President Abraham Lincoln visited General Grant at Petersburg on April 3, and took a launch to Richmond the next day, while Jefferson Davis attempted to organize his Confederate government at Danville. Lincoln met Confederate assistant secretary of War John A. Campbell, and handed him a note inviting Virginia's legislature to end their rebellion. After Campbell spun the note to Confederate legislators as a possible end to the Emancipation Proclamation, Lincoln rescinded his offer and ordered General Weitzel to prevent the Confederate state legislature from meeting. Union forces killed, wounded or captured 8000 Confederate troops at Saylor's Creek southwest of Petersburg on April 6. General Lee continued to reject General Grant's surrender suggestion until Sheridan's infantry and cavalry appeared in front of his retreating army on April 8. He surrendered his remaining approximately 10000 troops at Appomattox Court House the following morning. Jefferson Davis retreated to North Carolina, then further south. when Lincoln rejected the surrender terms negotiated by general Sherman and envoys of North Carolina governor Zebulon Vance, which failed to mention slavery. Davis was captured on May 10 near Irwinville, Georgia and taken back to Virginia, where he was charged with treason and imprisoned for two years at Fort Monroe until freed on bail.

What was the date before the day Lincoln entered Richmond?

April 3

How many soldiers did Lee have remaining when he surrendered?

To what state did Davis travel after Lee surrendered?

North Carolina

In what structure did Lee surrender to Grant?

Appomattox Court House

How many years did Davis spend in Fort Monroe?

two


Richmond emerged a decade after the smoldering rubble of the Civil War to resume its position as an economic powerhouse, with iron front buildings and massive brick factories. Canal traffic peaked in the 1860s and slowly gave way to railroads, allowing Richmond to become a major railroad crossroads, eventually including the site of the world's first triple railroad crossing. Tobacco warehousing and processing continued to play a role, boosted by the world's first cigarette-rolling machine, invented by James Albert Bonsack of Roanoke in 1880/81. Contributing to Richmond's resurgence was the first successful electrically powered trolley system in the United States, the Richmond Union Passenger Railway. Designed by electric power pioneer Frank J. Sprague, the trolley system opened its first line in 1888, and electric streetcar lines rapidly spread to other cities across the country. Sprague's system used an overhead wire and trolley pole to collect current, with electric motors on the car's trucks. In Richmond, the transition from streetcars to buses began in May 1947 and was completed on November 25, 1949.

What mode of transportation took over from the canals?

railroads

What sort of railroad crossing was first built at Richmond?

triple

Who was the inventor of the cigarette-rolling machine?

James Albert Bonsack

From what city did James Bonsack originate?

Roanoke

What was the name of the first American trolley system powered by electricity?

Richmond Union Passenger Railway


By the beginning of the 20th century, the city's population had reached 85,050 in 5 square miles (13 km2), making it the most densely populated city in the Southern United States. In 1900, the Census Bureau reported Richmond's population as 62.1% white and 37.9% black. Freed slaves and their descendants created a thriving African-American business community, and the city's historic Jackson Ward became known as the "Wall Street of Black America." In 1903, African-American businesswoman and financier Maggie L. Walker chartered St. Luke Penny Savings Bank, and served as its first president, as well as the first female bank president in the United States. Today, the bank is called the Consolidated Bank and Trust Company, and it is the oldest surviving African-American bank in the U.S. Other figures from this time included John Mitchell, Jr. In 1910, the former city of Manchester was consolidated with the city of Richmond, and in 1914, the city annexed Barton Heights, Ginter Park, and Highland Park areas of Henrico County. In May 1914, Richmond became the headquarters of the Fifth District of the Federal Reserve Bank.

When the 1900s began, how many people lived in Richmond?

How many square kilometers was Richmond at the start of the 20th century?

What percentage of Richmond's 1900 population was African American?

What was another name for Richmond's Jackson Ward?

Wall Street of Black America

Who was the inaugural president of the St. Luke Penny Savings Bank?

Maggie L. Walker


Between 1963 and 1965, there was a "downtown boom" that led to the construction of more than 700 buildings in the city. In 1968, Virginia Commonwealth University was created by the merger of the Medical College of Virginia with the Richmond Professional Institute. In 1970, Richmond's borders expanded by an additional 27 square miles (70 km2) on the south. After several years of court cases in which Chesterfield County fought annexation, more than 47,000 people who once were Chesterfield County residents found themselves within the city's perimeters on January 1, 1970. In 1996, still-sore tensions arose amid controversy involved in placing a statue of African American Richmond native and tennis star Arthur Ashe to the famed series of statues of Confederate heroes of the Civil War on Monument Avenue. After several months of controversy, the bronze statue of Ashe was finally completed on Monument Avenue facing the opposite direction from the Confederate Heroes on July 10, 1996.

When did the so-called downtown boom in Richmond end?

About how many structures were built in Richmond during the downtown boom?

What combined with the Richmond Professional Institute to form Virginia Commonwealth University?

Medical College of Virginia

In what direction did Richmond's borders expand in 1970?

south

People of what county did not want to join Richmond circa 1970?

Chesterfield


Richmond is located at 37°32′N 77°28′W / 37.533°N 77.467°W / 37.533; -77.467 (37.538, −77.462). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 62 square miles (160 km2), of which 60 square miles (160 km2) is land and 2.7 square miles (7.0 km2) of it (4.3%) is water. The city is located in the Piedmont region of Virginia, at the highest navigable point of the James River. The Piedmont region is characterized by relatively low, rolling hills, and lies between the low, sea level Tidewater region and the Blue Ridge Mountains. Significant bodies of water in the region include the James River, the Appomattox River, and the Chickahominy River.

How many square kilometers is Richmond?

How many square miles of Richmond is water?

What percentage of Richmond is made up of water?

In which of Virginia's regions is Richmond?

Piedmont

Along with the James and the Chickahominy, what is a notable river in the area near Richmond?

Appomattox


Richmond's original street grid, laid out in 1737, included the area between what are now Broad, 17th, and 25th Streets and the James River. Modern Downtown Richmond is located slightly farther west, on the slopes of Shockoe Hill. Nearby neighborhoods include Shockoe Bottom, the historically significant and low-lying area between Shockoe Hill and Church Hill, and Monroe Ward, which contains the Jefferson Hotel. Richmond's East End includes neighborhoods like rapidly gentrifying Church Hill, home to St. John's Church, as well as poorer areas like Fulton, Union Hill, and Fairmont, and public housing projects like Mosby Court, Whitcomb Court, Fairfield Court, and Creighton Court closer to Interstate 64.

What neighborhood is located in between Church and Shockoe Hill?

Shockoe Bottom

What Richmond neighborhood is home to the Jefferson Hotel?

Monroe Ward

What neighborhood of Richmond contains St. John's Church?

Church Hill

What is Fairfield Court?

public housing projects

In what year was the Richmond street grid first developed?


The area between Belvidere Street, Interstate 195, Interstate 95, and the river, which includes Virginia Commonwealth University, is socioeconomically and architecturally diverse. North of Broad Street, the Carver and Newtowne West neighborhoods are demographically similar to neighboring Jackson Ward, with Carver experiencing some gentrification due to its proximity to VCU. The affluent area between the Boulevard, Main Street, Broad Street, and VCU, known as the Fan, is home to Monument Avenue, an outstanding collection of Victorian architecture, and many students. West of the Boulevard is the Museum District, the location of the Virginia Historical Society and the Virginia Museum of Fine Arts. South of the Downtown Expressway are Byrd Park, Maymont, Hollywood Cemetery, the predominantly black working class Randolph neighborhood, and white working class Oregon Hill. Cary Street between Interstate 195 and the Boulevard is a popular commercial area called Carytown.

The neighborhood of Newtowne West is north of what street?

Broad

Along with Newtowne West, to what neighborhood is Carver regarded as having comparable demographics?

Jackson Ward

What Richmond street contains a notable amount of Victorian buildings?

Monument Avenue

In what part of Richmond is the Virginia Museum of Fine Arts found?

Museum District

What is the primary race of the population of the Randolph neighborhood?

black


The portion of the city south of the James River is known as the Southside. Neighborhoods in the city's Southside area range from affluent and middle class suburban neighborhoods Westover Hills, Forest Hill, Southampton, Stratford Hills, Oxford, Huguenot Hills, Hobby Hill, and Woodland Heights to the impoverished Manchester and Blackwell areas, the Hillside Court housing projects, and the ailing Jefferson Davis Highway commercial corridor. Other Southside neighborhoods include Fawnbrook, Broad Rock, Cherry Gardens, Cullenwood, and Beaufont Hills. Much of Southside developed a suburban character as part of Chesterfield County before being annexed by Richmond, most notably in 1970.

What name is given to the part of Richmond located to the south of the James?

Southside

Along with the affluent, what is the socioeconomic class of the inhabitants of the Southside?

middle class

What notable public housing projects are present in the Southside?

Hillside Court

Prior to joining Richmond, what county was a significant portion of Southside part of?

Chesterfield

What is the economic status of the Manchester part of Richmond?

impoverished


Richmond has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa), with hot and humid summers and generally cool winters. The mountains to the west act as a partial barrier to outbreaks of cold, continental air in winter; Arctic air is delayed long enough to be modified, then further warmed as it subsides in its approach to Richmond. The open waters of the Chesapeake Bay and Atlantic Ocean contribute to the humid summers and mild winters. The coldest weather normally occurs from late December to early February, and the January daily mean temperature is 37.9 °F (3.3 °C), with an average of 6.0 days with highs at or below the freezing mark. Downtown areas straddle the border between USDA Hardiness zones 7B and 8A, and temperatures seldom lower to 0 °F (−18 °C), with the most recent subzero (°F) reading occurring on January 28, 2000, when the temperature reached −1 °F (−18 °C). The July daily mean temperature is 79.3 °F (26.3 °C), and high temperatures reach or exceed 90 °F (32 °C) approximately 43 days out of the year; while 100 °F (38 °C) temperatures are not uncommon, they do not occur every year. Extremes in temperature have ranged from −12 °F (−24 °C) on January 19, 1940 up to 107 °F (42 °C) on August 6, 1918.[a]

What is Richmond's Köppen climate classification?

Cfa

How could one characterize the winters in Richmond?

generally cool

What geographic feature keeps some cold inland air from reaching Richmond?

mountains

In what month of the year does Richmond's chilliest weather typically end?

February

About how many days a year does the temperature in Richmond go above 32 degrees Celsius?


Precipitation is rather uniformly distributed throughout the year. However, dry periods lasting several weeks do occur, especially in autumn when long periods of pleasant, mild weather are most common. There is considerable variability in total monthly amounts from year to year so that no one month can be depended upon to be normal. Snow has been recorded during seven of the twelve months. Falls of 3 inches (7.6 cm) or more within 24 hours occur an average once per year. Annual snowfall, however, is usually light, averaging 10.5 inches (27 cm) per season. Snow typically remains on the ground only one or two days at a time, but remained for 16 days in 2010 (January 30 to February 14). Ice storms (freezing rain or glaze) are not uncommon, but they are seldom severe enough to do any considerable damage.

What season in Richmond is most likely to see periods of dryness?

autumn

How many times does Richmond receive 7.6 centimeters or more of snow in a 24 hour period annually?

once

About how many centimeters of snow does Richmond experience in the fall?

During what span of 2010 did snowfall remain for a significant amount of time on the ground in Richmond?

January 30 to February 14

What types of ice storms sometimes hit Richmond?

freezing rain or glaze


The James River reaches tidewater at Richmond where flooding may occur in every month of the year, most frequently in March and least in July. Hurricanes and tropical storms have been responsible for most of the flooding during the summer and early fall months. Hurricanes passing near Richmond have produced record rainfalls. In 1955, three hurricanes brought record rainfall to Richmond within a six-week period. The most noteworthy of these were Hurricane Connie and Hurricane Diane that brought heavy rains five days apart. And in 2004, the downtown area suffered extensive flood damage after the remnants of Hurricane Gaston dumped up to 12 inches (300 mm) of rainfall.

What is the most likely month for the James to flood Richmond?

March

What month sees the lowest likelihood of the James flooding?

July

In 1955, Richmond was hit with three hurricanes in how many weeks?

six

In 1955, what two hurricanes occurred within a week of one another?

Hurricane Connie and Hurricane Diane

What hurricane hit Richmond in 2004?

Gaston


As of the census of 2000, there were 197,790 people, 84,549 households, and 43,627 families residing in the city. The population density was 3,292.6 people per square mile (1,271.3/km²). There were 92,282 housing units at an average density of 1,536.2 per square mile (593.1/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 38.3% White, 57.2% African American, 0.2% Native American, 1.3% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 1.5% from other races, and 1.5% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.6% of the population.

In 2000, how many families lived in Richmond?

As of 2000, how many people lived in Richmond per square kilometer?

What percentage of the Richmond population of 2000 was Pacific Islander?

What was the largest racial group in Richmond as of 2000?

African American

In 2000, what percentage of Richmond residents were multiracial?


During the late 1980s and early 1990s, Richmond experienced a spike in overall crime, in particular, the city's murder rate. The city had 93 murders for the year of 1985, with a murder rate of 41.9 killings committed per 100,000 residents. Over the next decade, the city saw a major increase in total homicides. In 1990 there were 114 murders, for a murder rate of 56.1 killings per 100,000 residents. There were 120 murders in 1995, resulting in a murder rate of 59.1 killings per 100,000 residents, one of the highest in the United States.

What crime notably increased in Richmond over the course of the 1980s?

murder

In 1985, how many people were murdered in Richmond?

How many people per 100,000 were murdered in Richmond in 1990?

How many murders occurred in Richmond in 1995?


Richmond has several historic churches. Because of its early English colonial history from the early 17th century to 1776, Richmond has a number of prominent Anglican/Episcopal churches including Monumental Church, St. Paul's Episcopal Church and St. John's Episcopal Church. Methodists and Baptists made up another section of early churches, and First Baptist Church of Richmond was the first of these, established in 1780. In the Reformed church tradition, the first Presbyterian Church in the City of Richmond was First Presbyterian Church, organized on June 18, 1812. On February 5, 1845, Second Presbyterian Church of Richmond was founded, which was a historic church where Stonewall Jackson attended and was the first Gothic building and the first gas-lit church to be built in Richmond. St. Peter's Church was dedicated and became the first Catholic church in Richmond on May 25, 1834. The city is also home to the historic Cathedral of the Sacred Heart which is the motherchurch for the Roman Catholic Diocese of Richmond.

What is the oldest Presbyterian church in Richmond?

First Presbyterian Church

Who was a notable congregant at Second Presbyterian Church?

Stonewall Jackson

What architectural style was Second Presbyterian Church built in?

Gothic

On what date did the oldest Catholic church open in Richmond?

May 25, 1834

In what year was Richmond's First Baptist Church founded?


The first Jewish congregation in Richmond was Kahal Kadosh Beth Shalom. Kahal Kadosh Beth Shalom was the sixth congregation in the United States. By 1822 K.K. Beth Shalom members worshipped in the first synagogue building in Virginia. They eventually merged with Congregation Beth Ahabah, an offshoot of Beth Shalom. There are two Orthodox Synagogues, Keneseth Beth Israel and Chabad of Virginia. There is an Orthodox Yeshivah K–12 school system known as Rudlin Torah academy, which also includes a post high-school program. There are two Conservative synagogues, Beth El and Or Atid. There are three Reform synagogues, Bonay Kodesh, Beth Ahabah and Or Ami. Along with such religious congregations, there are a variety of other Jewish charitable, educational and social service institutions, each serving the Jewish and general communities. These include the Weinstein Jewish Community Center, Jewish Family Services, Jewish Community Federation of Richmond and Richmond Jewish Foundation.

Along with Chabad of Virginia, what is the other Orthodox synagogue in Richmond?

Keneseth Beth Israel

What grades does the Rudlin Torah academy serve?

What sect of Judaism is Rudlin Torah affiliated with?

Orthodox

What are the names of the Conservative synagogues in Richmond?

Beth El and Or Atid

How many synagogues in the Reform tradition are present in Richmond?

three


There are seven current masjids in the Greater Richmond area, with three more currently in construction, accommodating the growing Muslim population, the first one being Masjid Bilal. In the 1950s, Muslims from the East End got organized under Nation of Islam (NOI). They used to meet in Temple #24 located on North Avenue. After the NOI split in 1975, the Muslims who joined mainstream Islam, start meeting at Shabaaz Restaurant on Nine Mile Road. By 1976, the Muslims used to meet in a rented church. They tried to buy this church, but due to financial difficulties the Muslims instead bought an old grocery store at Chimbarazoo Boulevard, the present location of Masjid Bilal. Initially, the place was called "Masjid Muhammad #24". Only by 1990 did the Muslims renamed it to "Masjid Bilal". Masjid Bilal was followed by the Islamic Center of Virginia, ICVA masjid. The ICVA was established in 1973 as a non profit tax exempt organization. With aggressive fundraising, ICVA was able to buy land on Buford road. Construction of the new masjid began in the early 1980s. The rest of the five current masjids in the Richmond area are Islamic Center of Richmond (ICR) in the west end, Masjid Umm Barakah on 2nd street downtown, Islamic Society of Greater Richmond (ISGR) in the west end, Masjidullah in the north side, and Masjid Ar-Rahman in the east end.

Where did Richmond's Nation of Islam members initially meet?

Temple #24

On what street is Masjid Bilal located?

Chimbarazoo Boulevard

What was Masjid Bilal previously known as?

Masjid Muhammad #24

What year saw the establishment of the Islamic Center of Virginia?

On what street can Shabaaz Restaurant be found?

Nine Mile Road


Hinduism is actively practiced, particularly in suburban areas of Henrico and Chesterfield. Some 6,000 families of Indian descent resided in the Richmond Region as of 2011. Hindus are served by several temples and cultural centers. The two most familiar are the Cultural Center of India (CCI) located off of Iron Bridge Road in Chesterfield County and the Hindu Center of Virginia in Henrico County which has garnered national fame and awards for being the first LEED certified religious facility in the commonwealth.

How many Indian-descended families lived in or around Richmond in 2011?

What does CCI stand for?

Cultural Center of India

In what county can CCI be found?

Chesterfield

What road is CCI near?

Iron Bridge

Along with CCI, what is the other Hindu gathering place near Richmond?

Hindu Center of Virginia


Law and finance have long been driving forces in the economy. The city is home to both the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit, one of 13 United States courts of appeals, and the Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond, one of 12 Federal Reserve Banks, as well as offices for international companies such as Genworth Financial, CapitalOne, Philip Morris USA, and numerous other banks and brokerages. Richmond is also home to four of the largest law firms in the United States: Hunton & Williams, McGuireWoods, Williams Mullen, and LeClairRyan. Another law firm with a major Richmond presence is Troutman Sanders, which merged with Richmond-based Mays & Valentine LLP in 2001.

What federal court is located in Richmond?

United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit

Along with Philip Morris and CapitalOne, what prominent corporation is present in Richmond?

Genworth Financial

What type of business is LeClairRyan?

law firms

When did the Troutman Sanders-Mays & Valentine LLP merger occur?

How many Federal Reserve Banks exist in the United States?


Richmond is home to the rapidly developing Virginia BioTechnology Research Park, which opened in 1995 as an incubator facility for biotechnology and pharmaceutical companies. Located adjacent to the Medical College of Virginia (MCV) Campus of Virginia Commonwealth University, the park currently[when?] has more than 575,000 square feet (53,400 m2) of research, laboratory and office space for a diverse tenant mix of companies, research institutes, government laboratories and non-profit organizations. The United Network for Organ Sharing, which maintains the nation's organ transplant waiting list, occupies one building in the park. Philip Morris USA opened a $350 million research and development facility in the park in 2007. Once fully developed, park officials expect the site to employ roughly 3,000 scientists, technicians and engineers.

How many square meters of space does Virginia BioTechnology Research Park consist of?

What does the United Network for Organ Sharing do?

maintains the nation's organ transplant waiting list

What was the cost of the Philip Morris R&D facility opened at the Virginia BioTechnology Research Park?

$350 million

When did Philip Morris' R&D facility open?

What Virginia Commonwealth University campus is near Virginia BioTechnology Research Park?

Medical College of Virginia


Richmond is also fast-becoming known for its food scene, with several restaurants in the Fan, Church Hill, Jackson Ward and elsewhere around the city generating regional and national attention for their fare. Departures magazine named Richmond "The Next Great American Food City" in August 2014. Also in 2014, Southern Living magazine named three Richmond restaurants – Comfort, Heritage and The Roosevelt – among its "100 Best Restaurants in the South", while Metzger Bar & Butchery made its "Best New Restaurants: 12 To Watch" list. Craft beer and liquor production is also growing in the River City, with twelve micro-breweries in city proper; the oldest is Legend Brewery, founded in 1994. Three distilleries, Reservoir Distillery, Belle Isle Craft Spirits and James River Distillery, were established in 2010, 2013 and 2014, respectively.

What periodical called Richmond "The Next Great American Food City"?

Departures magazine

According to Southern Living, what are the three best restaurants in Richmond?

Comfort, Heritage and The Roosevelt

How many microbreweries exist in Richmond?

twelve

What was the first microbrewery to set up shop in Richmond?

Legend Brewery

When was James River Distillery founded?


Additionally, Richmond is gaining attention from the film and television industry, with several high-profile films shot in the metro region in the past few years, including the major motion picture Lincoln which led to Daniel Day-Lewis's third Oscar, Killing Kennedy with Rob Lowe, airing on the National Geographic Channel and Turn, starring Jamie Bell and airing on AMC. In 2015 Richmond will be the main filming location for the upcoming PBS drama series Mercy Street, which will premiere in Winter 2016. Several organizations, including the Virginia Film Office and the Virginia Production Alliance, along with events like the Richmond International Film Festival and French Film Festival, continue to put draw supporters of film and media to the region.

What movie, which filmed in Richmond, featured Daniel Day-Lewis?

Lincoln

Who notably appeared in Killing Kennedy?

Rob Lowe

On what television channel can the show Turn be seen?

AMC

When will Mercy Street first be shown on television?

Winter 2016

What channel is Killing Kennedy on?

National Geographic Channel


The Greater Richmond area was named the third-best city for business by MarketWatch in September 2007, ranking behind only the Minneapolis and Denver areas and just above Boston. The area is home to six Fortune 500 companies: electric utility Dominion Resources; CarMax; Owens & Minor; Genworth Financial; MeadWestvaco; McKesson Medical-Surgical and Altria Group. However, only Dominion Resources and MeadWestvaco are headquartered within the city of Richmond; the others are located in the neighboring counties of Henrico and Hanover. In 2008, Altria moved its corporate HQ from New York City to Henrico County, adding another Fortune 500 corporation to Richmond's list. In February 2006, MeadWestvaco announced that they would move from Stamford, Connecticut, to Richmond in 2008 with the help of the Greater Richmond Partnership, a regional economic development organization that also helped locate Aditya Birla Minacs, Amazon.com, and Honeywell International, to the region.

According to MarketWatch, where did Richmond rank among cities for business?

third

What did MarketWatch think was the fourth best city for business?

Boston

What type of business is Dominion Resources?

electric utility

Prior to moving to the Richmond area, where was Altria's headquarters located?

New York City

What company moved to Richmond from Connecticut?

MeadWestvaco


Other Fortune 500 companies, while not headquartered in the area, do have a major presence. These include SunTrust Bank (based in Atlanta), Capital One Financial Corporation (officially based in McLean, Virginia, but founded in Richmond with its operations center and most employees in the Richmond area), and the medical and pharmaceutical giant McKesson (based in San Francisco). Capital One and Altria company's Philip Morris USA are two of the largest private Richmond-area employers. DuPont maintains a production facility in South Richmond known as the Spruance Plant. UPS Freight, the less-than-truckload division of UPS and formerly known as Overnite Transportation, has its corporate headquarters in Richmond.

Where is SunTrust Bank headquartered?

Atlanta

What city is the headquarters of McKesson located in?

San Francisco

Who owns Philip Morris USA?

Altria

What DuPont factory is located in the Richmond area?

Spruance Plant

What was the former name of UPS Freight?

Overnite Transportation


Several of the city's large general museums are located near the Boulevard. On Boulevard proper are the Virginia Historical Society and the Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, lending their name to what is sometimes called the Museum District. Nearby on Broad Street is the Science Museum of Virginia, housed in the neoclassical former 1919 Broad Street Union Station. Immediately adjacent is the Children's Museum of Richmond, and two blocks away, the Virginia Center for Architecture. Within the downtown are the Library of Virginia and the Valentine Richmond History Center. Elsewhere are the Virginia Holocaust Museum and the Old Dominion Railway Museum.

What architectural style was the 1919 Broad Street Union Station constructed in?

neoclassical

How far away from the Virginia Center for Architecture is the Children's Museum of Richmond?

two blocks

What district of Richmond is the Virginia Historical Society located in?

Museum District

What museum is next to the Science Museum of Virginia?

Children's Museum of Richmond


As the primary former Capital of the Confederate States of America, Richmond is home to many museums and battlefields of the American Civil War. Near the riverfront is the Richmond National Battlefield Park Visitors Center and the American Civil War Center at Historic Tredegar, both housed in the former buildings of the Tredegar Iron Works, where much of the ordnance for the war was produced. In Court End, near the Virginia State Capitol, is the Museum of the Confederacy, along with the Davis Mansion, also known as the White House of the Confederacy; both feature a wide variety of objects and material from the era. The temporary home of former Confederate General Robert E. Lee still stands on Franklin Street in downtown Richmond. The history of slavery and emancipation are also increasingly represented: there is a former slave trail along the river that leads to Ancarrow's Boat Ramp and Historic Site which has been developed with interpretive signage, and in 2007, the Reconciliation Statue was placed in Shockoe Bottom, with parallel statues placed in Liverpool and Benin representing points of the Triangle Trade.

In what former industrial facility is the Richmond National Battlefield Park Visitors Center located?

Tredegar Iron Works

What government building is the Museum of the Confederacy located near?

Virginia State Capitol

What is another name for the Davis Mansion?

White House of the Confederacy

On what Richmond street did General Lee live for a while?

Franklin

Where are the Reconciliation Statues outside Richmond located?

Liverpool and Benin


Other historical points of interest include St. John's Church, the site of Patrick Henry's famous "Give me liberty or give me death" speech, and the Edgar Allan Poe Museum, features many of his writings and other artifacts of his life, particularly when he lived in the city as a child, a student, and a successful writer. The John Marshall House, the home of the former Chief Justice of the United States, is also located downtown and features many of his writings and objects from his life. Hollywood Cemetery is the burial grounds of two U.S. Presidents as well as many Civil War officers and soldiers.

What office was held by the inhabitant of the John Marshall House?

Chief Justice of the United States

How many United States presidents are interred in Hollywood Cemetery?

two

Who gave a speech that contained the famous saying "Give me liberty or give me death"?

Patrick Henry

Where did Patrick Henry deliver his memorable speech?

St. John's Church


The city is home to many monuments and memorials, most notably those along Monument Avenue. Other monuments include the A.P. Hill monument, the Bill "Bojangles" Robinson monument in Jackson Ward, the Christopher Columbus monument near Byrd Park, and the Confederate Soldiers and Sailors Monument on Libby Hill. Located near Byrd Park is the famous World War I Memorial Carillon, a 56-bell carillon tower. Dedicated in 1956, the Virginia War Memorial is located on Belvedere overlooking the river, and is a monument to Virginians who died in battle in World War II, the Korean War, the Vietnam War, the Gulf War, the War in Afghanistan, and the Iraq War.

What was the nickname of Bill Robinson?

Bojangles

Near what park is the monument dedicated to the person traditionally regarded as discovering America?

Byrd

How many bells are contained in the World War I Memorial Carillon?

The dead of what war were the first to be commemorated by the Virginia War Memorial?

World War II

In what neighborhood is the monument to Bill Robinson located?

Jackson Ward


Richmond has a significant arts community, some of which is contained in formal public-supported venues, and some of which is more DIY, such as local privately owned galleries, and private music venues, nonprofit arts organizations, or organic and venueless arts movements (e.g., house shows, busking, itinerant folk shows). This has led to tensions, as the city Richmond City levied an "admissions tax" to fund large arts projects like CentreStage, leading to criticism that it is funding civic initiatives on the backs of the organic local culture. Traditional Virginian folk music, including blues, country, and bluegrass are also notably present, and play a large part in the annual Richmond Folk Festival. The following is a list of the more formal arts establishments (Companies, theaters, galleries, and other large venues) in Richmond:

What notable project was funded by Richmond's "admissions tax"?

CentreStage

Along with blues and bluegrass, what is a type of folk music traditional to Virginia?

country

Along with busking and itinerant folk shows, what is an example of venueless art?

house shows


As of 2015 a variety of murals from internationally recognized street artists have appeared throughout the city as a result of the efforts of Art Whino and RVA Magazine with The Richmond Mural Project and the RVA Street Art Festival. Artists who have produced work in the city as a result of these festivals include ROA, Pixel Pancho, Gaia, Aryz, Alexis Diaz, Ever Siempre, Jaz, 2501, Natalia Rak, Pose MSK, Vizie, Jeff Soto, Mark Jenkins, Etam Cru- and local artists Hamilton Glass, Nils Westergard, and El Kamino. Both festivals are expected to continue this year with artists such as Ron English slated to produce work.

Along with Hamilton Glass and El Kamino, who is a mural artist local to Richmond?

Nils Westergard

What periodical has attempted to attract internationally known mural artists to Richmond?

RVA

What Richmond street art gathering has brought mural artists to the city?

RVA Street Art Festival


From earliest days, Virginia, and Richmond in particular, have welcomed live theatrical performances. From Lewis Hallam's early productions of Shakespeare in Williamsburg, the focus shifted to Richmond's antebellum prominence as a main colonial and early 19th century performance venue for such celebrated American and English actors as William Macready, Edwin Forrest, and the Booth family. In the 20th century, Richmonders' love of theater continued with many amateur troupes and regular touring professional productions. In the 1960s a small renaissance or golden age accompanied the growth of professional dinner theaters and the fostering of theater by the Virginia Museum, reaching a peak in the 1970s with the establishment of a resident Equity company at the Virginia Museum Theater (now the Leslie Cheek) and the birth of Theatre IV, a company that continues to this day.

In what city did Lewis Hallam present Shakespeare's plays?

Williamsburg

What family of actors notably performed in 19th century Richmond?

Booth

What is Virginia Museum Theater known as today?

Leslie Cheek

During what decade did the Virginia Museum most significantly work to promote theater in Richmond?


Much of Richmond's early architecture was destroyed by the Evacuation Fire in 1865. It is estimated that 25% of all buildings in Richmond were destroyed during this fire. Even fewer now remain due to construction and demolition that has taken place since Reconstruction. In spite of this, Richmond contains many historically significant buildings and districts. Buildings remain from Richmond's colonial period, such as the Patteson-Schutte House and the Edgar Allan Poe Museum (Richmond, Virginia), both built before 1750.

What disaster destroyed many of the early buildings in Richmond?

Evacuation Fire

What percentage of Richmond's buildings were burned in a single fire in 1865?

Prior to what year was the Patterson-Schutte House built?

What is the name of the era from which the building housing the Edgar Allan Poe Museum dates?

colonial


Architectural classicism is heavily represented in all districts of the city, particularly in Downtown, the Fan, and the Museum District. Several notable classical architects have designed buildings in Richmond. The Virginia State Capitol was designed by Thomas Jefferson and Charles-Louis Clérisseau in 1785. It is the second-oldest US statehouse in continuous use (after Maryland's) and was the first US government building built in the neo-classical style of architecture, setting the trend for other state houses and the federal government buildings (including the White House and The Capitol) in Washington, D.C. Robert Mills designed Monumental Church on Broad Street. Adjoining it is the 1845 Egyptian Building, one of the few Egyptian Revival buildings in the United States.

What state has the oldest capital building used continuously since it was built?

Maryland

What architectural style was used to design the Virginia State Capitol?

neo-classical

What notable federal government buildings were designed in the neoclassical style?

White House and The Capitol

What is the architectural style of the 1845 Egyptian Building?

Egyptian Revival

Who were the designers of the Virginia State Capitol?

Thomas Jefferson and Charles-Louis Clérisseau


The firm of John Russell Pope designed Broad Street Station as well as Branch House on Monument Avenue, designed as a private residence in the Tudor style, now serving as the Branch Museum of Architecture and Design. Broad Street Station (or Union Station), designed in the Beaux-Arts style, is no longer a functioning station but is now home to the Science Museum of Virginia. Main Street Station, designed by Wilson, Harris, and Richards, has been returned to use in its original purpose. The Jefferson Hotel and the Commonwealth Club were both designed by the classically trained Beaux-Arts architects Carrère and Hastings. Many buildings on the University of Richmond campus, including Jeter Hall and Ryland Hall, were designed by Ralph Adams Cram, most famous for his Princeton University Chapel and the Cathedral of Saint John the Divine.

What architectural style was used to design Branch House?

Tudor

Who designed Branch House?

John Russell Pope

What is another name for Broad Street Station?

Union Station

What style of architecture was used in the design of Union Station?

Beaux-Arts

Who designed the Commonwealth Club?

Carrère and Hastings


Among Richmond's most interesting architectural features is its Cast-iron architecture. Second only to New Orleans in its concentration of cast iron work, the city is home to a unique collection of cast iron porches, balconies, fences, and finials. Richmond's position as a center of iron production helped to fuel its popularity within the city. At the height of production in the 1890, 25 foundries operated in the city employing nearly 3,500 metal workers. This number is seven times the number of general construction workers being employed in Richmond at the time which illustrates the importance of its iron exports. Porches and fences in urban neighborhoods such as Jackson Ward, Church Hill, and Monroe Ward are particularly elaborate, often featuring ornate iron casts never replicated outside of Richmond. In some cases cast were made for a single residential or commercial application.

What United States city has the most cast iron architecture?

New Orleans

In what year did iron production in Richmond peak?

How many more iron workers than construction workers were being employed in Richmond in 1890?

seven times

Along with Jackson and Monroe Wards, what neighborhood notably features cast-iron fences?

Church Hill


Richmond is home to several notable instances of various styles of modernism. Minoru Yamasaki designed the Federal Reserve Building which dominates the downtown skyline. The architectural firm of Skidmore, Owings & Merrill has designed two buildings: the Library of Virginia and the General Assembly Offices at the Eighth and Main Building. Philip Johnson designed the WRVA Building. The Richard Neutra-designed Rice House, a residence on a private island on the James River, remains Richmond's only true International Style home. The W.G. Harris residence in Richmond was designed by famed early modern architect and member of the Harvard Five, Landis Gores. Other notable architects to have worked in the city include Rick Mather, I.M. Pei, and Gordon Bunshaft.

Who was the designer of the Federal Reserve Building?

Minoru Yamasaki

Who designed the General Assembly Offices at the Eighth and Main Building?

Skidmore, Owings & Merrill

What architectural style was the Rice House designed in?

International

What university was Landis Gores associated with?

Harvard

Who did Landis Gores design a home for?

W.G. Harris


There are also parks on two major islands in the river: Belle Isle and Brown's Island. Belle Isle, at various former times a Powhatan fishing village, colonial-era horse race track, and Civil War prison camp, is the larger of the two, and contains many bike trails as well as a small cliff that is used for rock climbing instruction. One can walk the island and still see many of the remains of the Civil War prison camp, such as an arms storage room and a gun emplacement that was used to quell prisoner riots. Brown's Island is a smaller island and a popular venue of a large number of free outdoor concerts and festivals in the spring and summer, such as the weekly Friday Cheers concert series or the James River Beer and Seafood Festival.

What Native American tribe at one time lived on Belle Isle?

Powhatan

During what conflict was Belle Isle used as a prison?

Civil War

Between Brown's Island and Belle Isle, which is bigger?

Belle Isle

On what island does the James River Beer and Seafood Festival take place?

Brown's Island

How often does Friday Cheers take place on Brown's Island?

weekly


Two other major parks in the city along the river are Byrd Park and Maymont, located near the Fan District. Byrd Park features a one-mile (1.6 km) running track, with exercise stops, a public dog park, and a number of small lakes for small boats, as well as two monuments, Buddha house, and an amphitheatre. Prominently featured in the park is the World War I Memorial Carillon, built in 1926 as a memorial to those that died in the war. Maymont, located adjacent to Byrd Park, is a 100-acre (40 ha) Victorian estate with a museum, formal gardens, native wildlife exhibits, nature center, carriage collection, and children's farm. Other parks in the city include Joseph Bryan Park Azalea Garden, Forest Hill Park (former site of the Forest Hill Amusement Park), Chimborazo Park (site of the National Battlefield Headquarters), among others.

What part of Richmond is Maymont close to?

Fan District

How many kilometers long is the track in Byrd Park?

How many monuments can be found in Byrd Park?

two

In what year was the World War I Memorial Carillon constructed?

What was previously located at the present location of Forest Hill Park?

Forest Hill Amusement Park


Richmond is not home to any major league professional sports teams, but since 2013, the Washington Redskins of the National Football League have held their summer training camp in the city. There are also several minor league sports in the city, including the Richmond Kickers of the USL Professional Division (third tier of American soccer) and the Richmond Flying Squirrels of the Class AA Eastern League of Minor League Baseball (an affiliate of the San Francisco Giants). The Kickers began playing in Richmond in 1993, and currently play at City Stadium. The Squirrels opened their first season at The Diamond on April 15, 2010. From 1966 through 2008, the city was home to the Richmond Braves, a AAA affiliate of the Atlanta Braves of Major League Baseball, until the franchise relocated to Georgia.

What sport do the Washington Redskins play?

Football

What sport do the Richmond Kickers compete in?

soccer

With what Major League Baseball team are the Richmond Flying Squirrels associated?

San Francisco Giants

What is the home ground of the Richmond Kickers?

City Stadium

Where did the Richmond Braves move to?

Georgia


Auto racing is also popular in the area. The Richmond International Raceway (RIR) has hosted NASCAR Sprint Cup races since 1953, as well as the Capital City 400 from 1962 − 1980. RIR also hosted IndyCar's Suntrust Indy Challenge from 2001 − 2009. Another track, Southside Speedway, has operated since 1959 and sits just southwest of Richmond in Chesterfield County. This .333-mile (0.536 km) oval short-track has become known as the "Toughest Track in the South" and "The Action Track", and features weekly stock car racing on Friday nights. Southside Speedway has acted as the breeding grounds for many past NASCAR legends including Richard Petty, Bobby Allison and Darrell Waltrip, and claims to be the home track of NASCAR superstar Denny Hamlin.

When did the RIR begin to host the Capital City 400?

When did the Suntrust Indy Challenge stop being run at RIR?

In what direction does one travel from Richmond to reach Southside Speedway?

southwest

What is the shape of Southside Speedway?

oval

Along with "The Action Track," what is a nickname of Southside Speedway?

Toughest Track in the South


The Richmond Times-Dispatch, the local daily newspaper in Richmond with a Sunday circulation of 120,000, is owned by BH Media, a subsidiary of Warren Buffett's Berkshire Hathaway company. Style Weekly is a standard weekly publication covering popular culture, arts, and entertainment, owned by Landmark Communications. RVA Magazine is the city's only independent art music and culture publication, was once monthly, but is now issued quarterly. The Richmond Free Press and the Voice cover the news from an African-American perspective.

What company owns the company that owns the Richmond Times-Dispatch?

Berkshire Hathaway

How many people buy the Richmond Times-Dispatch on Sunday?

What newspaper is published by Landmark Communications?

Style Weekly

Before switching to its current publication schedule, how often was RVA Magazine published?

monthly

Along with the Voice, what is Richmond's black-oriented news publication?

Richmond Free Press


The Richmond metro area is served by many local television and radio stations. As of 2010[update], the Richmond-Petersburg designated market area (DMA) is the 58th largest in the U.S. with 553,950 homes according to Nielsen Market Research. The major network television affiliates are WTVR-TV 6 (CBS), WRIC-TV 8 (ABC), WWBT 12 (NBC), WRLH-TV 35 (Fox), and WUPV 65 (CW). Public Broadcasting Service stations include WCVE-TV 23 and WCVW 57. There are also a wide variety of radio stations in the Richmond area, catering to many different interests, including news, talk radio, and sports, as well as an eclectic mix of musical interests.

Per Nielsen, how many homes exist in the Richmond-Petersburg DMA?

Where does the Richmind-Petersburg DMA rank in the United States?

With what network is WUPV 65 affiliated?

CW

What type of channel is WCVW 57?

Public Broadcasting

What Richmond-area station is affiliated with CBS?

WTVR-TV 6


Richmond city government consists of a city council with representatives from nine districts serving in a legislative and oversight capacity, as well as a popularly elected, at-large mayor serving as head of the executive branch. Citizens in each of the nine districts elect one council representative each to serve a four-year term. Beginning with the November 2008 election Council terms was lengthened to 4 years. The city council elects from among its members one member to serve as Council President and one to serve as Council Vice President. The city council meets at City Hall, located at 900 E. Broad St., 2nd Floor, on the second and fourth Mondays of every month, except August.

How many representatives make up the Richmond city council?

nine

What official is in charge of Richmond's executive branch?

mayor

How many years does the term of a Richmond city council representative last?

four

On what day of the week does the city council meet?

Mondays

In what month does the city council not meet?

August


In 1990 religion and politics intersected to impact the outcome of the Eighth District election in South Richmond. With the endorsements of black power brokers, black clergy and the Richmond Crusade for Voters, South Richmond residents made history, electing Reverend A. Carl Prince to the Richmond City Council. As the first African American Baptist Minister elected to the Richmond City Council, Prince's election paved the way for a political paradigm shift in politics that persist today. Following Prince's election, Reverend Gwendolyn Hedgepeth and the Reverend Leonidas Young, former Richmond Mayor were elected to public office. Prior to Prince's election black clergy made political endorsements and served as appointees to the Richmond School Board and other boards throughout the city. Today religion and politics continues to thrive in the Commonwealth of Virginia. The Honorable Dwight C. Jones, a prominent Baptist pastor and former Chairman of the Richmond School Board and Member of the Virginia House of Delegates serves as Mayor of the City of Richmond.

What is A. Carl Prince's religious affiliation?

Baptist

What is the current mayor of Richmond?

Dwight C. Jones

In what year was the first black Baptist minister elected to the city council?

In what district did A. Carl Prince win election to the city council?

Eighth

What political organization supported the city council candidacy of A. Carl Prince?

Richmond Crusade for Voters


The city of Richmond operates 28 elementary schools, nine middle schools, and eight high schools, serving a total student population of 24,000 students. There is one Governor's School in the city − the Maggie L. Walker Governor's School for Government and International Studies. In 2008, it was named as one of Newsweek magazine's 18 "public elite" high schools, and in 2012, it was rated #16 of America's best high schools overall. Richmond's public school district also runs one of Virginia's four public charter schools, the Patrick Henry School of Science and Arts, which was founded in 2010.

How many high schools are there in Richmond?

eight

How many primary and secondary school students attend school in Richmond?

For whom is the Governor's School in Richmond named?

Maggie L. Walker

Where was Richmond's Governor's School rated by Newsweek in 2012?

When did Patrick Henry School of Science and Arts open its doors?


The Richmond area has many major institutions of higher education, including Virginia Commonwealth University (public), University of Richmond (private), Virginia Union University (private), Virginia College (private), South University - Richmond (private, for-profit), Union Theological Seminary & Presbyterian School of Christian Education (private), and the Baptist Theological Seminary in Richmond (BTSR—private). Several community colleges are found in the metro area, including J. Sargeant Reynolds Community College and John Tyler Community College (Chesterfield County). In addition, there are several Technical Colleges in Richmond including ITT Technical Institute, ECPI College of Technology and Centura College. There are several vocational colleges also, such as Fortis College and Bryant Stratton College.

What type of university is the University of Richmond?

private

What is a for-profit university in Richmond?

South University - Richmond

What does BTSR stand for?

Baptist Theological Seminary in Richmond

Where is John Tyler Community College located?

Chesterfield County

What is Richmond's public university?

Virginia Commonwealth


The Greater Richmond area is served by the Richmond International Airport (IATA: RIC, ICAO: KRIC), located in nearby Sandston, seven miles (11 km) southeast of Richmond and within an hour drive of historic Williamsburg, Virginia. Richmond International is now served by nine airlines with over 200 daily flights providing non-stop service to major destination markets and connecting flights to destinations worldwide. A record 3.3 million passengers used Richmond International Airport in 2006, a 13% increase over 2005.

How many kilometers away from Richmond is Richmond International Airport?

About how long does it take to drive from Richmond International Airport to Williamsburg?

an hour

How many airlines operate out of Richmond International?

nine

What percentage increase in passenger traffic did Richmond International experience between 2005 and 2006?

What direction do you travel to get from Richmond to Sandston?

southeast


Richmond is a major hub for intercity bus company Greyhound Lines, with its terminal at 2910 N Boulevard. Multiple runs per day connect directly with Washington, D.C., New York, Raleigh, and elsewhere. Direct trips to New York take approximately 7.5 hours. Discount carrier Megabus also provides curbside service from outside of Main Street Station, with fares starting at $1. Direct service is available to Washington, D.C., Hampton Roads, Charlotte, Raleigh, Baltimore, and Philadelphia. Most other connections to Megabus served cites, such as New York, can be made from Washington, D.C. Richmond, and the surrounding metropolitan area, was granted[when?] a roughly $25 million grant from the U.S. Department of Transportation to support a newly proposed Rapid Transit System, which would run along Broad Street from Willow Lawn to Rocketts Landing, in the first phase of an improved public transportation hub for the region.

What is the street address if the Greyhound bus terminal in Richmond?

2910 N Boulevard

How long does a bus trip from Richmond to New York City take?

7.5 hours

What is the lowest fare on Megabus?

How much did the Department of Transportation give to Richmond for its Rapid Transit System?

$25 million

What city in Maryland does Megabus travel to?

Baltimore


Local transit and paratransit bus service in Richmond, Henrico, and Chesterfield counties is provided by the Greater Richmond Transit Company (GRTC). The GRTC, however, serves only small parts of the suburban counties. The far West End (Innsbrook and Short Pump) and almost all of Chesterfield County have no public transportation despite dense housing, retail, and office development. According to a 2008 GRTC operations analysis report, a majority of GRTC riders utilize their services because they do not have an available alternative such as a private vehicle.

What counties does the GRTC link to Richmond?

Henrico, and Chesterfield

Along with Short Pump, what comprises the far part of the West End?

Innsbrook

According to a GRTC report, what is an example of what most of its riders lack?

private vehicle

What is GRTC an initialism of?

Greater Richmond Transit Company


The Richmond area also has two railroad stations served by Amtrak. Each station receives regular service from north of Richmond including Washington, D.C., Philadelphia, and New York. The suburban Staples Mill Road Station is located on a major north-south freight line and receives all service to and from all points south including, Raleigh, Durham, Savannah, Newport News, Williamsburg and Florida. Richmond's only railway station located within the city limits, the historic Main Street Station, was renovated in 2004. As of 2010, the station only receives trains headed to and from Newport News and Williamsburg due to track layout. As a result, the Staples Mill Road station receives more trains and serves more passengers overall.

What station services all southern rail traffic passing through Richmond?

Staples Mill Road Station

What is the name of the railroad station inside Richmond proper?

Main Street Station

In what year was Richmond's railroad station renovated?

Along with Williamsburg, what city's rail traffic uses the Main Street Station?

Newport News

Why does the Main Street Station only receive rail traffic from Newport News and Williamsburg?

track layout


Electricity in the Richmond Metro area is provided by Dominion Virginia Power. The company, based in Richmond, is one of the nation's largest producers of energy, serving retail energy customers in nine states. Electricity is provided in the Richmond area primarily by the North Anna Nuclear Generating Station and Surry Nuclear Generating Station, as well as a coal-fired station in Chester, Virginia. These three plants provide a total of 4,453 megawatts of power. Several other natural gas plants provide extra power during times of peak demand. These include facilities in Chester, and Surry, and two plants in Richmond (Gravel Neck and Darbytown).

Who is Richmond's electricity supplier?

Dominion Virginia Power

How many states does Dominion Virginia Power operate in?

nine

Along with Surry Nuclear Generating Station, what is Richmond's main electricity generator?

North Anna Nuclear Generating Station

In what town is a coal-fired plant that provides power to Richmond located?

Chester

What type of power plant is Darbytown?

natural gas


The wastewater treatment plant and distribution system of water mains, pumping stations and storage facilities provide water to approximately 62,000 customers in the city. There is also a wastewater treatment plant located on the south bank of the James River. This plant can treat up to 70 million gallons of water per day of sanitary sewage and stormwater before returning it to the river. The wastewater utility also operates and maintains 1,500 miles (2,400 km) of sanitary sewer and pumping stations, 38 miles (61 km) of intercepting sewer lines, and the Shockoe Retention Basin, a 44-million-gallon stormwater reservoir used during heavy rains.

How many kilometers of sewer lines exist in Richmond?

How much water is contained in Shockoe Retention Basin?

How many Richmond inhabitants get their water from the wastewater treatment plant?

How much sewage and stormwater can the treatment plant adjacent to the James River treat daily?

70 million gallons


 Among the vast varieties of microorganisms, relatively few cause disease in otherwise healthy individuals. Infectious disease results from the interplay between those few pathogens and the defenses of the hosts they infect. The appearance and severity of disease resulting from any pathogen, depends upon the ability of that pathogen to damage the host as well as the ability of the host to resist the pathogen. However a host's immune system can also cause damage to the host itself in an attempt to control the infection. Clinicians therefore classify infectious microorganisms or microbes according to the status of host defenses - either as primary pathogens or as opportunistic pathogens:

Of the huge amount of microorganisms, how many cause disease in otherwise healthy individuals?

relatively few

Interplay between pathogens and defenses of hosts results in what?

Infectious disease

What does the severity of a disease resulting from a pathogen depend on?

ability of that pathogen to damage the host

What can a host's immune system do to a host?

cause damage

What do clinicians classify infectious microorganisms according to the status of?

host defenses

How many microorganisms cause repair in otherwise healthy individuals?

I'm not sure.

What is prevented by interplay between pathogens and attacks of hosts?

I'm not sure.

What does the level of an achievement resulting from a pathogen depend on?

I'm not sure.

What can a host's immune system allow from a host?

I'm not sure.

What do clinicians ignore the status of when they classify infectious microorganisms?

I'm not sure.


One way of proving that a given disease is "infectious", is to satisfy Koch's postulates (first proposed by Robert Koch), which demands that the infectious agent be identified only in patients and not in healthy controls, and that patients who contract the agent also develop the disease. These postulates were first used in the discovery that Mycobacteria species cause tuberculosis. Koch's postulates can not be applied ethically for many human diseases because they require experimental infection of a healthy individual with a pathogen produced as a pure culture. Often, even clearly infectious diseases do not meet the infectious criteria. For example, Treponema pallidum, the causative spirochete of syphilis, cannot be cultured in vitro - however the organism can be cultured in rabbit testes. It is less clear that a pure culture comes from an animal source serving as host than it is when derived from microbes derived from plate culture. Epidemiology is another important tool used to study disease in a population. For infectious diseases it helps to determine if a disease outbreak is sporadic (occasional occurrence), endemic (regular cases often occurring in a region), epidemic (an unusually high number of cases in a region), or pandemic (a global epidemic).

What is one way of proving that a given disease is infectious?

satisfy Koch's postulates

What must an infectious agent only be identified in to satisfy the first of Koch's postulates?

patients and not in healthy controls

What is Koch's second postulate?

patients who contract the agent also develop the disease

Why can't Koch's postulates be applied ethically for many human diseases?

because they require experimental infection of a healthy individual

What is the causative spirochete of syphilis?

Treponema pallidum

What is one way of proving that a given disease is safe?

I'm not sure.

What must an infectious agent not be identified in to satisfy the first of Koch's postulates?

I'm not sure.

What is Koch's worst postulate?

I'm not sure.

Why can Koch's postulates be applied ethically for many reptile diseases?

I'm not sure.

What is no longer the causative spirochete of syphilis?

I'm not sure.


Infectious diseases are sometimes called contagious disease when they are easily transmitted by contact with an ill person or their secretions (e.g., influenza). Thus, a contagious disease is a subset of infectious disease that is especially infective or easily transmitted. Other types of infectious/transmissible/communicable diseases with more specialized routes of infection, such as vector transmission or sexual transmission, are usually not regarded as "contagious", and often do not require medical isolation (sometimes loosely called quarantine) of victims. However, this specialized connotation of the word "contagious" and "contagious disease" (easy transmissibility) is not always respected in popular use.

When are infectious diseases called contagious diseases?

when they are easily transmitted by contact with an ill person

What is a contagious disease a subset of?

infectious disease

What sets a contagious disease after from a standard infectious disease?

especially infective or easily transmitted

Diseases with vector transmission or sexual transmission don't often require what type of isolation?

medical

What is not always respected in popular use?

specialized connotation of the word "contagious"

When are infectious diseases called impossible diseases?

I'm not sure.

What is a contagious disease more important than?

I'm not sure.

What sets a contagious disease equal to a standard infectious disease?

I'm not sure.

What is always respected in popular use?

I'm not sure.


Infection begins when an organism successfully enters the body, grows and multiplies. This is referred to as colonization. Most humans are not easily infected. Those who are weak, sick, malnourished, have cancer or are diabetic have increased susceptibility to chronic or persistent infections. Individuals who have a suppressed immune system are particularly susceptible to opportunistic infections. Entrance to the host at host-pathogen interface, generally occurs through the mucosa in orifices like the oral cavity, nose, eyes, genitalia, anus, or the microbe can enter through open wounds. While a few organisms can grow at the initial site of entry, many migrate and cause systemic infection in different organs. Some pathogens grow within the host cells (intracellular) whereas others grow freely in bodily fluids.

When does infection begin?

when an organism successfully enters the body, grows and multiplies.

What group is not easily infected?

humans

What group of humans have increased susceptibility to chronic or persistent infections?

weak, sick, malnourished, have cancer or are diabetic

What individuals are particularly susceptible to opportunistic infections?

Individuals who have a suppressed immune system

What is it called when a pathogen grows within the host cells?

intracellular

When does infection become unstoppable?

I'm not sure.

What group is never infected?

I'm not sure.

What group of humans have no susceptibility to chronic or persistent infections?

I'm not sure.

What individuals are particularly safe to opportunistic infections?

I'm not sure.

What is it called when a pathogen explodes within the host cells?

I'm not sure.


Wound colonization refers to nonreplicating microorganisms within the wound, while in infected wounds, replicating organisms exist and tissue is injured. All multicellular organisms are colonized to some degree by extrinsic organisms, and the vast majority of these exist in either a mutualistic or commensal relationship with the host. An example of the former is the anaerobic bacteria species, which colonizes the mammalian colon, and an example of the latter is various species of staphylococcus that exist on human skin. Neither of these colonizations are considered infections. The difference between an infection and a colonization is often only a matter of circumstance. Non-pathogenic organisms can become pathogenic given specific conditions, and even the most virulent organism requires certain circumstances to cause a compromising infection. Some colonizing bacteria, such as Corynebacteria sp. and viridans streptococci, prevent the adhesion and colonization of pathogenic bacteria and thus have a symbiotic relationship with the host, preventing infection and speeding wound healing.

What does wound colonization refer to?

nonreplicating microorganisms within the wound

What type of organisms exist and injure tissue in infected wounds?

replicating

What are all multcellular organisms colonized to some degree by?

extrinsic organisms

What species colonizes the mammalian colon?

anaerobic bacteria

What's the difference between an infection and a colonization?

only a matter of circumstance

What does wound colonization mean to avoid?

I'm not sure.

What are few multicellular organisms colonized to some degree by?

I'm not sure.

What type of organisms tickle and heal tissue in infected wounds?

I'm not sure.

What's the only similarity between an infection and a colonization?

I'm not sure.

What rodent colonizes the mammalian colon?

I'm not sure.


Because it is normal to have bacterial colonization, it is difficult to know which chronic wounds are infected. Despite the huge number of wounds seen in clinical practice, there are limited quality data for evaluated symptoms and signs. A review of chronic wounds in the Journal of the American Medical Association's "Rational Clinical Examination Series" quantified the importance of increased pain as an indicator of infection. The review showed that the most useful finding is an increase in the level of pain [likelihood ratio (LR) range, 11-20] makes infection much more likely, but the absence of pain (negative likelihood ratio range, 0.64-0.88) does not rule out infection (summary LR 0.64-0.88).

Why is it difficult to now which chronic wounds are infected?

Because it is normal to have bacterial colonization

What is there limited quality data for evaluating despite the huge number of wounds seen in a clinical practice?

symptoms and signs

What is increased pain an indicator of?

infection

What does not rule out infection?

absence of pain

Why is it easy to know which chronic wounds are infected?

I'm not sure.

What is there unlimited quality data for evaluating despite the huge number of wounds seen in a clinical practice?

I'm not sure.

What is reduced pain an indicator of?

I'm not sure.

What will always rule out infection?

I'm not sure.

What is rarely seen in clinical practice?

I'm not sure.


Disease can arise if the host's protective immune mechanisms are compromised and the organism inflicts damage on the host. Microorganisms can cause tissue damage by releasing a variety of toxins or destructive enzymes. For example, Clostridium tetani releases a toxin that paralyzes muscles, and staphylococcus releases toxins that produce shock and sepsis. Not all infectious agents cause disease in all hosts. For example, less than 5% of individuals infected with polio develop disease. On the other hand, some infectious agents are highly virulent. The prion causing mad cow disease and Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease invariably kills all animals and people that are infected.

Disease can arise when an organism inflicts what on the host?

damage

What can a microorganism cause tissue damage by releasing a variety of?

toxins

What does the of toxin Clostridium tetani releases do?

paralyzes muscles

What releases toxins which product shock and sepsis?

staphylococcus

What percentage of people infected with polio develop disease?

less than 5%

When an organism prevents what from the host a disease can arise?

I'm not sure.

What can a microorganism repair tissue damage by releasing a variety of?

I'm not sure.

What does the toxin Clostridium tetani release help avoid?

I'm not sure.

What releases toxins which produce joy and euphoria?

I'm not sure.

What disease similarly to Creutzfeldt–Jakob has never resulted in death?

I'm not sure.


Persistent infections occur because the body is unable to clear the organism after the initial infection. Persistent infections are characterized by the continual presence of the infectious organism, often as latent infection with occasional recurrent relapses of active infection. There are some viruses that can maintain a persistent infection by infecting different cells of the body. Some viruses once acquired never leave the body. A typical example is the herpes virus, which tends to hide in nerves and become reactivated when specific circumstances arise.

Why do persistent infections occur?

body is unable to clear the organism after the initial infection

What are persistent infections characterized by the continual presence of?

the infectious organism

How can some viruses main a persistent infection?

by infecting different cells of the body

What never leave the body when acquired?

Some viruses

Where does the herpes virus hide?

in nerves

Why do persistent infections never occur?

I'm not sure.

What are persistent infections characterized by the continual absence of?

I'm not sure.

How can some viruses cure a persistent infection?

I'm not sure.

What always leave the body when acquired?

I'm not sure.

Where does the herpes virus avoid?

I'm not sure.


Diagnosis of infectious disease sometimes involves identifying an infectious agent either directly or indirectly. In practice most minor infectious diseases such as warts, cutaneous abscesses, respiratory system infections and diarrheal diseases are diagnosed by their clinical presentation and treated without knowledge of the specific causative agent. Conclusions about the cause of the disease are based upon the likelihood that a patient came in contact with a particular agent, the presence of a microbe in a community, and other epidemiological considerations. Given sufficient effort, all known infectious agents can be specifically identified. The benefits of identification, however, are often greatly outweighed by the cost, as often there is no specific treatment, the cause is obvious, or the outcome of an infection is benign.

What does diagnosis of an infectious sometimes involve identifying?

an infectious agent either directly or indirectly

Many minor infectious diseases are diagnosed by what type of presentation?

clinical

How are minor infectious diseases treated?

without knowledge of the specific causative agent

What can be identified given sufficient effort?

all known infectious agents

Why is it often not worth bothering to identify an infectious agent?

greatly outweighed by the cost

What does diagnosis of an infectious always involve ignoring?

I'm not sure.

How are many minor infectious diseases diagnosed illegally?

I'm not sure.

How are all infectious diseases treated?

I'm not sure.

What can be identified given no effort?

I'm not sure.

Why is it always worth it to identify an infectious agent?

I'm not sure.


Diagnosis of infectious disease is nearly always initiated by medical history and physical examination. More detailed identification techniques involve the culture of infectious agents isolated from a patient. Culture allows identification of infectious organisms by examining their microscopic features, by detecting the presence of substances produced by pathogens, and by directly identifying an organism by its genotype. Other techniques (such as X-rays, CAT scans, PET scans or NMR) are used to produce images of internal abnormalities resulting from the growth of an infectious agent. The images are useful in detection of, for example, a bone abscess or a spongiform encephalopathy produced by a prion.

How is diagnosis of infectious disease almost always initiated?

by medical history and physical examination

What does taking a culture of an infectious agent isolated from a patient allow?

detailed identification

What features of an infectious organism does a culture allow examining?

microscopic features

What can organisms be directly identified by?

its genotype

What technique can be used to produce images of internal abnormalities?

X-rays, CAT scans, PET scans or NMR

How is diagnosis of infectious disease rarely initiated?

I'm not sure.

What does taking a culture of an infectious agent isolated from a patient restrict?

I'm not sure.

What features of an infectious organism does a culture forbid examining?

I'm not sure.

What can organisms never be directly identified by?

I'm not sure.

What technique can be used to produce images of external abnormalities?

I'm not sure.


Microbiological culture is a principal tool used to diagnose infectious disease. In a microbial culture, a growth medium is provided for a specific agent. A sample taken from potentially diseased tissue or fluid is then tested for the presence of an infectious agent able to grow within that medium. Most pathogenic bacteria are easily grown on nutrient agar, a form of solid medium that supplies carbohydrates and proteins necessary for growth of a bacterium, along with copious amounts of water. A single bacterium will grow into a visible mound on the surface of the plate called a colony, which may be separated from other colonies or melded together into a "lawn". The size, color, shape and form of a colony is characteristic of the bacterial species, its specific genetic makeup (its strain), and the environment that supports its growth. Other ingredients are often added to the plate to aid in identification. Plates may contain substances that permit the growth of some bacteria and not others, or that change color in response to certain bacteria and not others. Bacteriological plates such as these are commonly used in the clinical identification of infectious bacterium. Microbial culture may also be used in the identification of viruses: the medium in this case being cells grown in culture that the virus can infect, and then alter or kill. In the case of viral identification, a region of dead cells results from viral growth, and is called a "plaque". Eukaryotic parasites may also be grown in culture as a means of identifying a particular agent.

What type of culture is a principal tool used to diagnose infectious disease?

Microbiological

What type of medium is provided for a specific agent in a microbial culture?

growth

What are most pathogenic bacteria easily grown on?

nutrient agar

What is it called when a visible mound forms on the surface of a plate?

a colony

What is a region of dead cells resulting from viral growth called?

a "plaque"

What type of hammer is a principal tool used to diagnose infectious disease?

I'm not sure.

What type of medium is not typically provided for a specific agent in a microbial culture?

I'm not sure.

What are most pathogenic bacteria unable to grow on?

I'm not sure.

What is it called when an invisible mound forms on the surface of a plate?

I'm not sure.

What is a planet of dead cells resulting from viral growth called?

I'm not sure.


In the absence of suitable plate culture techniques, some microbes require culture within live animals. Bacteria such as Mycobacterium leprae and Treponema pallidum can be grown in animals, although serological and microscopic techniques make the use of live animals unnecessary. Viruses are also usually identified using alternatives to growth in culture or animals. Some viruses may be grown in embryonated eggs. Another useful identification method is Xenodiagnosis, or the use of a vector to support the growth of an infectious agent. Chagas disease is the most significant example, because it is difficult to directly demonstrate the presence of the causative agent, Trypanosoma cruzi in a patient, which therefore makes it difficult to definitively make a diagnosis. In this case, xenodiagnosis involves the use of the vector of the Chagas agent T. cruzi, an uninfected triatomine bug, which takes a blood meal from a person suspected of having been infected. The bug is later inspected for growth of T. cruzi within its gut.

What are live animals required by?

some microbes

What can Mycobacterium leprae and Treponema pallidum be grown in?

animals

What type of eggs may some viruses be grown in?

embryonated

What is Xenodiagnosis?

use of a vector to support the growth of an infectious agent

What is it difficult to demonstrate the presence of in Chagas disease?

the causative agent

What are live animals unnecessary for?

I'm not sure.

What can Mycobacterium leprae and Treponema pallidum never be grown in?

I'm not sure.

What type of eggs may no viruses be grown in?

I'm not sure.

What does Xenodiagnosis avoid doing?

I'm not sure.

What is simple to demonstrate the presence of in Chagas disease?

I'm not sure.


Another principal tool in the diagnosis of infectious disease is microscopy. Virtually all of the culture techniques discussed above rely, at some point, on microscopic examination for definitive identification of the infectious agent. Microscopy may be carried out with simple instruments, such as the compound light microscope, or with instruments as complex as an electron microscope. Samples obtained from patients may be viewed directly under the light microscope, and can often rapidly lead to identification. Microscopy is often also used in conjunction with biochemical staining techniques, and can be made exquisitely specific when used in combination with antibody based techniques. For example, the use of antibodies made artificially fluorescent (fluorescently labeled antibodies) can be directed to bind to and identify a specific antigens present on a pathogen. A fluorescence microscope is then used to detect fluorescently labeled antibodies bound to internalized antigens within clinical samples or cultured cells. This technique is especially useful in the diagnosis of viral diseases, where the light microscope is incapable of identifying a virus directly.

What is microscopy used for?

diagnosis of infectious disease

What do virtually all culture techniques rely on at some point?

microscopic examination

What can samples obtained from patients viewed directly under?

light microscope

When is microscopy exquisitely specific?

when used in combination with antibody based techniques.

What can antibodies with artificial fluorescence be directed to do?

bind to and identify a specific antigens present on a pathogen

What is microscopy unnecessary for?

I'm not sure.

What do virtually no culture techniques rely on at some point?

I'm not sure.

What can samples obtained from patients be viewed by from far away?

I'm not sure.

When is microscopy exquisitely useless?

I'm not sure.

What are antibodies with artificial fluorescence unable to do?

I'm not sure.


Other microscopic procedures may also aid in identifying infectious agents. Almost all cells readily stain with a number of basic dyes due to the electrostatic attraction between negatively charged cellular molecules and the positive charge on the dye. A cell is normally transparent under a microscope, and using a stain increases the contrast of a cell with its background. Staining a cell with a dye such as Giemsa stain or crystal violet allows a microscopist to describe its size, shape, internal and external components and its associations with other cells. The response of bacteria to different staining procedures is used in the taxonomic classification of microbes as well. Two methods, the Gram stain and the acid-fast stain, are the standard approaches used to classify bacteria and to diagnosis of disease. The Gram stain identifies the bacterial groups Firmicutes and Actinobacteria, both of which contain many significant human pathogens. The acid-fast staining procedure identifies the Actinobacterial genera Mycobacterium and Nocardia.

What do almost all cells readily stain with?

a number of basic dyes

Why do cells easily stain with dyes?

electrostatic attraction

What electronic charge do cellular molecules have?

negatively charged

What is Geimsa stain?

a dye

How many methods comprise standard approaches used to classify bacteria and diagnose disease?

Two

What do few cells readily stain with?

I'm not sure.

Why do cells have difficulty staining with dyes?

I'm not sure.

What electronic charge do cellular molecules destroy?

I'm not sure.

How many methods comprise unorthodox approaches used to classify bacteria and diagnose disease?

I'm not sure.

What is the rarest method used to classify bacteria and to diagnose a disease?

I'm not sure.


The isolation of enzymes from infected tissue can also provide the basis of a biochemical diagnosis of an infectious disease. For example, humans can make neither RNA replicases nor reverse transcriptase, and the presence of these enzymes are characteristic of specific types of viral infections. The ability of the viral protein hemagglutinin to bind red blood cells together into a detectable matrix may also be characterized as a biochemical test for viral infection, although strictly speaking hemagglutinin is not an enzyme and has no metabolic function.

What needs to be isolated from infected tissue to provide a biochemical diagnosis of an infectious disease?

enzymes

What enzyme's presence is characteristic of specific types of viral infections?

RNA replicases

What does the protein hemagglutinin bind together?

red blood cells

Why are the presence of certain enymzes a tell tale sign of a virus?

humans can make neither RNA replicases nor reverse transcriptase

What needs to be combined with infected tissue to provide a biochemical diagnosis of an infectious disease?

I'm not sure.

What enzyme's absence is characteristic of specific types of viral infections?

I'm not sure.

What does the protein hemagglutinin pull apart?

I'm not sure.

Why are the presence of certain enzymes a sign of good health?

I'm not sure.


Serological methods are highly sensitive, specific and often extremely rapid tests used to identify microorganisms. These tests are based upon the ability of an antibody to bind specifically to an antigen. The antigen, usually a protein or carbohydrate made by an infectious agent, is bound by the antibody. This binding then sets off a chain of events that can be visibly obvious in various ways, dependent upon the test. For example, "Strep throat" is often diagnosed within minutes, and is based on the appearance of antigens made by the causative agent, S. pyogenes, that is retrieved from a patients throat with a cotton swab. Serological tests, if available, are usually the preferred route of identification, however the tests are costly to develop and the reagents used in the test often require refrigeration. Some serological methods are extremely costly, although when commonly used, such as with the "strep test", they can be inexpensive.

What methods are highly sensitive, specifc and rapid tests used to identify microorganisms?

Serological

What are serological tests based upon the ability of an antibody to do?

bind specifically to an antigen

What is the antigen bound to by the antibody usually?

a protein or carbohydrate made by an infectious agent

What does the binding set off that will result in something visibly obvious in various ways?

a chain of events

What is the causative agent of "strep throat"?

S. pyogenes

What methods are highly sensitive, general and slow tests used to identify microorganisms?

I'm not sure.

What are serological tests based upon the ability of an antibody to avoid?

I'm not sure.

What is the antigen bound to by the antibody usually not part of?

I'm not sure.

What does the binding set off that will result in something invisible in various ways?

I'm not sure.

What is the special agent of "strep throat"?

I'm not sure.


Complex serological techniques have been developed into what are known as Immunoassays. Immunoassays can use the basic antibody – antigen binding as the basis to produce an electro - magnetic or particle radiation signal, which can be detected by some form of instrumentation. Signal of unknowns can be compared to that of standards allowing quantitation of the target antigen. To aid in the diagnosis of infectious diseases, immunoassays can detect or measure antigens from either infectious agents or proteins generated by an infected organism in response to a foreign agent. For example, immunoassay A may detect the presence of a surface protein from a virus particle. Immunoassay B on the other hand may detect or measure antibodies produced by an organism's immune system that are made to neutralize and allow the destruction of the virus.

What are immunoassays?

Complex serological techniques

What type of signal do immunoassays produce?

electro - magnetic or particle radiation

What allows quantitation of the target antigen?

unknowns can be compared to that of standards

Immunoassays are able to detect what type of proteins?

generated by an infected organism in response to a foreign agent

What are immunoassays banned from being?

I'm not sure.

What type of signal do immunoassays absorb?

I'm not sure.

What stops quantitation of the target antigen?

I'm not sure.

What type of proteins are undetectable by Immunoassays?

I'm not sure.


Technologies based upon the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method will become nearly ubiquitous gold standards of diagnostics of the near future, for several reasons. First, the catalog of infectious agents has grown to the point that virtually all of the significant infectious agents of the human population have been identified. Second, an infectious agent must grow within the human body to cause disease; essentially it must amplify its own nucleic acids in order to cause a disease. This amplification of nucleic acid in infected tissue offers an opportunity to detect the infectious agent by using PCR. Third, the essential tools for directing PCR, primers, are derived from the genomes of infectious agents, and with time those genomes will be known, if they are not already.

What does the acronym PCR expand to?

polymerase chain reaction

What will be the ubiquitous gold standards of diagnostics in the near future?

PCR

What has the catalog of infectious agents grown to the point of?

virtually all of the significant infectious agents of the human population have been identified

What must an infectious agent do to cause disease?

grow within the human body

What are primers derived from the genomes of?

infectious agents

What does the acronym PCR abbreviate to?

I'm not sure.

What be the silver standards of diagnostics in the distant future?

I'm not sure.

What has the catalog of infectious agents decreased to the point of?

I'm not sure.

What must an infectious agent prevent to cause disease?

I'm not sure.

What are primers excluded by gnomes?

I'm not sure.


Thus, the technological ability to detect any infectious agent rapidly and specifically are currently available. The only remaining blockades to the use of PCR as a standard tool of diagnosis are in its cost and application, neither of which is insurmountable. The diagnosis of a few diseases will not benefit from the development of PCR methods, such as some of the clostridial diseases (tetanus and botulism). These diseases are fundamentally biological poisonings by relatively small numbers of infectious bacteria that produce extremely potent neurotoxins. A significant proliferation of the infectious agent does not occur, this limits the ability of PCR to detect the presence of any bacteria.

What technological ability with regards to detection is currently available?

ability to detect any infectious agent

What are the remaining blockades to the use or PCR as a standard tool of diagnosis?

cost and application

What are some diseases which won't benefit from PCR methods?

clostridial diseases

PCR can't detect the presence of any bacteria when what doesn't occur?

significant proliferation of the infectious agent

What supernatural ability with regards to detection is currently available?

I'm not sure.

What are the remaining blockades to the removal of PCR as a standard tool of diagnosis?

I'm not sure.

What are some diseases which help improve PCR methods?

I'm not sure.

Which blockades to use PCR are currently insurmountable?

I'm not sure.

What diseases are considered fundamentally biological healing?

I'm not sure.


There is usually an indication for a specific identification of an infectious agent only when such identification can aid in the treatment or prevention of the disease, or to advance knowledge of the course of an illness prior to the development of effective therapeutic or preventative measures. For example, in the early 1980s, prior to the appearance of AZT for the treatment of AIDS, the course of the disease was closely followed by monitoring the composition of patient blood samples, even though the outcome would not offer the patient any further treatment options. In part, these studies on the appearance of HIV in specific communities permitted the advancement of hypotheses as to the route of transmission of the virus. By understanding how the disease was transmitted, resources could be targeted to the communities at greatest risk in campaigns aimed at reducing the number of new infections. The specific serological diagnostic identification, and later genotypic or molecular identification, of HIV also enabled the development of hypotheses as to the temporal and geographical origins of the virus, as well as a myriad of other hypothesis. The development of molecular diagnostic tools have enabled physicians and researchers to monitor the efficacy of treatment with anti-retroviral drugs. Molecular diagnostics are now commonly used to identify HIV in healthy people long before the onset of illness and have been used to demonstrate the existence of people who are genetically resistant to HIV infection. Thus, while there still is no cure for AIDS, there is great therapeutic and predictive benefit to identifying the virus and monitoring the virus levels within the blood of infected individuals, both for the patient and for the community at large.

What is used in the treatment of AIDS?

AZT

How was the course of AIDS followed?

monitoring the composition of patient blood samples

What could be done by understanding how the disease was transmitted?

resources could be targeted to the communities at greatest risk

What did the genotypic identification of HIV later enable?

geographical origins of the virus

What is now commonly used to identify HIV in healthy people before the onset of the illnes?

Molecular diagnostics

What is used as a punishment for AIDS?

I'm not sure.

How was the course of AIDS hidden?

I'm not sure.

What could be in danger by understanding how the disease was transmitted?

I'm not sure.

What did the genotypic identification of HIV later prevent?

I'm not sure.

What is now rarely used to identify HIV in healthy people before the onset of the illness?

I'm not sure.


Techniques like hand washing, wearing gowns, and wearing face masks can help prevent infections from being passed from one person to another. Frequent hand washing remains the most important defense against the spread of unwanted organisms. There are other forms of prevention such as avoiding the use of illicit drugs, using a condom, and having a healthy lifestyle with a balanced diet and regular exercise. Cooking foods well and avoiding foods that have been left outside for a long time is also important.

What can wearing gowns and face masks help prevent?

infections from being passed from one person to another

What is the most important defense against the spread of unwanted organisms?

Frequent hand washing

Avoiding drugs and using condoms are other forms of what?

prevention

Why is it important to cook foods well?

prevention

What should one do with foods that have been left outside for a long time?

avoiding

What can wearing gowns and face masks help facilitate?

I'm not sure.

What is the least important defense against the spread of unwanted organisms?

I'm not sure.

What are consuming drugs and avoiding condoms considered a form of?

I'm not sure.

What does a balanced diet and regular exercise make impossible?

I'm not sure.

What should one do with foods that have not been left outside for a long time?

I'm not sure.


One of the ways to prevent or slow down the transmission of infectious diseases is to recognize the different characteristics of various diseases. Some critical disease characteristics that should be evaluated include virulence, distance traveled by victims, and level of contagiousness. The human strains of Ebola virus, for example, incapacitate their victims extremely quickly and kill them soon after. As a result, the victims of this disease do not have the opportunity to travel very far from the initial infection zone. Also, this virus must spread through skin lesions or permeable membranes such as the eye. Thus, the initial stage of Ebola is not very contagious since its victims experience only internal hemorrhaging. As a result of the above features, the spread of Ebola is very rapid and usually stays within a relatively confined geographical area. In contrast, the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) kills its victims very slowly by attacking their immune system. As a result, many of its victims transmit the virus to other individuals before even realizing that they are carrying the disease. Also, the relatively low virulence allows its victims to travel long distances, increasing the likelihood of an epidemic.

Recognizing the different characteristics of various diseases is one way to do what?

prevent or slow down the transmission of infectious diseases

What are some critical disease characteristics that should be evaluated?

virulence, distance traveled by victims, and level of contagiousness

What virus' strains incapacitate their victims extremely quickly before killing them?

Ebola

Why is the initial stage of Ebola not very contagious?

victims experience only internal hemorrhaging

What does the low virulence of HIV allow victims to do?

travel long distances

What does recognizing the different characteristics of various diseases allow someone to increase?

I'm not sure.

What are some critical disease characteristics that should not be evaluated?

I'm not sure.

What virus' strains strengthen their victims extremely quickly before killing them?

I'm not sure.

Why is the initial stage of Ebola so contagious?

I'm not sure.

What does the extreme virulence of HIV allow victims to do?

I'm not sure.