was the benefit of being a Vestal?

political influence

To whom did the Vestal answer?

Pontifex Maximus