But while Claremont remains the most concentrated hub of Whiteheadian activity, the place where Whitehead's thought currently seems to be growing the most quickly is in China. In order to address the challenges of modernization and industrialization, China has begun to blend traditions of Taoism, Buddhism, and Confucianism with Whitehead's "constructive post-modern" philosophy in order to create an "ecological civilization." To date, the Chinese government has encouraged the building of twenty-three university-based centers for the study of Whitehead's philosophy, and books by process philosophers John Cobb and David Ray Griffin are becoming required reading for Chinese graduate students. Cobb has attributed China's interest in process philosophy partly to Whitehead's stress on the mutual interdependence of humanity and nature, as well as his emphasis on an educational system that includes the teaching of values rather than simply bare facts.

Where is interest in Whitehead's work growing the fastest today?

China

What challenges are China using Whitehead's ideas to help manage?

modernization and industrialization

What types of traditions are China blending with Whitehead's "constructive post-modern" philosophy?

traditions of Taoism, Buddhism, and Confucianism

What philosphers' writings are becoming required reading for graduate students in China?

John Cobb and David Ray Griffin

Why does John Cobb believe China has become interested in process philosophy?

interdependence of humanity and nature, as well as his emphasis on an educational system that includes the teaching of values rather than simply bare facts

Where is interest in Whitehead's work growing the slowest today?

I'm not sure.

What challenges are Japan using Whitehead's ideas to help manage?

I'm not sure.

What types of traditions are China blending with Whitehead's "constructive pre-modern" philosophy?

I'm not sure.

What philosphers' writings are becoming not required reading for graduate students in China?

I'm not sure.


Overall, however, Whitehead's influence is very difficult to characterize. In English-speaking countries, his primary works are little-studied outside of Claremont and a select number of liberal graduate-level theology and philosophy programs. Outside of these circles his influence is relatively small and diffuse, and has tended to come chiefly through the work of his students and admirers rather than Whitehead himself. For instance, Whitehead was a teacher and long-time friend and collaborator of Bertrand Russell, and he also taught and supervised the dissertation of Willard Van Orman Quine, both of whom are important figures in analytic philosophy – the dominant strain of philosophy in English-speaking countries in the 20th century. Whitehead has also had high-profile admirers in the continental tradition, such as French post-structuralist philosopher Gilles Deleuze, who once dryly remarked of Whitehead that "he stands provisionally as the last great Anglo-American philosopher before Wittgenstein's disciples spread their misty confusion, sufficiency, and terror." French sociologist and anthropologist Bruno Latour even went so far as to call Whitehead "the greatest philosopher of the 20th century."

Where are Whitehead's works primarily studied in English-speaking countries?

Claremont and a select number of liberal graduate-level theology and philosophy programs

Where has interest outside of those areas mainly come from?

through the work of his students and admirers rather

Who are two of Whitehead's students that have gone on to become renowned in the field of analytic philosophy?

Bertrand Russell, and he also taught and supervised the dissertation of Willard Van Orman Quine

What did Gilles Deleuze say about Whitehead?

"he stands provisionally as the last great Anglo-American philosopher before Wittgenstein's disciples spread their misty confusion, sufficiency, and terror."

What French sociologist and anthropologist stated that Whitehead was "the greatest philosopher of the 20th century"?

Bruno Latour

Where are Whitehead's works was not primarily studied in English-speaking countries?

I'm not sure.

Where has no interest outside of those areas mainly come from?

I'm not sure.

Who are two of Whitehead's students that have not gone on to become renowned in the field of analytic philosophy?

I'm not sure.

What did Gilles Deleuze hate about Whitehead?

I'm not sure.


Deleuze's and Latour's opinions, however, are minority ones, as Whitehead has not been recognized as particularly influential within the most dominant philosophical schools. It is impossible to say exactly why Whitehead's influence has not been more widespread, but it may be partly due to his metaphysical ideas seeming somewhat counter-intuitive (such as his assertion that matter is an abstraction), or his inclusion of theistic elements in his philosophy, or the perception of metaphysics itself as passé, or simply the sheer difficulty and density of his prose.

What is the general opinion of Whitehead in most philosophical schools?

Whitehead has not been recognized as particularly influential within the most dominant philosophical schools

what is an example of Whitehead's ideas being counter-intuitive?

his assertion that matter is an abstraction

What is a common opinion of metaphysics?

perception of metaphysics itself as passé

Why do some people believe Whitehead's writings may have restricted his influence?

the sheer difficulty and density of his prose

What is the general opinion of Whitehead in less philosophical schools?

I'm not sure.

what is an example of Whitehead's ideas not being counter-intuitive?

I'm not sure.

What is an uncommon opinion of metaphysics?

I'm not sure.

Why do some people believe Whitehead's writings may have not restricted his influence?

I'm not sure.


Historically Whitehead's work has been most influential in the field of American progressive theology. The most important early proponent of Whitehead's thought in a theological context was Charles Hartshorne, who spent a semester at Harvard as Whitehead's teaching assistant in 1925, and is widely credited with developing Whitehead's process philosophy into a full-blown process theology. Other notable process theologians include John B. Cobb, Jr., David Ray Griffin, Marjorie Hewitt Suchocki, C. Robert Mesle, Roland Faber, and Catherine Keller.

In what field of study has Whitehead's work been most influential in the United States?

American progressive theology

Who was the most important early supporter of Whitehead's work in the context of theology?

Charles Hartshorne

What advancement of Whitehead's process philosophy is attributed to Charles Hartshorne?

developing Whitehead's process philosophy into a full-blown process theology

Who are some other distinguished process theologians?

John B. Cobb, Jr., David Ray Griffin, Marjorie Hewitt Suchocki, C. Robert Mesle, Roland Faber, and Catherine Keller

In what field of study has Whitehead's work been less influential in the United States?

I'm not sure.

Who was the least important early supporter of Whitehead's work in the context of theology?

I'm not sure.

What advancement of Whitehead's process philosophy is not attributed to Charles Hartshorne?

I'm not sure.


Process theology typically stresses God's relational nature. Rather than seeing God as impassive or emotionless, process theologians view God as "the fellow sufferer who understands", and as the being who is supremely affected by temporal events. Hartshorne points out that people would not praise a human ruler who was unaffected by either the joys or sorrows of his followers – so why would this be a praise-worthy quality in God? Instead, as the being who is most affected by the world, God is the being who can most appropriately respond to the world. However, process theology has been formulated in a wide variety of ways. C. Robert Mesle, for instance, advocates a "process naturalism", i.e. a process theology without God.

What aspect of God is usually emphasized in process theology?

God's relational nature

How is God usually perceived by process theologians?

"the fellow sufferer who understands", and as the being who is supremely affected by temporal events

Why did Hartshorne feel that God must be affected by people?

people would not praise a human ruler who was unaffected by either the joys or sorrows of his followers – so why would this be a praise-worthy quality in God?

Why would God being substantially affected by the world be beneficial?

as the being who is most affected by the world, God is the being who can most appropriately respond to the world

What type of process theology does C. Robert Mesle promote?

"process naturalism", i.e. a process theology without God.

What aspect of God is not emphasized in process theology?

I'm not sure.

How is God usually never perceived by process theologians?

I'm not sure.

Why did Hartshorne feel that God must not be affected by people?

I'm not sure.


In fact, process theology is difficult to define because process theologians are so diverse and transdisciplinary in their views and interests. John B. Cobb, Jr. is a process theologian who has also written books on biology and economics. Roland Faber and Catherine Keller integrate Whitehead with poststructuralist, postcolonialist, and feminist theory. Charles Birch was both a theologian and a geneticist. Franklin I. Gamwell writes on theology and political theory. In Syntheism - Creating God in The Internet Age, futurologists Alexander Bard and Jan Söderqvist repeatedly credit Whitehead for the process theology they see rising out of the participatory culture expected to dominate the digital era.

Why is there difficulty in defining process theology ?

process theologians are so diverse and transdisciplinary in their views and interests

What subjects has John B. Cobb, Jr. written books on other than process theology?

biology and economics

What theories do Roland Faber and Catherine Keller combine with Whitehead's ideas?

poststructuralist, postcolonialist, and feminist theory

What was Charles Birch's profession besides theologian?

geneticist

Who authored "Syntheism - Creating God in the Internet Age"?

Alexander Bard and Jan Söderqvist

Why is there no difficulty in defining process theology?

I'm not sure.

What subjects has John B. Cobb, Jr. burned books on other than process theology?

I'm not sure.

What theories do Roland Faber and Catherine Keller not combine with Whitehead's ideas?

I'm not sure.

What wasnt Charles Birch's profession besides theologian?

I'm not sure.


One philosophical school which has historically had a close relationship with process philosophy is American pragmatism. Whitehead himself thought highly of William James and John Dewey, and acknowledged his indebtedness to them in the preface to Process and Reality. Charles Hartshorne (along with Paul Weiss) edited the collected papers of Charles Sanders Peirce, one of the founders of pragmatism. Noted neopragmatist Richard Rorty was in turn a student of Hartshorne. Today, Nicholas Rescher is one example of a philosopher who advocates both process philosophy and pragmatism.

What philosophy is closely related to process philosophy?

American pragmatism

What pragmatists did Whitehead acknowledge in the preface to "Process and Reality"?

William James and John Dewey

What founder of pragmatism's collected papers did Charles Hartshorne ans Paul Weiss edit?

Charles Sanders Peirce

What important neopragmatist was Harthorne's student?

Richard Rorty

Who is a philosopher that promotes process philosophy and pragmatism currently?

Nicholas Rescher

What pragmatists did Whitehead not acknowledge in the preface to "Process and Reality"?

I'm not sure.

What founder of pragmatism's collected papers did Charles Hartshorne and Paul Weiss not edit?

I'm not sure.

What unimportant neopragmatist was Harthorne's student?

I'm not sure.

Who is a philosopher that doesn't promote process philosophy and pragmatism currently?

I'm not sure.


In physics, Whitehead's thought has had some influence. He articulated a view that might perhaps be regarded as dual to Einstein's general relativity, see Whitehead's theory of gravitation. It has been severely criticized. Yutaka Tanaka, who suggests that the gravitational constant disagrees with experimental findings, proposes that Einstein's work does not actually refute Whitehead's formulation. Whitehead's view has now been rendered obsolete, with the discovery of gravitational waves. They are phenonena observed locally that largely violate the kind of local flatness of space that Whitehead assumes. Consequently, Whitehead's cosmology must be regarded as a local approximation, and his assumption of a uniform spatio-temporal geometry, Minkowskian in particular, as an often-locally-adequate approximation. An exact replacement of Whitehead's cosmology would need to admit a Riemannian geometry. Also, although Whitehead himself gave only secondary consideration to quantum theory, his metaphysics of processes has proved attractive to some physicists in that field. Henry Stapp and David Bohm are among those whose work has been influenced by Whitehead.

How was Whitehead's theory of gravitation received?

It has been severely criticized

What affect  did the discovery of gravitational waves have on Whitehead's theory?

Whitehead's view has now been rendered obsolete, with the discovery of gravitational waves

What are gravitational waves?

phenonena observed locally that largely violate the kind of local flatness of space that Whitehead assumes

How must Whiteheads cosmology now be considered?

Whitehead's cosmology must be regarded as a local approximation

What physicists in the field of quantum theory have been influenced by Whitehead?

Henry Stapp and David Bohm

How was Whitehead's theory of non-gravitation received?

I'm not sure.

What affect did the discovery of gravitational waves not have on Whitehead's theory?

I'm not sure.

What are non-gravitational waves?

I'm not sure.


This work has been pioneered by John B. Cobb, Jr., whose book Is It Too Late? A Theology of Ecology (1971) was the first single-authored book in environmental ethics. Cobb also co-authored a book with economist Herman Daly entitled For the Common Good: Redirecting the Economy toward Community, the Environment, and a Sustainable Future (1989), which applied Whitehead's thought to economics, and received the Grawemeyer Award for Ideas Improving World Order. Cobb followed this with a second book, Sustaining the Common Good: A Christian Perspective on the Global Economy (1994), which aimed to challenge "economists' zealous faith in the great god of growth."

What was the first book on environmental ethics by an individual author?

Is It Too Late? A Theology of Ecology

On which economics book did Cobb collaborate with Herman Daly?

For the Common Good: Redirecting the Economy toward Community, the Environment, and a Sustainable Future

What award did Cobb and Daly receive for the book?

Grawemeyer Award for Ideas Improving World Order

What other economics book did Cobb go on to author?

Sustaining the Common Good: A Christian Perspective on the Global Economy

What was the goal of Cobb's second book on economics?

to challenge "economists' zealous faith in the great god of growth."

What was the last book on environmental ethics by an individual author?

I'm not sure.

On which economics book did Cobb kick out Herman Daly?

I'm not sure.

What award did Cobb and Daly lose for the book?

I'm not sure.

What other science book did Cobb go on to author?

I'm not sure.


Another model is the FEELS model developed by Xie Bangxiu and deployed successfully in China. "FEELS" stands for five things in curriculum and education: Flexible-goals, Engaged-learner, Embodied-knowledge, Learning-through-interactions, and Supportive-teacher. It is used for understanding and evaluating educational curriculum under the assumption that the purpose of education is to "help a person become whole." This work is in part the product of cooperation between Chinese government organizations and the Institute for the Postmodern Development of China.

Who established the FEELS model in China?

Xie Bangxiu

What does "FEELS" stand for?

Flexible-goals, Engaged-learner, Embodied-knowledge, Learning-through-interactions, and Supportive-teacher

What is the purpose of the FEELS model?

It is used for understanding and evaluating educational curriculum under the assumption that the purpose of education is to "help a person become whole."

What entities are working together to promote the FEELS model?

Chinese government organizations and the Institute for the Postmodern Development of China

Who established the HEELS model in China?

I'm not sure.

What does "HEELS" stand for?

I'm not sure.

What entities are working together to promote the HEELS model?

I'm not sure.


Whitehead has had some influence on philosophy of business administration and organizational theory. This has led in part to a focus on identifying and investigating the effect of temporal events (as opposed to static things) within organizations through an “organization studies” discourse that accommodates a variety of 'weak' and 'strong' process perspectives from a number of philosophers. One of the leading figures having an explicitly Whiteheadian and panexperientialist stance towards management is Mark Dibben, who works in what he calls "applied process thought" to articulate a philosophy of management and business administration as part of a wider examination of the social sciences through the lens of process metaphysics. For Dibben, this allows "a comprehensive exploration of life as perpetually active experiencing, as opposed to occasional – and thoroughly passive – happening." Dibben has published two books on applied process thought, Applied Process Thought I: Initial Explorations in Theory and Research (2008), and Applied Process Thought II: Following a Trail Ablaze (2009), as well as other papers in this vein in the fields of philosophy of management and business ethics.

What business fields has Whitehead influenced?

philosophy of business administration and organizational theory

What prominent business professor has been heavily influenced by Whitehead?

Mark Dibben

What does Dibben call his philosophy on management and business administration?

"applied process thought"

According to Dibben, what are the benefits of applying process metaphysics to examining management and business administration as a component of social science?

this allows "a comprehensive exploration of life as perpetually active experiencing, as opposed to occasional – and thoroughly passive – happening."

In what fields has Dibben published two books and other papers?

philosophy of management and business ethics

What business fields has Whitehead not influenced?

I'm not sure.

What prominent business professor has not been heavily influenced by Whitehead?

I'm not sure.

What does Dibben call his philosophy on science and math administration?

I'm not sure.


Margaret Stout and Carrie M. Staton have also written recently on the mutual influence of Whitehead and Mary Parker Follett, a pioneer in the fields of organizational theory and organizational behavior. Stout and Staton see both Whitehead and Follett as sharing an ontology that "understands becoming as a relational process; difference as being related, yet unique; and the purpose of becoming as harmonizing difference." This connection is further analyzed by Stout and Jeannine M. Love in Integrative Process: Follettian Thinking from Ontology to Administration

What is Mary Parker Follett known for?

pioneer in the fields of organizational theory and organizational behavior

What do Margaret Stout and Carrie M. Staton view as commonalities between Whitehead and Follett?

ontology that "understands becoming as a relational process; difference as being related, yet unique; and the purpose of becoming as harmonizing difference."

What book did Stout and Jeanine M. Love author that further examines the on between Whitehead and Follett?

Integrative Process: Follettian Thinking from Ontology to Administration

What is Mary Parker Follett not known for?

I'm not sure.

What do Margaret Stout and Carrie M. Staton view as differences between Whitehead and Follett?

I'm not sure.

What book did Stout and Jeanine M. Love author that does not examine between Whitehead and Follett?

I'm not sure.


Antibiotics revolutionized medicine in the 20th century, and have together with vaccination led to the near eradication of diseases such as tuberculosis in the developed world. Their effectiveness and easy access led to overuse, especially in livestock raising, prompting bacteria to develop resistance. This has led to widespread problems with antimicrobial and antibiotic resistance, so much as to prompt the World Health Organization to classify antimicrobial resistance as a "serious threat [that] is no longer a prediction for the future, it is happening right now in every region of the world and has the potential to affect anyone, of any age, in any country".

What is one disease that has been nearly eradicated thanks to vaccines and antibiotics?

tuberculosis

What is one issue that can arise from overuse of antibiotics?

overuse, especially in livestock raising, prompting bacteria to develop resistance

In which century were antibiotics first introduced?

20th century

What organization called antimicrobial resistance a 'serious threat?'

World Health Organization

What can be affected by issues resulting from overuse of antibiotics?

anyone, of any age, in any country

In what century did antibiotics revolutionized medicine?

What other medicine worked along antibiotics to eradicate diseases like tuberculosis?

vaccination

What does there medicines do for livestock?

develop resistance

What organization classifies this as a current serious threat in the whole world??

World Health Organization

Besides antimicrobial, what did the overused medicine cause?

antibiotic resistance

When did antibiotics revolutinzed medicine?

20th century

What happened when antibiotics was over used in livestock?

develop resistance

What organization stated that the world has this serious problem?

World Health Organization

What regions in the world does this apply in?

every region of the world

When were antibiotics created?

20th century

What disease did antibiotics help eliminate?

tuberculosis

Who else uses antibiotics besides the medical industry?

livestock raising

What is a common problem in antibiotic use?

antimicrobial and antibiotic resistance

What is one disease that has been widespread thanks to vaccines and antibiotics?

I'm not sure.

What is one issue that can arise from overuse of predictions?

I'm not sure.

In which century was tuberculosis first introduced?

I'm not sure.

What organization called bacteria a 'serious threat?'

I'm not sure.

What other medicine worked along antibiotics to classify diseases like tuberculosis?

I'm not sure.


In empirical therapy, a patient has proven or suspected infection, but the responsible microorganism is not yet unidentified. While the microorgainsim is being identified the doctor will usually administer the best choice of antibiotic that will be most active against the likely cause of infection usually a broad spectrum antibiotic. Empirical therapy is usually initiated before the doctor knows the exact identification of microorgansim causing the infection as the identification process make take several days in the laboratory.

What is one kind of therapy that may be used when a patience has an infection, but it has not been identified?

empirical therapy

Where do doctors perform microorganism identification testing?

laboratory

What kinds of antibiotics are most commonly used for empirical therapy?

broad spectrum antibiotic

At what stage does a doctor begin empirical therapy?

While the microorgainsim is being identified

How long does the identification process take?

several days

What happens when a doctor doesn't know the microorganism yet?

broad spectrum antibiotic

What happens in empirical therapy?

a patient has proven or suspected infection, but the responsible microorganism is not yet unidentified

When is empirical started?

before the doctor knows the exact identification of microorgansim

What is one kind of microorganism that may be used when a patient has an infection but it has not yet been identified?

I'm not sure.

Where do doctors perform empirical therapy testing?

I'm not sure.

What kinds of infections are most commonly used for empirical therapy?

I'm not sure.

At what age does a microorganism begin empirical therapy?

I'm not sure.

How long does the infection process take?

I'm not sure.


Antibiotics are screened for any negative effects on humans or other mammals before approval for clinical use, and are usually considered safe and most are well tolerated. However, some antibiotics have been associated with a range of adverse side effects. Side-effects range from mild to very serious depending on the antibiotics used, the microbial organisms targeted, and the individual patient. Side effects may reflect the pharmacological or toxicological properties of the antibiotic or may involve hypersensitivity reactions or anaphylaxis. Safety profiles of newer drugs are often not as well established as for those that have a long history of use. Adverse effects range from fever and nausea to major allergic reactions, including photodermatitis and anaphylaxis. Common side-effects include diarrhea, resulting from disruption of the species composition in the intestinal flora, resulting, for example, in overgrowth of pathogenic bacteria, such as Clostridium difficile. Antibacterials can also affect the vaginal flora, and may lead to overgrowth of yeast species of the genus Candida in the vulvo-vaginal area. Additional side-effects can result from interaction with other drugs, such as elevated risk of tendon damage from administration of a quinolone antibiotic with a systemic corticosteroid. Some scientists have hypothesized that the indiscriminate use of antibiotics alter the host microbiota and this has been associated with chronic disease.

What are two examples of minor side effects caused by some antibiotics?

fever and nausea

What causes diarrhea?

disruption of the species composition in the intestinal flora

What negative effects can antibiotics have on the vaginal area?

yeast

What is one example of antibiotics that may have a possible side effect of tendon damage?

a quinolone antibiotic with a systemic corticosteroid

What is one possible serious side effect of over-using antibiotics?

alter the host microbiota

What are antibiotics screened for on mammals and humans?

negative effects

What do antibiotics need approval for?

clinical use

What besides the individual patient is targeted when antibiotics is being used?

microbial organisms

Photodermatitis, nausea, allergic reactions and anaphylaxis are all what type of side effect?

Adverse effects

What was altered during the hypothesis of indiscriminate use of antibiotics?

host microbiota

Why are antibiotics checked before use?

negative effects on humans or other mammals

Name some adverse effects?

fever and nausea to major allergic reactions, including photodermatitis and anaphylaxis

Name some side-effects?

diarrhea

What can happen to vaginal flora?

overgrowth of yeast

What can happen when antibiotics are used with other drugs?

Additional side-effects

What are two examples of anitbacterials caused by some antibiotics?

I'm not sure.

What causes anaphylaxis?

I'm not sure.

What is one possible side effect of antibiotics that do not have a side effect of tendon damage?

I'm not sure.

What are antibiotics screened for on microbiota and chronic disease?

I'm not sure.


Exposure to antibiotics early in life is associated with increased body mass in humans and mouse models. Early life is a critical period for the establishment of the intestinal microbiota and for metabolic development. Mice exposed to subtherapeutic antibiotic treatment (STAT)– with either penicillin, vancomycin, penicillin and vancomycin, or chlortetracycline had altered composition of the gut microbiota as well as its metabolic capabilities. Moreover, research have shown that mice given low-dose penicillin (1 μg/g body weight) around birth and throughout the weaning process had an increased body mass and fat mass, accelerated growth, and increased hepatic expression of genes involved in adipogenesis, compared to controlled mice. In addition, penicillin in combination with a high-fat diet increased fasting insulin levels in mice. However, it is unclear whether or not antibiotics cause obesity in humans. Studies have found a correlation between early exposure of antibiotics (<6 months) and increased body mass (at 10 and 20 months). Another study found that the type of antibiotic exposure was also significant with the highest risk of being overweight in those given macrolides compared to penicillin and cephalosporin. Therefore, there is correlation between antibiotic exposure in early life and obesity in humans, but whether or not there is a causal relationship remains unclear. Although there is a correlation between antibiotic use in early life and obesity, the effect of antibiotics on obesity in humans needs to be weighed against the beneficial effects of clinically indicated treatment with antibiotics in infancy.

What is one common result of using antibiotics from a young age?

increased body mass

What does STAT stand for?

subtherapeutic antibiotic treatment

What are some antibiotics can be used for STAT?

penicillin, vancomycin, penicillin and vancomycin, or chlortetracycline

Do antibiotics cause obesity in humans?

unclear

Why do physicians use antibiotics on infants when the relationship has been proven?

weighed against the beneficial effects

What can happen if people are exposed to antibiotics at a young age?

increased body mass

When do intestinal microbiota develop?

Early life

Do antibiotics increase the chance of getting fat for humans?

unclear

What is one common result of using genes from a young age?

I'm not sure.

What are some microbiota that can be used for STAT?

I'm not sure.

Do antibiotics cause fasting in humans?

I'm not sure.

Why do physicians use antibiotics on mice when the relationship has been proven?

I'm not sure.

When do models develop?

I'm not sure.


The majority of studies indicate antibiotics do interfere with contraceptive pills, such as clinical studies that suggest the failure rate of contraceptive pills caused by antibiotics is very low (about 1%). In cases where antibacterials have been suggested to affect the efficiency of birth control pills, such as for the broad-spectrum antibacterial rifampicin, these cases may be due to an increase in the activities of hepatic liver enzymes' causing increased breakdown of the pill's active ingredients. Effects on the intestinal flora, which might result in reduced absorption of estrogens in the colon, have also been suggested, but such suggestions have been inconclusive and controversial. Clinicians have recommended that extra contraceptive measures be applied during therapies using antibacterials that are suspected to interact with oral contraceptives.

Do antibiotics interact with birth control pills?

The majority of studies indicate antibiotics do interfere with contraceptive pills

What percentage of birth control pill failure is attributed to antibiotics?

about 1%

What are the potential effects on intestinal flora?

reduced absorption of estrogens in the colon

Have these potential effects been proven through testing?

inconclusive and controversial

What do physicians recommend to counteract this potential issue?

extra contraceptive measures

What do antibiotics interfere with?

contraceptive pills

What percent is the  failure rate of contraceptive pills?

about 1%

Whhat does intestinal flora reduce?

absorption of estrogens

In therapy, what does the antibacterial interact with?

oral contraceptives

Do antibiotics mess with birth control pills?

antibiotics do interfere

What is birth control failure rate due to antibiotics?

about 1%

What should women do if they are using antibiotics and birth control pills?

extra contraceptive measures

Do antibiotics interact with intestinal flora?

I'm not sure.

What percentage of birth control pill failure is attributed to estrogens?

I'm not sure.

What are the potential effects on antibacterials?

I'm not sure.

What do control pills recommend to counteract this potential issue?

I'm not sure.

What do oral contraceptives reduce?

I'm not sure.


Interactions between alcohol and certain antibiotics may occur and may cause side-effects and decreased effectiveness of antibiotic therapy. While moderate alcohol consumption is unlikely to interfere with many common antibiotics, there are specific types of antibiotics with which alcohol consumption may cause serious side-effects. Therefore, potential risks of side-effects and effectiveness depend on the type of antibiotic administered. Despite the lack of a categorical counterindication, the belief that alcohol and antibiotics should never be mixed is widespread.

What is one potential issue with drinking alcohol while taking antibiotics?

decreased effectiveness

Do all antibiotics interact dangerously with alcohol?

moderate alcohol consumption is unlikely to interfere with many common antibiotics

Is it OK to drink alcohol while taking any antibiotic?

there are specific types of antibiotics with which alcohol consumption may cause serious side-effects

How common is the belief that alcohol and antibiotics should never be mixed?

widespread

What can alcohol and certain antibiotics cause?

decreased effectiveness of antibiotic therapy

What is unlikely to interfere with  with many common antibiotics?

alcohol consumption

What belief should bever be mixed widespread?

alcohol and antibiotics

What common drug can reduce antibiotic effectiveness?

alcohol

What type of antibiotic is most likely to be a problem with alcohol?

specific types of antibiotics with which alcohol consumption may cause serious side-effects

Should alcohol be used while on antibiotics?

alcohol and antibiotics should never be mixed

What is one potential issue with drinking alcohols while in therapy?

I'm not sure.

Do all antibiotics interact dangerously with conterindication?

I'm not sure.

Is it OK to drink alcohol while taking any risks?

I'm not sure.

What is unlikely to interfere with many common side-effects?

I'm not sure.

What common drug can reduce interactions?

I'm not sure.


The successful outcome of antimicrobial therapy with antibacterial compounds depends on several factors. These include host defense mechanisms, the location of infection, and the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of the antibacterial. A bactericidal activity of antibacterials may depend on the bacterial growth phase, and it often requires ongoing metabolic activity and division of bacterial cells. These findings are based on laboratory studies, and in clinical settings have also been shown to eliminate bacterial infection. Since the activity of antibacterials depends frequently on its concentration, in vitro characterization of antibacterial activity commonly includes the determination of the minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum bactericidal concentration of an antibacterial. To predict clinical outcome, the antimicrobial activity of an antibacterial is usually combined with its pharmacokinetic profile, and several pharmacological parameters are used as markers of drug efficacy.

What does the bactericidal activitty of antibacterials depend on what?

bacterial growth phase

What does this eliminate?

bacterial infection

What besides ongoing metabolic activity is required in bactericidal activity?

division of bacterial cells

What does the activity of antibacterials depends on?

concentration

What does a successful treatment using antibiotics entail?

host defense mechanisms, the location of infection, and the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of the antibacterial

What does the potency of antibacterials depend upon?

concentration

How do you predict the clinical result?

several pharmacological parameters are used as markers of drug efficacy

What does the infection activity of antibacterials depends on?

I'm not sure.

What besides ongoing metabolic activity is required in drug efficacy?

I'm not sure.

What does the activity of defense mechanisms depend on?

I'm not sure.

What does a successful treatment using pharmacological parameters entail?

I'm not sure.

How do you predict the cell division?

I'm not sure.


Antibacterial antibiotics are commonly classified based on their mechanism of action, chemical structure, or spectrum of activity. Most target bacterial functions or growth processes. Those that target the bacterial cell wall (penicillins and cephalosporins) or the cell membrane (polymyxins), or interfere with essential bacterial enzymes (rifamycins, lipiarmycins, quinolones, and sulfonamides) have bactericidal activities. Those that target protein synthesis (macrolides, lincosamides and tetracyclines) are usually bacteriostatic (with the exception of bactericidal aminoglycosides). Further categorization is based on their target specificity. "Narrow-spectrum" antibacterial antibiotics target specific types of bacteria, such as Gram-negative or Gram-positive bacteria, whereas broad-spectrum antibiotics affect a wide range of bacteria. Following a 40-year hiatus in discovering new classes of antibacterial compounds, four new classes of antibacterial antibiotics have been brought into clinical use in the late 2000s and early 2010s: cyclic lipopeptides (such as daptomycin), glycylcyclines (such as tigecycline), oxazolidinones (such as linezolid), and lipiarmycins (such as fidaxomicin).

Besides sprectrum of activity and chemical structure, how can antibacterial antibiotics classified?

mechanism of action

What is another name used for bacterial cell wall?

penicillins and cephalosporins

whats another word for cell membrane?

polymyxins

How many new classes of antibacterial antibiotics was introduced in the late 2000's/

four

What three ways are antibiotics classified?

mechanism of action, chemical structure, or spectrum of activity

What do anitibiotics mostly target?

bacterial functions or growth processes

Which two types of antibiotics target the cell wall?

penicillins and cephalosporins

Which type of antibiotic goes after the cell membrane?

polymyxins

What 3 types go after protein synthesis?

(macrolides, lincosamides and tetracyclines

Besides spectrum of activity and chemical structure, how can protein synthesis be classified?

I'm not sure.

What is another name used for target specificity?

I'm not sure.

What is another word for interfere?

I'm not sure.

How many new classes of glycylcyclines was introduced in the late 2000's?

I'm not sure.

What three ways are bacteria classified?

I'm not sure.


With advances in medicinal chemistry, most modern antibacterials are semisynthetic modifications of various natural compounds. These include, for example, the beta-lactam antibiotics, which include the penicillins (produced by fungi in the genus Penicillium), the cephalosporins, and the carbapenems. Compounds that are still isolated from living organisms are the aminoglycosides, whereas other antibacterials—for example, the sulfonamides, the quinolones, and the oxazolidinones—are produced solely by chemical synthesis. Many antibacterial compounds are relatively small molecules with a molecular weight of less than 2000 atomic mass units.[citation needed]

Besides semisytetic modifications, what advances in medicinal chemistry regarding antibacterials?

various natural compounds

What is the molecular weight loss of antibacterial compounds?

2000 atomic mass units

What is included in the beta-lactam antibiotics?

penicillins

What is penicillins produced by?

fungi

What are antibiotics in chemical terms?

semisynthetic modifications

What type of antibiotics include penicilin?

beta-lactam antibiotics

What are the type of antibiotics which are taken from still living things?

aminoglycosides

How are the slufonamides,quinolones, and oxazolidinones created?

synthesis

What is the molecular weight loss of chemical synthesis?

I'm not sure.

What is included in the natural compounds?

I'm not sure.

What are cephalosporins produced by?

I'm not sure.

What are compounds in chemical terms?

I'm not sure.

What type of antibiotics include sulfonamides?

I'm not sure.


The emergence of resistance of bacteria to antibiotics is a common phenomenon. Emergence of resistance often reflects evolutionary processes that take place during antibiotic therapy. The antibiotic treatment may select for bacterial strains with physiologically or genetically enhanced capacity to survive high doses of antibiotics. Under certain conditions, it may result in preferential growth of resistant bacteria, while growth of susceptible bacteria is inhibited by the drug. For example, antibacterial selection for strains having previously acquired antibacterial-resistance genes was demonstrated in 1943 by the Luria–Delbrück experiment. Antibiotics such as penicillin and erythromycin, which used to have a high efficacy against many bacterial species and strains, have become less effective, due to the increased resistance of many bacterial strains.

What does emergence of resistance reflect?

evolutionary processes

What is the purpose of antibiotic treatment?

survive high doses of antibiotics

When was antibacterial-resistance demonstrated?

Who made the demonstration in 1943?

Luria–Delbrück

What is a modern common occurence with antibiotics?

resistance of bacteria

What is resistance to antibiotics a cause of?

evolution

When was the Luria-Delbruck experiment?

Which two antibiotics that have high efficacy are much less useful now?

penicillin and erythromycin

What does emergence of bacteria reflect?

I'm not sure.

What is the purpose of bacterial strains?

I'm not sure.

When were bacterial species and strains invented?

I'm not sure.

What is a modern occurrence with high doeses?

I'm not sure.

What is resistance to genes a cause of?

I'm not sure.


Several molecular mechanisms of antibacterial resistance exist. Intrinsic antibacterial resistance may be part of the genetic makeup of bacterial strains. For example, an antibiotic target may be absent from the bacterial genome. Acquired resistance results from a mutation in the bacterial chromosome or the acquisition of extra-chromosomal DNA. Antibacterial-producing bacteria have evolved resistance mechanisms that have been shown to be similar to, and may have been transferred to, antibacterial-resistant strains. The spread of antibacterial resistance often occurs through vertical transmission of mutations during growth and by genetic recombination of DNA by horizontal genetic exchange. For instance, antibacterial resistance genes can be exchanged between different bacterial strains or species via plasmids that carry these resistance genes. Plasmids that carry several different resistance genes can confer resistance to multiple antibacterials. Cross-resistance to several antibacterials may also occur when a resistance mechanism encoded by a single gene conveys resistance to more than one antibacterial compound.

What is part of hje the make up of bacterial strains?

Intrinsic antibacterial resistance

What can be absent from the bacterial genome?

antibiotic target

When does the spread of antibacterial resistance frequently occurs/

vertical transmission

What is exchanged between between bacterial strains or species via plasmids that have this resistance?

antibacterial resistance genes

What does some resistance come from?

mutation

What method of spread can occur in antibacterial resistance?

vertical transmission of mutations

What do plasmids do in resistance?

carry several different resistance genes

What is part of the makeup of bacterial strains?

I'm not sure.

What can be absent from the resistance genes?

I'm not sure.

When does the spread of DNA frequently occur?

I'm not sure.

What is exchanged between bacterial stains of species via mutations that have this resistance?

I'm not sure.

What do plasmids do in bacterial chromosomes?

I'm not sure.


Antibacterial-resistant strains and species, sometimes referred to as "superbugs", now contribute to the emergence of diseases that were for a while well controlled. For example, emergent bacterial strains causing tuberculosis (TB) that are resistant to previously effective antibacterial treatments pose many therapeutic challenges. Every year, nearly half a million new cases of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) are estimated to occur worldwide. For example, NDM-1 is a newly identified enzyme conveying bacterial resistance to a broad range of beta-lactam antibacterials. The United Kingdom's Health Protection Agency has stated that "most isolates with NDM-1 enzyme are resistant to all standard intravenous antibiotics for treatment of severe infections."

What are strains that are resistant to antibiotics called sometimes?

superbugs

What was a once almost controlled disease that is coming back do to resistance?

tuberculosis

How many new infections of resistant TB are reported per year?

half a million

What is the acronym used to describe resistant TB?

MDR-TB

What are strains that are resistant to tuberculosis called sometimes?

I'm not sure.

What was a once almost controlled antibiotic that is coming back to do resistance?

I'm not sure.

How many new infections of bacteria are reported per year?

I'm not sure.

What is the acronym used to describe enzymes?

I'm not sure.

What is a newly identified enzyme conveying bacterial resistance to a broad range of strains and species?

I'm not sure.


Inappropriate antibiotic treatment and overuse of antibiotics have contributed to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Self prescription of antibiotics is an example of misuse. Many antibiotics are frequently prescribed to treat symptoms or diseases that do not respond to antibiotics or that are likely to resolve without treatment. Also, incorrect or suboptimal antibiotics are prescribed for certain bacterial infections. The overuse of antibiotics, like penicillin and erythromycin, has been associated with emerging antibiotic resistance since the 1950s. Widespread usage of antibiotics in hospitals has also been associated with increases in bacterial strains and species that no longer respond to treatment with the most common antibiotics.

What are the two biggest reasons for resistance?

Inappropriate antibiotic treatment and overuse

What is a common method of misuse?

Self prescription

What is an example of bad treatment causing resistance?

overuse of antibiotics

What are the two biggest reasons for antibiotics?

I'm not sure.

What is a common method of hospitals?

I'm not sure.

What is an example of bad treatment causing infections?

I'm not sure.

What as been associated with increases in suboptimal antibiotics?

I'm not sure.

Since when have symptoms and diseases been associated with emerging antibiotic resistance?

I'm not sure.


Common forms of antibiotic misuse include excessive use of prophylactic antibiotics in travelers and failure of medical professionals to prescribe the correct dosage of antibiotics on the basis of the patient's weight and history of prior use. Other forms of misuse include failure to take the entire prescribed course of the antibiotic, incorrect dosage and administration, or failure to rest for sufficient recovery. Inappropriate antibiotic treatment, for example, is their prescription to treat viral infections such as the common cold. One study on respiratory tract infections found "physicians were more likely to prescribe antibiotics to patients who appeared to expect them". Multifactorial interventions aimed at both physicians and patients can reduce inappropriate prescription of antibiotics.

What is a way of improperly using antibiotics for those traveling?

prophylactic antibiotics

What can happen if a doctor doesn't prescribe to a person's weight and prior use?

failure of medical professionals to prescribe the correct dosage

What are 3 other common forms of bad antibiotic practices?

failure to take the entire prescribed course of the antibiotic, incorrect dosage and administration, or failure to rest for sufficient recovery

What happens when a cold is treated with antibiotics?

Inappropriate antibiotic treatment

What do doctors usually do when a patient seems to want antibiotics even though they may not be right?

prescribe antibiotics

What is a way of improperly using rest for those traveling?

I'm not sure.

What can happen if a doctor doesn't prescribe to a person's traveling?

I'm not sure.

What are 3 other common forms of bad viral infections?

I'm not sure.

What happens when a physician is treated with antibiotics?

I'm not sure.

What do doctors usually do when a patient seems to want the common cold even though they may not be right?

I'm not sure.


Several organizations concerned with antimicrobial resistance are lobbying to eliminate the unnecessary use of antibiotics. The issues of misuse and overuse of antibiotics have been addressed by the formation of the US Interagency Task Force on Antimicrobial Resistance. This task force aims to actively address antimicrobial resistance, and is coordinated by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and the National Institutes of Health (NIH), as well as other US agencies. An NGO campaign group is Keep Antibiotics Working. In France, an "Antibiotics are not automatic" government campaign started in 2002 and led to a marked reduction of unnecessary antibiotic prescriptions, especially in children.

What is the name of a US government agency tasked with trying to stop improper use of antibiotics?

US Interagency Task Force on Antimicrobial Resistance

Which agencies control this task force?

US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and the National Institutes of Health (NIH)

When did the French start going after overuse of antibiotics?

What is the name of a US government agency tasked with trying to stop the FDA?

I'm not sure.

Which agencies control France?

I'm not sure.

When did the French start going after children?

I'm not sure.

What has been adressed by an NGO campaign group?

I'm not sure.

What are organizations who are lobbying to other US agencies concerned with?

I'm not sure.


The emergence of antibiotic resistance has prompted restrictions on their use in the UK in 1970 (Swann report 1969), and the EU has banned the use of antibiotics as growth-promotional agents since 2003. Moreover, several organizations (e.g., The American Society for Microbiology (ASM), American Public Health Association (APHA) and the American Medical Association (AMA)) have called for restrictions on antibiotic use in food animal production and an end to all nontherapeutic uses.[citation needed] However, commonly there are delays in regulatory and legislative actions to limit the use of antibiotics, attributable partly to resistance against such regulation by industries using or selling antibiotics, and to the time required for research to test causal links between their use and resistance to them. Two federal bills (S.742 and H.R. 2562) aimed at phasing out nontherapeutic use of antibiotics in US food animals were proposed, but have not passed. These bills were endorsed by public health and medical organizations, including the American Holistic Nurses' Association, the American Medical Association, and the American Public Health Association (APHA).

When did the EU ban antibiotics for speeding up growth?

What report caused the UK to worry about resistance?

Swann report 1969

What 3 US organizations have called for the banning of antibiotics in the production of food animals?

American Society for Microbiology (ASM), American Public Health Association (APHA) and the American Medical Association (AMA)

Name two US bills that want to ban antibiotics in food production?

S.742 and H.R. 2562

What 3 medical associations supported the bills?

American Holistic Nurses' Association, the American Medical Association, and the American Public Health Association (APHA)

When did the EU ban bills for speeding up growth?

I'm not sure.

What report caused the UK to worry about industries?

I'm not sure.

What 3 US organizations have called for the banning of medical organizations and the production of food animals?

I'm not sure.

Name two AMA bills that want to ban antibiotics in food production.

I'm not sure.

What 3 medical associations supported antibiotics?

I'm not sure.


There has been extensive use of antibiotics in animal husbandry. In the United States, the question of emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains due to use of antibiotics in livestock was raised by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1977. In March 2012, the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York, ruling in an action brought by the Natural Resources Defense Council and others, ordered the FDA to revoke approvals for the use of antibiotics in livestock, which violated FDA regulations.

What besides sick people are antibiotics used for?

animal husbandry

When was resistance first discussed as a problem in the raising of farm animals?

When did a district court order the FDA to stop approving antibiotics in animals?

March 2012

What besides sick people are bacterial strains used for?

I'm not sure.

When was resistance first discussed as a problem in the raising of the United States?

I'm not sure.

When did a district court order the FDA to stop approving animals?

I'm not sure.

What violated Natural Resources Defense Council regulations?

I'm not sure.

Who ordered the FDA to use antibiotics?

I'm not sure.


Before the early 20th century, treatments for infections were based primarily on medicinal folklore. Mixtures with antimicrobial properties that were used in treatments of infections were described over 2000 years ago. Many ancient cultures, including the ancient Egyptians and ancient Greeks, used specially selected mold and plant materials and extracts to treat infections. More recent observations made in the laboratory of antibiosis between microorganisms led to the discovery of natural antibacterials produced by microorganisms. Louis Pasteur observed, "if we could intervene in the antagonism observed between some bacteria, it would offer perhaps the greatest hopes for therapeutics". The term 'antibiosis', meaning "against life", was introduced by the French bacteriologist Jean Paul Vuillemin as a descriptive name of the phenomenon exhibited by these early antibacterial drugs. Antibiosis was first described in 1877 in bacteria when Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch observed that an airborne bacillus could inhibit the growth of Bacillus anthracis. These drugs were later renamed antibiotics by Selman Waksman, an American microbiologist, in 1942. Synthetic antibiotic chemotherapy as a science and development of antibacterials began in Germany with Paul Ehrlich in the late 1880s. Ehrlich noted certain dyes would color human, animal, or bacterial cells, whereas others did not. He then proposed the idea that it might be possible to create chemicals that would act as a selective drug that would bind to and kill bacteria without harming the human host. After screening hundreds of dyes against various organisms, in 1907, he discovered a medicinally useful drug, the synthetic antibacterial salvarsan now called arsphenamine.

What methods did people use before antibiotics to treat infections?

medicinal folklore

When were some kinds of antimicrobials first used?

over 2000 years ago

What type of things did Egyptians and Greeks use?

mold and plant materials and extracts

What does antibiosis mean?

against life

Who came up with the term antibiosis?

Jean Paul Vuillemin

What methods did people use before Robert Koch to treat infections?

I'm not sure.

When were some kinds of dyes first used?

I'm not sure.

What type of things did American microbiologists use?

I'm not sure.

Who came up with the term salvarsan?

I'm not sure.

Who renamed drugs therapudics?

I'm not sure.


The effects of some types of mold on infection had been noticed many times over the course of history (see: History of penicillin). In 1928, Alexander Fleming noticed the same effect in a Petri dish, where a number of disease-causing bacteria were killed by a fungus of the genus Penicillium. Fleming postulated that the effect is mediated by an antibacterial compound he named penicillin, and that its antibacterial properties could be exploited for chemotherapy. He initially characterized some of its biological properties, and attempted to use a crude preparation to treat some infections, but he was unable to pursue its further development without the aid of trained chemists.

What type of organism has been reported to have worked on infections?

mold

Who noticed in a lab the antibacterial characteristics of mold?

Alexander Fleming

What mold did Fleming notice had antibacterial properties?

penicillin

What did Fleming initially think a good use would be for it?

chemotherapy

What type of organism has been reported to have worked on penicillin?

I'm not sure.

Who noticed in a lab the development of chemists?

I'm not sure.

What mold did Fleming notice had chemotherapy?

I'm not sure.

What did Fleming initially think a good use for chemists would be?

I'm not sure.

What did Fleming use to treat a Petri dish?

I'm not sure.


The first sulfonamide and first commercially available antibacterial, Prontosil, was developed by a research team led by Gerhard Domagk in 1932 at the Bayer Laboratories of the IG Farben conglomerate in Germany. Domagk received the 1939 Nobel Prize for Medicine for his efforts. Prontosil had a relatively broad effect against Gram-positive cocci, but not against enterobacteria. Research was stimulated apace by its success. The discovery and development of this sulfonamide drug opened the era of antibacterials.

What was the first available antibiotic?

Prontosil

What company developed Prontosil?

IG Farben

Who led the team that came up with Prontosil?

Gerhard Domagk

What prize did Domagk get for his work?

1939 Nobel Prize for Medicine

What was the first available cocci?

I'm not sure.

What company developed enterobacteria?

I'm not sure.

Who led the team that came up with Bayer Laboratories?

I'm not sure.

What prize did Prontosil get for its work?

I'm not sure.

What opened the era of Germany?

I'm not sure.


In 1939, coinciding with the start of World War II, Rene Dubos reported the discovery of the first naturally derived antibiotic, tyrothricin, a compound of 20% gramicidin and 80% tyrocidine, from B. brevis. It was one of the first commercially manufactured antibiotics universally and was very effective in treating wounds and ulcers during World War II. Gramicidin, however, could not be used systemically because of toxicity. Tyrocidine also proved too toxic for systemic usage. Research results obtained during that period were not shared between the Axis and the Allied powers during the war.

What was the first antibiotic developed from nature?

tyrothricin

When was tyrothricin created?

What also happened in 1939 besides tyrothricin?

start of World War II,

Who discovered tyrothricin?

Rene Dubos

What was tyrothricin used for during the war?

wounds and ulcers

What was the first antibiotic developed from wounds?

I'm not sure.

When was Gramicidin created?

I'm not sure.

Who discovered systematic usage?

I'm not sure.

What was tyrothricin used for during toxicity?

I'm not sure.

Rene Dubos was not shared between who?

I'm not sure.


Florey and Chain succeeded in purifying the first penicillin, penicillin G, in 1942, but it did not become widely available outside the Allied military before 1945. Later, Norman Heatley developed the back extraction technique for efficiently purifying penicillin in bulk. The chemical structure of penicillin was determined by Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin in 1945. Purified penicillin displayed potent antibacterial activity against a wide range of bacteria and had low toxicity in humans. Furthermore, its activity was not inhibited by biological constituents such as pus, unlike the synthetic sulfonamides. The discovery of such a powerful antibiotic was unprecedented, and the development of penicillin led to renewed interest in the search for antibiotic compounds with similar efficacy and safety. For their successful development of penicillin, which Fleming had accidentally discovered but could not develop himself, as a therapeutic drug, Ernst Chain and Howard Florey shared the 1945 Nobel Prize in Medicine with Fleming. Florey credited Dubos with pioneering the approach of deliberately and systematically searching for antibacterial compounds, which had led to the discovery of gramicidin and had revived Florey's research in penicillin.

When was penicillin G first purified?

When did penicillin G become available outside of military use?

Who came up with a way to quickly produce penicillin?

Norman Heatley

When was the chemical make-up of penicillin discovered?

Who discovered the chemical structure of penicillin?

Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin

When was the Nobel Prize first Purified?

I'm not sure.

When did penicillin G become available as a therapeudic drug?

I'm not sure.

Who came up with a way to quickly produce pus?

I'm not sure.

When was the chemical make-up of bacteria discovered?

I'm not sure.

Who discovered the chemical structure of bacteria?

I'm not sure.


Vaccines rely on immune modulation or augmentation. Vaccination either excites or reinforces the immune competence of a host to ward off infection, leading to the activation of macrophages, the production of antibodies, inflammation, and other classic immune reactions. Antibacterial vaccines have been responsible for a drastic reduction in global bacterial diseases. Vaccines made from attenuated whole cells or lysates have been replaced largely by less reactogenic, cell-free vaccines consisting of purified components, including capsular polysaccharides and their conjugates, to protein carriers, as well as inactivated toxins (toxoids) and proteins.

What do vaccines need to work?

immune modulation or augmentation

What type of vaccines have saved millions of lives?

Antibacterial vaccines

What types of vaccines have been phased out?

Vaccines made from attenuated whole cells or lysates

What do polysaccharides need to work?

I'm not sure.

What type of polysaccharides have saved millions of lives?

I'm not sure.

What types of polysaccharides have been phased out?

I'm not sure.

Vaccines made from what have been replaced by less protein carriers?

I'm not sure.

What happens when a host includes polysaccharides?

I'm not sure.


Phage therapy is another option that is being looked into for treating resistant strains of bacteria. The way that researchers are doing this is by infecting pathogenic bacteria with their own viruses, more specifically, bacteriophages. Bacteriophages, also known simply as phages, are precisely bacterial viruses that infect bacteria by disrupting pathogenic bacterium lytic cycles. By disrupting the lytic cycles of bacterium, phages destroy their metabolism, which eventually results in the cell's death. Phages will insert their DNA into the bacterium, allowing their DNA to be transcribed. Once their DNA is transcribed the cell will proceed to make new phages and as soon as they are ready to be released, the cell will lyse. One of the worries about using phages to fight pathogens is that the phages will infect "good" bacteria, or the bacteria that are important in the everyday function of human beings. However, studies have proven that phages are very specific when they target bacteria, which makes researchers confident that bacteriophage therapy is the definite route to defeating antibiotic resistant bacteria.

What has been talked about to treat resistant bacteria?

Phage therapy

How have researchers been doing this?

infecting pathogenic bacteria

What is a worry of using phages?

phages will infect "good" bacteria

What has been talked about to treat bateriophages?

I'm not sure.

How have bacterium been doing this?

I'm not sure.

What is a worry of using DNA?

I'm not sure.

What makes researchers confident that phages fight pathogens?

I'm not sure.

By what method do phages destroy antibiotics?

I'm not sure.


In April 2013, the Infectious Disease Society of America (IDSA) reported that the weak antibiotic pipeline does not match bacteria's increasing ability to develop resistance. Since 2009, only 2 new antibiotics were approved in the United States. The number of new antibiotics approved for marketing per year declines continuously. The report identified seven antibiotics against the Gram-negative bacilli (GNB) currently in phase 2 or phase 3 clinical trials. However, these drugs do not address the entire spectrum of resistance of GNB. Some of these antibiotics are combination of existent treatments:

How many antibiotics have been created in the last 7 years?

How many are in the pipelin to fight GNB?

seven

What year did the Infectious Disease Society of America say that production of new antibiotics does not keep up with resistance?

How many bacilli have been created in the last 7 years?

I'm not sure.

How many are in the pipeline to fight IDSA?

I'm not sure.

What year did the Infectious Diseases of America say that production of GNB does not keep up with resistance?

I'm not sure.

What happens to the umber of new resistance?

I'm not sure.

What drugs address teh entire spectrum of resistance of GNB?

I'm not sure.


Possible improvements include clarification of clinical trial regulations by FDA. Furthermore, appropriate economic incentives could persuade pharmaceutical companies to invest in this endeavor. Antibiotic Development to Advance Patient Treatment (ADAPT) Act aims to fast track the drug development to combat the growing threat of 'superbugs'. Under this Act, FDA can approve antibiotics and antifungals treating life-threatening infections based on smaller clinical trials. The CDC will monitor the use of antibiotics and the emerging resistance, and publish the data. The FDA antibiotics labeling process, 'Susceptibility Test Interpretive Criteria for Microbial Organisms' or 'breakpoints', will provide accurate data to healthcare professionals. According to Allan Coukell, senior director for health programs at The Pew Charitable Trusts, "By allowing drug developers to rely on smaller datasets, and clarifying FDA's authority to tolerate a higher level of uncertainty for these drugs when making a risk/benefit calculation, ADAPT would make the clinical trials more feasible."

Who regulates antibiotic approval?

FDA

What could help to spur pharmaceuticals to make new antibiotics?

economic incentives

What are resistant bacteria called in the media?

superbugs

Who is a director at the Pew Charitable Trusts?

Allan Coukell,

Who regulates infection approval?

I'm not sure.

What could help to spur pharmaceuticals to make new infections?

I'm not sure.

Who is a director at the FDA?

I'm not sure.

Who will monitor the use of economic incentives?

I'm not sure.

Who aims to fast track healthcare professionals?

I'm not sure.


Windows 8 introduced major changes to the operating system's platform and user interface to improve its user experience on tablets, where Windows was now competing with mobile operating systems, including Android and iOS. In particular, these changes included a touch-optimized Windows shell based on Microsoft's "Metro" design language, the Start screen (which displays programs and dynamically updated content on a grid of tiles), a new platform for developing apps with an emphasis on touchscreen input, integration with online services (including the ability to sync apps and settings between devices), and Windows Store, an online store for downloading and purchasing new software. Windows 8 added support for USB 3.0, Advanced Format hard drives, near field communications, and cloud computing. Additional security features were introduced, such as built-in antivirus software, integration with Microsoft SmartScreen phishing filtering service and support for UEFI Secure Boot on supported devices with UEFI firmware, to prevent malware from infecting the boot process.

Who are Windows main operating system competitors?

Android and iOS

What new security features does Windows 8 have?

built-in antivirus software, integration with Microsoft SmartScreen phishing filtering service and support for UEFI Secure Boot

What USB version is Windows 8 compatible with?

What can be found on the Start screen?

displays programs and dynamically updated content on a grid of tiles

What services does the Windows Store provide?

an online store for downloading and purchasing new software

Who are Windows lesser operating system competitors?

I'm not sure.

What new security features does Windows 9 have?

I'm not sure.

What can be found on the End screen?

I'm not sure.

What USB version is Windows 9 compatible with?

I'm not sure.

What services doesn't the Windows Store provide?

I'm not sure.


Windows 8 was released to a mixed critical reception. Although reaction towards its performance improvements, security enhancements, and improved support for touchscreen devices was positive, the new user interface of the operating system was widely criticized for being potentially confusing and difficult to learn (especially when used with a keyboard and mouse instead of a touchscreen). Despite these shortcomings, 60 million Windows 8 licenses have been sold through January 2013, a number which included both upgrades and sales to OEMs for new PCs.

What about Windows 8 was well received?

its performance improvements, security enhancements, and improved support for touchscreen devices

What were the perceived problems with the new Windows 8 user interface?

being potentially confusing and difficult to learn

How many Windows 8 licenses were purchased by January 2013?

60 million

What about Windows 9 was well received?

I'm not sure.

What about Windows 8 was poorly received?

I'm not sure.

What were the perceived problems with the old Windows 8 user interface?

I'm not sure.

What were the perceived problems with the new Windows 9 user interface?

I'm not sure.

How many Windows 8 licenses were purchased by January 2012?

I'm not sure.


Windows 8 development started before Windows 7 had shipped in 2009. At the Consumer Electronics Show in January 2011, it was announced that the next version of Windows would add support for ARM system-on-chips alongside the existing x86 processors produced by vendors, especially AMD and Intel. Windows division president Steven Sinofsky demonstrated an early build of the port on prototype devices, while Microsoft CEO Steve Ballmer announced the company's goal for Windows to be "everywhere on every kind of device without compromise." Details also began to surface about a new application framework for Windows 8 codenamed "Jupiter", which would be used to make "immersive" applications using XAML (similarly to Windows Phone and Silverlight) that could be distributed via a new packaging system and a rumored application store.

When did Microsoft start creating Windows 8?

before Windows 7 had shipped in 2009

Who is Windows division president?

Steven Sinofsky

Who is Microsofts CEO?

Steve Ballmer

Where were the Windows 8 plans initially announced?

Consumer Electronics Show

What is jupiter?

new application framework for Windows 8

Who is Windows division vice president?

I'm not sure.

When did Microsoft start creating Windows 9?

I'm not sure.

Who is Microsofts CFO?

I'm not sure.

Where were the Windows 9 plans initially announced?

I'm not sure.

What isn't jupiter?

I'm not sure.


Three milestone releases of Windows 8 leaked to the general public. Milestone 1, Build 7850, was leaked on April 12, 2011. It was the first build where the text of a window was written centered instead of aligned to the left. It was also probably the first appearance of the Metro-style font, and its wallpaper had the text shhh... let's not leak our hard work. However, its detailed build number reveals that the build was created on September 22, 2010. The leaked copy edition was Enterprise edition. The OS still reads as "Windows 7". Milestone 2, Build 7955, was leaked on April 25, 2011. The traditional Blue Screen of Death (BSoD) was replaced by a new Black screen, although this was later scrapped. This build introduced a new ribbon in Windows Explorer. Build 7959, with minor changes but the first 64-bit version, was leaked on May 1, 2011. The "Windows 7" logo was temporarily replaced with text displaying "Microsoft Confidential". On June 17, 2011, build 7989 64-bit edition was leaked. It introduced a new boot screen featuring the same fish as the default Windows 7 Beta wallpaper, which was later scrapped, and the circling dots as featured in the final (although the final version comes with smaller circling dots throbber). It also had the text Welcome below them, although this was also scrapped.

What does BSoD stand for?

Blue Screen of Death

When was Milestone 1 divulged?

April 12, 2011

What was special about Milestone 1?

It was the first build where the text of a window was written centered

When was Milestone 2 divulged?

April 25, 2011

When was Build 7959 divulged?

May 1, 2011

What does BSoB stand for?

I'm not sure.

When was Milestone 11 divulged?

I'm not sure.

What was special about Milestone 11?

I'm not sure.

When was Milestone 12 divulged?

I'm not sure.

When was Build 7995 divulged?

I'm not sure.


The build was released for download later in the day in standard 32-bit and 64-bit versions, plus a special 64-bit version which included SDKs and developer tools (Visual Studio Express and Expression Blend) for developing Metro-style apps. The Windows Store was announced during the presentation, but was not available in this build. According to Microsoft, there were about 535,000 downloads of the developer preview within the first 12 hours of its release. Originally set to expire on March 11, 2012, in February 2012 the Developer Preview's expiry date was changed to January 15, 2013.

What 3 versions of the build did Microsoft first release?

standard 32-bit and 64-bit versions, plus a special 64-bit version which included SDKs and developer tools

What developer tools did the build have?

Visual Studio Express and Expression Blend

How many downloads occured in the first 12 hours?

When did the developer preview expire?

January 15, 2013

When was the Developer preview initially intended to expire?

March 11, 2012

What 4 versions of the build did Microsoft first release?

I'm not sure.

What developer tools didn't the build have?

I'm not sure.

How many downloads occured in the first 21 hours?

I'm not sure.

When didn't the developer preview expire?

I'm not sure.

When wasn't the Developer preview initially intended to expire?

I'm not sure.


On February 29, 2012, Microsoft released Windows 8 Consumer Preview, the beta version of Windows 8, build 8250. Alongside other changes, the build removed the Start button from the taskbar for the first time since its debut on Windows 95; according to Windows manager Chaitanya Sareen, the Start button was removed to reflect their view that on Windows 8, the desktop was an "app" itself, and not the primary interface of the operating system. Windows president Steven Sinofsky said more than 100,000 changes had been made since the developer version went public. The day after its release, Windows 8 Consumer Preview had been downloaded over one million times. Like the Developer Preview, the Consumer Preview expired on January 15, 2013.

When was the beta version of Windows 8 made available to the public?

February 29, 2012

Who is the Windows Manager?

Chaitanya Sareen

How many things were altered after developer version release?

When was the Consumer Preview set to expire?

January 15, 2013

How many times was the Consumer Preview downloaded in the first 24 hours?

over one million times

When was the beta version of Windows 9 made available to the public?

I'm not sure.

Who isn't the Windows Manager?

I'm not sure.

How many things were altered before developer version release?

I'm not sure.

When wasn't the Consumer Preview set to expire?

I'm not sure.

How many times was the Consumer Preview downloaded in the first 42 hours?

I'm not sure.


Many other builds were released until the Japan's Developers Day conference, when Steven Sinofsky announced that Windows 8 Release Preview (build 8400) would be released during the first week of June. On May 28, 2012, Windows 8 Release Preview (Standard Simplified Chinese x64 edition, not China-specific version, build 8400) was leaked online on various Chinese and BitTorrent websites. On May 31, 2012, Windows 8 Release Preview was released to the public by Microsoft. Major items in the Release Preview included the addition of Sports, Travel, and News apps, along with an integrated version of Adobe Flash Player in Internet Explorer. Like the Developer Preview and the Consumer Preview, the release preview expired on January 15, 2013.

When was the Release Preview revealed to consumers?

May 31, 2012

When was the release preview set to expire?

January 15, 2013

What were the main components of the Release preview?

addition of Sports, Travel, and News apps, along with an integrated version of Adobe Flash Player

What was the build number of the Windows 8 Release Preview?

When was the Windows 8 Release Preview accidentally revealed?

May 28, 2012

When was the Release Preview unrevealed to consumers?

I'm not sure.

When wasn't the release preview set to expire?

I'm not sure.

What were the side components of the Release preview?

I'm not sure.

What was the build number of the Windows 9 Release Preview?

I'm not sure.

When was the Windows 9 Release Preview accidentally revealed?

I'm not sure.


On August 1, 2012, Windows 8 (build 9200) was released to manufacturing with the build number 6.2.9200.16384 . Microsoft planned to hold a launch event on October 25, 2012 and release Windows 8 for general availability on the next day. However, only a day after its release to manufacturing, a copy of the final version of Windows 8 Enterprise N (a version for European markets lacking bundled media players to comply with a court ruling) leaked online, followed by leaks of the final versions of Windows 8 Pro and Enterprise a few days later. On August 15, 2012, Windows 8 was made available to download for MSDN and TechNet subscribers. Windows 8 was made available to Software Assurance customers on August 16, 2012. Windows 8 was made available for students with a DreamSpark Premium subscription on August 22, 2012, earlier than advertised.

When did Windows 8 manufacturing begin?

August 1, 2012

What was the final build Microsoft decided to manufacture?

When was Microsoft supposed to officially launch Windows 8?

October 25, 2012

What version of Windows 8 is Enterprise N?

a version for European markets lacking bundled media players

When were Software Assurance consumers allowed access to Windows 8?

August 16, 2012

When did Windows 9 manufacturing begin?

I'm not sure.

What was the first build Microsoft decided to manufacture?

I'm not sure.

When was Microsoft supposed to officially launch Windows 9?

I'm not sure.

What version of Windows 9 is Enterprise N?

I'm not sure.

When were Software Assurance consumers allowed access to Windows 9?

I'm not sure.


Relatively few changes were made from the Release Preview to the final version; these included updated versions of its pre-loaded apps, the renaming of Windows Explorer to File Explorer, the replacement of the Aero Glass theme from Windows Vista and 7 with a new flat and solid-colored theme, and the addition of new background options for the Start screen, lock screen, and desktop. Prior to its general availability on October 26, 2012, updates were released for some of Windows 8's bundled apps, and a "General Availability Cumulative Update" (which included fixes to improve performance, compatibility, and battery life) was released on Tuesday, October 9, 2012. Microsoft indicated that due to improvements to its testing infrastructure, general improvements of this nature are to be released more frequently through Windows Update instead of being relegated to OEMs and service packs only.

How many things did Microsoft alter after Release Preview?

Relatively few

When was the General Availablity Cumulative Update provided?

October 9, 2012

How are system improvements released through Windows 8?

through Windows Update

What name did Windows Explorer change to?

File Explorer

How many things did Microsoft alter before Release Preview?

I'm not sure.

When wasn't the General Availablity Cumulative Update provided?

I'm not sure.

How aren't system improvements released through Windows 8?

I'm not sure.

How are system improvements released through Windows 9?

I'm not sure.

What name did Windows Explorer stay as?

I'm not sure.


Microsoft began an advertising campaign centered around Windows 8 and its Surface tablet in October 2012, starting with its first television advertisement premiering on October 14, 2012. Microsoft's advertising budget of US$1.5–1.8 billion was significantly larger than the US$200 million campaign used to promote Windows 95. As part of its campaign, Microsoft set up 34 pop-up stores inside malls (primarily focusing on Surface), provided training for retail employees in partnership with Intel, and collaborated with the electronics store chain Best Buy to design expanded spaces to showcase devices. In an effort to make retail displays of Windows 8 devices more "personal", Microsoft also developed a character known in English-speaking markets as "Allison Brown", whose fictional profile (including personal photos, contacts, and emails) is also featured on demonstration units of Windows 8 devices.

How much money was allocated to advertise Windows 8?

$1.5–1.8 billion

How much money was allocated to advertise Windows 95?

$200 million

What is the name of the character Microsoft used to make Windows 8 seem more personable?

Allison Brown

When did Microsoft begin promoting Windows 8?

October 2012

How many pop up stores did Microsoft set up to help promote Windows 8?

How much money was allocated to advertise Windows 9?

I'm not sure.

How much money was allocated to advertise Windows 98?

I'm not sure.

What is the name of the character Microsoft used to make Windows 9 seem more personable?

I'm not sure.

When did Microsoft begin promoting Windows 9?

I'm not sure.

How many pop up stores did Microsoft set up to help promote Windows 9?

I'm not sure.


In May 2013, Microsoft launched a new television campaign for Windows 8 illustrating the capabilities and pricing of Windows 8 tablets in comparison to the iPad, which featured the voice of Siri remarking on the iPad's limitations in a parody of Apple's "Get a Mac" advertisements. On June 12, 2013 during game 1 of the 2013 Stanley Cup Finals, Microsoft premiered the first ad in its "Windows Everywhere" campaign, which promoted Windows 8, Windows Phone 8, and the company's suite of online services as an interconnected platform.

When was the first game of the 2013 Stanley Cup Finals?

June 12, 2013

Who did Windows 8 mock in their television campaign?

the iPad

What was the name of the Windows 8 advertising campaign?

Windows Everywhere

What three things did the Windows Everywhere campaign emphasize on?

Windows 8, Windows Phone 8, and the company's suite of online services

When was the first game of the 2014 Stanley Cup Finals?

I'm not sure.

When was the last game of the 2014 Stanley Cup Finals?

I'm not sure.

Who did Windows 9 mock in their television campaign?

I'm not sure.

What was the name of the Windows 9 advertising campaign?

I'm not sure.

What four things did the Windows Everywhere campaign emphasize on?

I'm not sure.


New features and functionality in Windows 8 include a faster startup through UEFI integration and the new "Hybrid Boot" mode (which hibernates the Windows kernel on shutdown to speed up the subsequent boot), a new lock screen with a clock and notifications, and the ability for enterprise users to create live USB versions of Windows (known as Windows To Go). Windows 8 also adds native support for USB 3.0 devices, which allow for faster data transfers and improved power management with compatible devices, and hard disk 4KB Advanced Format support, as well as support for near field communication to facilitate sharing and communication between devices.

What happens during Hybrid Boot mode?

hibernates the Windows kernel on shutdown to speed up the subsequent boot

What is Windows to Go?

live USB versions of Windows

What are the benefits of USB 3.0?

faster data transfers and improved power management

What is the point of near field communications?

to facilitate sharing and communication between devices

What features were added to the lock screen?

clock and notifications

What never happens during Hybrid Boot mode?

I'm not sure.

What is Windows to Stay?

I'm not sure.

What are the benefits of USB 2.0?

I'm not sure.

What is the point of far field communications?

I'm not sure.

What features were taken away to the lock screen?

I'm not sure.


Windows Explorer, which has been renamed File Explorer, now includes a ribbon in place of the command bar. File operation dialog boxes have been updated to provide more detailed statistics, the ability to pause file transfers, and improvements in the ability to manage conflicts when copying files. A new "File History" function allows incremental revisions of files to be backed up to and restored from a secondary storage device, while Storage Spaces allows users to combine different sized hard disks into virtual drives and specify mirroring, parity, or no redundancy on a folder-by-folder basis.

What replaced the Windows Explorer comman bar?

a ribbon

What is the new name of Windows Explorer?

File Explorer

What did the update of operation dalog boxes help with?

provide more detailed statistics, the ability to pause file transfers, and improvements in the ability to manage conflicts when copying files

What does file history make possible?

allows incremental revisions of files to be backed up to and restored from a secondary storage device

What never replaced the Windows Explorer common bar?

I'm not sure.

What is the old name of Windows Explorer?

I'm not sure.

What did the update of operation dalog boxes hurt with?

I'm not sure.

What didn't the update of operation dalog boxes help with?

I'm not sure.

What does file history make impossible?

I'm not sure.


Task Manager has been redesigned, including a new processes tab with the option to display fewer or more details of running applications and background processes, a heat map using different colors indicating the level of resource usage, network and disk counters, grouping by process type (e.g. applications, background processes and Windows processes), friendly names for processes and a new option which allows users to search the web to find information about obscure processes. Additionally, the Blue Screen of Death has been updated with a simpler and modern design with less technical information displayed.

What is the point of using different colors on a heat map?

indicating the level of resource usage

What changes were made to the BSoD?

a simpler and modern design with less technical information displayed

What are some of the process type groups Windows 8 implemented?

applications, background processes and Windows processes

How can users find out more about obscure Windows 8 processes?

search the web

What is the point of using same colors on a heat map?

I'm not sure.

What is the point of using different colors on a cool map?

I'm not sure.

What changes were made to the BSoB?

I'm not sure.

What are some of the process type groups Windows 9 implemented?

I'm not sure.

How can users find out more about obscure Windows 9 processes?

I'm not sure.


New security features in Windows 8 include two new authentication methods tailored towards touchscreens (PINs and picture passwords), the addition of antivirus capabilities to Windows Defender (bringing it in parity with Microsoft Security Essentials). SmartScreen filtering integrated into Windows, Family Safety offers Parental controls, which allows parents to monitor and manage their children's activities on a device with activity reports and safety controls. Windows 8 also provides integrated system recovery through the new "Refresh" and "Reset" functions, including system recovery from USB drive. Windows 8's first security patches would be released on November 13, 2012; it would contain three fixes deemed "critical" by the company.

What new security features did Windows 8 provide?

PINs and picture passwords

What were the new security features in Windows 8 geared at?

touchscreens

What options do Parental controls provide?

allows parents to monitor and manage their children's activities on a device with activity reports and safety controls

What new recovery options did Windows 8 implement?

"Refresh" and "Reset" functions, including system recovery from USB drive

When was the first Windows 8 patch sent out?

November 13, 2012

What new security features did Windows 9 provide?

I'm not sure.

What were the new security features in Windows 9 geared at?

I'm not sure.

What options don't Parental controls provide?

I'm not sure.

What new recovery options did Windows 9 implement?

I'm not sure.

When was the first Windows 9 patch sent out?

I'm not sure.


Windows 8 supports a feature of the UEFI specification known as "Secure boot", which uses a public-key infrastructure to verify the integrity of the operating system and prevent unauthorized programs such as bootkits from infecting the device's boot process. Some pre-built devices may be described as "certified" by Microsoft; these must have secure boot enabled by default, and provide ways for users to disable or re-configure the feature. ARM-based Windows RT devices must have secure boot permanently enabled.

How does secure boot help avert boot process infections?

uses a public-key infrastructure to verify the integrity of the operating system

What requirements do Microsoft certified devices have?

must have secure boot enabled by default, and provide ways for users to disable or re-configure the feature

What must always be enable in ARM-based Windows RT devices?

secure boot

How doesn't secure boot help avert boot process infections?

I'm not sure.

How does insecure boot help avert boot process infections?

I'm not sure.

What requirements don't Microsoft certified devices have?

I'm not sure.

What requirements do Microsoft uncertified devices have?

I'm not sure.

What must always be enable in ARM-based Windows TR devices?

I'm not sure.


Windows 8 provides heavier integration with online services from Microsoft and others. A user can now log in to Windows with a Microsoft account, which can be used to access services and synchronize applications and settings between devices. Windows 8 also ships with a client app for Microsoft's SkyDrive cloud storage service, which also allows apps to save files directly to SkyDrive. A SkyDrive client for the desktop and File Explorer is not included in Windows 8, and must be downloaded separately. Bundled multimedia apps are provided under the Xbox brand, including Xbox Music, Xbox Video, and the Xbox SmartGlass companion for use with an Xbox 360 console. Games can integrate into an Xbox Live hub app, which also allows users to view their profile and gamerscore. Other bundled apps provide the ability to link Flickr and Facebook. Due to Facebook Connect service changes, Facebook support is disabled in all bundled apps effective June 8, 2015.

What is SkyDrive?

cloud storage service

What features does Xbox Live hub offer?

allows users to view their profile and gamerscore

When was Facebook support turned off?

June 8, 2015

What Xbox apps were bundled together?

Xbox Music, Xbox Video, and the Xbox SmartGlass

What service options does Windows online now offer?

can be used to access services and synchronize applications and settings between devices.

What isn't SkyDrive?

I'm not sure.

What features doesn't Xbox Live hub offer?

I'm not sure.

When was Facebook support turned on?

I'm not sure.

What Xbox One apps were bundled together?

I'm not sure.

What service options does Windows offline now offer?

I'm not sure.


Internet Explorer 10 is included as both a desktop program and a touch-optimized app, and includes increased support for HTML5, CSS3, and hardware acceleration. The Internet Explorer app does not support plugins or ActiveX components, but includes a version of Adobe Flash Player that is optimized for touch and low power usage. Initially, Adobe Flash would only work on sites included on a "Compatibility View" whitelist; however, after feedback from users and additional compatibility tests, an update in March 2013 changed this behavior to use a smaller blacklist of sites with known compatibility issues instead, allowing Flash to be used on most sites by default. The desktop version does not contain these limitations.

What forms is Internet Exploer 10 available as?

a desktop program and a touch-optimized app

What limitations were put on Adobe flash to begin with?

a "Compatibility View" whitelist

What improvements were made to Internet Explorer?

increased support for HTML5, CSS3, and hardware acceleration

Where can Adobe Flash now be used?

most sites by default

What forms is Internet Explorer 11 available as?

I'm not sure.

What forms is Internet Explorer 10 unavailable as?

I'm not sure.

What limitations weren't put on Adobe flash to begin with?

I'm not sure.

What improvements weren't made to Internet Explorer?

I'm not sure.

Where can Adobe Flash not be used?

I'm not sure.


Windows 8 also incorporates improved support for mobile broadband; the operating system can now detect the insertion of a SIM card and automatically configure connection settings (including APNs and carrier branding), and reduce its internet usage in order to conserve bandwidth on metered networks. Windows 8 also adds an integrated airplane mode setting to globally disable all wireless connectivity as well. Carriers can also offer account management systems through Windows Store apps, which can be automatically installed as a part of the connection process and offer usage statistics on their respective tile.

What does airplone mode do?

disable all wireless connectivity

Where can Carrier account management systems be found?

Windows Store apps

What registers the insertion of a SIM card?

the operating system

What are some connection settings in Windows 8?

APNs and carrier branding

What doesn't airplane mode do?

I'm not sure.

Where can't Carrier account management systems be found?

I'm not sure.

What never registers the insertion of a SIM card?

I'm not sure.

What registers the insertion of a SMI card?

I'm not sure.

What are some connection settings in Windows 9?

I'm not sure.


Windows 8 introduces a new style of application, Windows Store apps. According to Microsoft developer Jensen Harris, these apps are to be optimized for touchscreen environments and are more specialized than current desktop applications. Apps can run either in a full-screen mode, or be snapped to the side of a screen. Apps can provide toast notifications on screen or animate their tiles on the Start screen with dynamic content. Apps can use "contracts"; a collection of hooks to provide common functionality that can integrate with other apps, including search and sharing. Apps can also provide integration with other services; for example, the People app can connect to a variety of different social networks and services (such as Facebook, Skype, and People service), while the Photos app can aggregate photos from services such as Facebook and Flickr.

Who is Jensen Harris?

Microsoft developer

What apps can one expect the People app to match with?

Facebook, Skype, and People service

What apps can one expect the Photos app to match with?

Facebook and Flickr

What makes Windows Store apps unique?

apps are to be optimized for touchscreen environments and are more specialized than current desktop applications.

What are contracts?

collection of hooks to provide common functionality that can integrate with other apps

Who isn't Jensen Harris?

I'm not sure.

What apps can't one expect the People app to match with?

I'm not sure.

What apps can't one expect the Photos app to match with?

I'm not sure.

What makes Windows Store apps un-unique?

I'm not sure.

What aren't contracts?

I'm not sure.


Windows Store apps run within a new set of APIs known as Windows Runtime, which supports programming languages such as C, C++, Visual Basic .NET, C#, along with HTML5 and JavaScript. If written in some "high-level" languages, apps written for Windows Runtime can be compatible with both Intel and ARM versions of Windows, otherwise they are not binary code compatible. Components may be compiled as Windows Runtime Components, permitting consumption by all compatible languages. To ensure stability and security, apps run within a sandboxed environment, and require permissions to access certain functionality, such as accessing the Internet or a camera.

What programming languages does Windows Runtime work with?

C, C++, Visual Basic .NET, C#, along with HTML5 and JavaScript

What makes Windows apps binary code compatible?

If written in some "high-level" languages

What does compiling components as Windows Runtime make possible?

permitting consumption by all compatible languages

What kind of environment provides Windows apps extra security?

sandboxed environment

What programming languages does Windows Downtime work with?

I'm not sure.

What programming languages does Windows Runtime work without?

I'm not sure.

What makes Windows apps unary code compatible?

I'm not sure.

What does compiling components as Windows Runtime make impossible?

I'm not sure.

What kind of environment provides Windows apps less security?

I'm not sure.