In the 1890s, the recording formats of the earliest (toy) discs were mainly 12.5 cm (nominally five inches) in diameter; by the mid-1890s, the discs were usually 7 in (nominally 17.5 cm) in diameter. By 1910 the 10-inch (25.4 cm) record was by far the most popular standard, holding about three minutes of music or other entertainment on a side. From 1903 onwards, 12-inch records (30.5 cm) were also sold commercially, mostly of classical music or operatic selections, with four to five minutes of music per side. Victor, Brunswick and Columbia also issued 12-inch popular medleys, usually spotlighting a Broadway show score. However, other sizes did appear. Eight-inch discs with a 2-inch-diameter (51 mm) label became popular for about a decade in Britain, but they cannot be played in full on most modern record players because the tone arm cannot play far enough in toward the center without modification of the equipment.

What was the most popular sized disc by 1910?

How long could a recording be on a 10 inch disc in the 1903?

four to five minutes of music per side

How small were the earliest discs released?

12.5 cm

What was one requirement issue with discs popular in Britain?

modification of the equipment

Which disc could hold about three minutes of recording on either side?


The playing time of a phonograph record depended on the turntable speed and the groove spacing. At the beginning of the 20th century, the early discs played for two minutes, the same as early cylinder records. The 12-inch disc, introduced by Victor in 1903, increased the playing time to three and a half minutes. Because a 10-inch 78 rpm record could hold about three minutes of sound per side and the 10-inch size was the standard size for popular music, almost all popular recordings were limited to around three minutes in length. For example, when King Oliver's Creole Jazz Band, including Louis Armstrong on his first recordings, recorded 13 sides at Gennett Records in Richmond, Indiana, in 1923, one side was 2:09 and four sides were 2:52–2:59.

What factors would effect playing time of a phonograph?

turntable speed and the groove spacing

What was the playing time common in the early 20th century?

two minutes

How many recordings did Kind Oliver's Creole Jazz band require?

What was the normal size disc for popular music?

What was the recording time available on a 12 inch disc?

three and a half minutes


In January 1938, Milt Gabler started recording for his new label, Commodore Records, and to allow for longer continuous performances, he recorded some 12-inch records. Eddie Condon explained: "Gabler realized that a jam session needs room for development." The first two 12-inch recordings did not take advantage of the extra length: "Carnegie Drag" was 3:15; "Carnegie Jump", 2:41. But at the second session, on April 30, the two 12-inch recordings were longer: "Embraceable You" was 4:05; "Serenade to a Shylock", 4:32. Another way around the time limitation was to issue a selection on both sides of a single record. Vaudeville stars Gallagher and Shean recorded "Mr. Gallagher and Mr. Shean", written by Irving and Jack Kaufman, as two sides of a 10-inch 78 in 1922 for Cameo. An obvious workaround for longer recordings was to release a set of records. An early multi-record release was in 1903, when HMV in England made the first complete recording of an opera, Verdi's Ernani, on 40 single-sided discs. In 1940, Commodore released Eddie Condon and his Band's recording of "A Good Man Is Hard to Find" in four parts, issued on both sides of two 12-inch 78s. This limitation on the duration of recordings persisted from 1910 until the invention of the LP record, in 1948. In popular music, this time limitation of about 3:30 on a 10-inch 78 rpm record meant that singers usually did not release long pieces on record. One exception is Frank Sinatra's recording of Rodgers and Hammerstein's "Soliloquy", from Carousel, made on May 28, 1946. Because it ran 7:57, longer than both sides of a standard 78 rpm 10-inch record, it was released on Columbia's Masterwork label (the classical division) as two sides of a 12-inch record. The same was true of John Raitt's performance of the song on the original cast album of Carousel, which had been issued on a 78-rpm album set by American Decca in 1945.

On which label did Frank Sinatra release his recording of Soliloquy?

Columbia's Masterwork label

What was a typical recording time of a song in 1948?

about 3:30

What was a way musicians got sounds such short recording times?

release a set of records

How many sides of a disc commonly held a recording?

two sides


German record company Odeon is often said to have pioneered the album in 1909 when it released the Nutcracker Suite by Tchaikovsky on 4 double-sided discs in a specially designed package. (It is not indicated what size the records are.) However, Deutsche Grammophon had produced an album for its complete recording of the opera Carmen in the previous year. The practice of issuing albums does not seem to have been widely taken up by other record companies for many years; however, HMV provided an album, with a pictorial cover, for the 1917 recording of The Mikado (Gilbert & Sullivan).

What was unique about Odeon's 1909 release of the Nutcracker Suite?

4 double-sided discs in a specially designed package

What was one of the first releases with a photo on the cover?

The Mikado (Gilbert & Sullivan)

When were albums said to be pioneered?

What was one of the very first albums released?

Nutcracker Suite by Tchaikovsky


By about 1910,[note 1] bound collections of empty sleeves with a paperboard or leather cover, similar to a photograph album, were sold as record albums that customers could use to store their records (the term "record album" was printed on some covers). These albums came in both 10-inch and 12-inch sizes. The covers of these bound books were wider and taller than the records inside, allowing the record album to be placed on a shelf upright, like a book, suspending the fragile records above the shelf and protecting them.

When could record album covers first be found?

What were early record album covers made of?

empty sleeves with a paperboard or leather cover

What sizes were record album covers available in?

10-inch and 12-inch sizes

How were record album covers intended to be stored?

upright

What was the purpose of record album covers?

protecting them


In the 1930s, record companies began issuing collections of 78 rpm records by one performer or of one type of music in specially assembled albums, typically with artwork on the front cover and liner notes on the back or inside cover. Most albums included three or four records, with two sides each, making six or eight tunes per album. When the 12-inch vinyl LP era began in 1949, the single record often had the same or similar number of tunes as a typical album of 78s, and was still often referred to as an "album".

When were albums as we currently know them widely released?

What is typically found on the front cover of an album?

artwork

How may records were commonly found in an album?

three or four

When did the vinyl LP records Era begin?

How many songs did most albums contain?

six or eight


For collectable or nostalgia purposes, or for the benefit of higher-quality audio playback provided by the 78 rpm speed with newer vinyl records and their lightweight stylus pickups, a small number of 78 rpm records have been released since the major labels ceased production. One of the first attempts at this was in the 1950s, when inventor Ewing Dunbar Nunn founded the label Audiophile Records, which released, in addition to standard 33 1/3 rpm LPs, 78 rpm-mastered albums that were microgroove and pressed on vinyl (as opposed to traditional 78s, with their shellac composition and wider 3-mil sized grooves). This was done by the label mainly to take advantage of the wider audio frequency response that faster speeds like 78 rpm can provide for vinyl microgroove records, hence the label's name (obviously catering to the audiophiles of the 1950s "hi-fi" era, when stereo gear could provide a much wider range of audio than before). Also in the late 1950s, Bell Records released a few budget-priced 7" microgrooved records at 78 rpm.

What are reasons for recent releases of 78 rpm speed vinyls?

collectable or nostalgia purposes

What is a benefit of newer releases of 78 rpm speed vinyls?

higher-quality audio playback

Who released 7" microgrooved records in the 1950s?

Bell Records

What benefits to vinyl have been found in the 1950s?

wider range of audio

Who founded Audiophile Records?

Ewing Dunbar Nunn


In 1968, Reprise planned to release a series of 78 rpm singles from their artists on their label at the time, called the Reprise Speed Series. Only one disc actually saw release, Randy Newman's I Think It's Going to Rain Today, a track from his self-titled debut album (with The Beehive State on the flipside). Reprise did not proceed further with the series due to a lack of sales for the single, and a lack of general interest in the concept. Guitarist & vocalist Leon Redbone released a promotional 78 rpm record in 1978 featuring two songs (Alabama Jubilee and Please Don't Talk About Me When I'm Gone) from his Champagne Charlie album. In 1980 Stiff Records in the United Kingdom issued a 78 by Joe "King" Carrasco containing the songs Buena (Spanish for "good," with the alternate spelling "Bueno" on the label) and Tuff Enuff. Underground comic cartoonist and 78 rpm record collector Robert Crumb released three discs with his Cheap Suit Serenaders in the 1980s.

In what year did Reprise plan to release a series of 78 rpm singles?

Which disc did Reprise release in 78 rpm format?

Think It's Going to Rain Today

What two songs were featured on the 1978 release by Leon Redbone in 78 rpm format?

Alabama Jubilee and Please Don't Talk About Me When I'm Gone

What record company released recordings of 'Buena' and 'Tuff Enuff' in 1980?

Stiff Records

Why did Reprise only release one 78 rpm vinyl?

lack of sales for the single, and a lack of general interest


In the 1990s Rhino Records issued a series of boxed sets of 78 rpm reissues of early rock and roll hits, intended for owners of vintage jukeboxes. This was a disaster because Rhino did not warn customers that their records were made of vinyl, and that the vintage 78 RPM juke boxes were designed with heavy tone arms and steel needles to play the hard shellac records of their time. This failure to warn customers gave the Rhino 78 records a bad reputation,[citation needed] as they were destroyed by old juke boxes and old record players but played very well on newer 78-capable turntables with modern lightweight tone arms and jewel needles.

When was the release by Rhino Records of 78 rpm for jukebox owners?

What was the result of the use of this release of 78 rpm vinyl when used in vintage jukeboxes?

they were destroyed

What was needed to successfully play the newer released 79 rpm vinyl?

lightweight tone arms and jewel needles

For whom was the 1990 release of 78 rpm intended?

owners of vintage jukeboxes

How did the 1990 release of 78 rpm effect Rhino Records?

bad reputation


In 1931, RCA Victor launched the first commercially available vinyl long-playing record, marketed as program-transcription discs. These revolutionary discs were designed for playback at 33 1⁄3 rpm and pressed on a 30 cm diameter flexible plastic disc, with a duration of about ten minutes playing time per side. RCA Victor's early introduction of a long-play disc was a commercial failure for several reasons including the lack of affordable, reliable consumer playback equipment and consumer wariness during the Great Depression. Because of financial hardships that plagued the recording industry during that period (and RCA's own parched revenues), Victor's long-playing records were discontinued by early 1933.

What was the playing time of program-transcription discs?

ten minutes playing time per side

How successful was RCA Victor's program-transcription discs?

commercial failure

When did RCA Victor release long play discs?

Who released the first commercial long play discs?

RCA Victor

By when were long play records discontinued?

early 1933


Vinyl's lower surface noise level than shellac was not forgotten, nor was its durability. In the late 1930s, radio commercials and pre-recorded radio programs being sent to disc jockeys started being stamped in vinyl, so they would not break in the mail. In the mid-1940s, special DJ copies of records started being made of vinyl also, for the same reason. These were all 78 rpm. During and after World War II, when shellac supplies were extremely limited, some 78 rpm records were pressed in vinyl instead of shellac, particularly the six-minute 12-inch (30 cm) 78 rpm records produced by V-Disc for distribution to United States troops in World War II. In the 1940s, radio transcriptions, which were usually on 16-inch records, but sometimes 12-inch, were always made of vinyl, but cut at 33 1⁄3 rpm. Shorter transcriptions were often cut at 78 rpm.

What was a benefit of using vinyl over shellac?

lower surface noise

By the mid 1940s what was the primary material records were made of?

vinyl

What was a factor in shellac availability?

World War II

Which material was more durable,  shellac or vinyl?

vinyl

What material were most mailed records made of?

vinyl


Beginning in 1939, Dr. Peter Goldmark and his staff at Columbia Records and at CBS Laboratories undertook efforts to address problems of recording and playing back narrow grooves and developing an inexpensive, reliable consumer playback system. It took about eight years of study, except when it was suspended because of World War II. Finally, the 12-inch (30 cm) Long Play (LP) 33 1⁄3 rpm microgroove record album was introduced by the Columbia Record Company at a New York press conference on June 18, 1948.

What caused a delay in the production of high quality records?

World War II

Who released the 12 inch LP?

Columbia Record Company

On what date was the 12 inch LP released?

June 18, 1948

In what city was the 12 in LP released?

New York

How long did it take Columbia to produce a consumer friendly long play record?

about eight years


Unwilling to accept and license Columbia's system, in February 1949 RCA Victor, in cooperation of its parent, the Radio Corporation of America, released the first 45 rpm single, 7 inches in diameter with a large center hole. The 45 rpm player included a changing mechanism that allowed multiple disks to be stacked, much as a conventional changer handled 78s. The short playing time of a single 45 rpm side meant that long works, such as symphonies, had to be released on multiple 45s instead of a single LP, but RCA claimed that the new high-speed changer rendered side breaks so brief as to be inaudible or inconsequential. Early 45 rpm records were made from either vinyl or polystyrene. They had a playing time of eight minutes.

What did RCA release to complete against Columbia's LP?

The 45 rpm player

What materials were 45 rpm records made of?

vinyl or polystyrene

What was the play time of a 45 rpm

eight minutes

What was the size of a RCA Victor 45 rpm?

7 inches


One early attempt at lengthening the playing time should be mentioned. At least one manufacturer in the early 1920s, World Records, produced records that played at a constant linear velocity, controlled by Noel Pemberton Billing's patented add-on governor device. As these were played from the outside to the inside, the rotational speed of the records increased as reproduction progressed. This action is similar (although in reverse) to that on the modern compact disc and the CLV version of its predecessor, the Philips Laser Disc.

Who had made an attempt in the 1920s to release a long play time recording?

World Records

What caused the constant linear velocity?

Noel Pemberton Billing's patented add-on governor device

What was a unique feature of World Records records?

played from the outside to the inside

What currently utilized item was World Records CLV similar to?

Philips Laser Disc


In 1925, 78.26 rpm was chosen as the standard because of the introduction of the electrically powered synchronous turntable motor. This motor ran at 3600 rpm, such that a 46:1 gear ratio would produce 78.26 rpm. In parts of the world that used 50 Hz current, the standard was 77.92 rpm (3,000 rpm with a 77:2 ratio), which was also the speed at which a strobe disc with 77 lines would "stand still" in 50 Hz light (92 lines for 60 Hz). After World War II these records were retroactively known as 78s, to distinguish them from other newer disc record formats. Earlier they were just called records, or when there was a need to distinguish them from cylinders, disc records.

What gear ration creates 78.26 rpm?

In what year was 78.26 rpm chosen as standard?

How many rpm did the electrically powered synchronous turanable motor run at?

3600 rpm

Why are these records known as '78s'?

to distinguish them from other newer disc record formats


The older 78 format continued to be mass-produced alongside the newer formats using new materials until about 1960 in the U.S., and in a few countries, such as India (where some Beatles recordings were issued on 78), into the 1960s. For example, Columbia Records' last reissue of Frank Sinatra songs on 78 rpm records was an album called Young at Heart, issued November 1, 1954. As late as the 1970s, some children's records were released at the 78 rpm speed. In the United Kingdom, the 78 rpm single lasted longer than in the United States and the 45 rpm took longer to become popular. The 78 rpm was overtaken in popularity by the 45 rpm in the late 1950s, as teenagers became increasingly affluent.

When did the 45 rpm gain popularity over the 78 rpm

With which crowd did the 45 rpm gain popularity?

teenagers

At which time were the 79 rpm no longer mass produced?

about 1960

On which date did Columbia release it's last 78?

November 1, 1954.

What was the last country to phase out the 78 rpm?

United Kingdom


Some of Elvis Presley's early singles on Sun Records might have sold more copies on 78 than on 45. This is because the majority of those sales in 1954–55 were to the "hillbilly" market in the South and Southwestern United States, where replacing the family 78 rpm player with a new 45 rpm player was a luxury few could afford at the time. By the end of 1957, RCA Victor announced that 78s accounted for less than 10% of Presley's singles sales, essentially announcing the death throes of the 78 rpm format. The last Presley single released on 78 in the United States was RCA Victor 20-7410, I Got Stung/One Night (1958), while the last 78 in the UK was RCA 1194, A Mess Of Blues/Girl Of My Best Friend (1960).

What percentage of Elvis Presley's single sales were of 78s?

less than 10%

What was the last 78 released in the UK by RCA?

A Mess Of Blues/Girl Of My Best Friend

Why did Elvis sales of 78s perform so well in the Southern States?

45 rpm player was a luxury few could afford at the time

On which label did Elvis release his early singles?

Sun Records

What was the last Elvis Presley single released on 78?

I Got Stung/One Night


After World War II, two new competing formats came onto the market and gradually replaced the standard "78": the 33 1⁄3 rpm (often just referred to as the 33 rpm), and the 45 rpm (see above). The 33 1⁄3 rpm LP (for "long-play") format was developed by Columbia Records and marketed in June 1948. RCA Victor developed the 45 rpm format and marketed it in March 1949, each pursuing their own r&d in secret. Both types of new disc used narrower grooves, intended to be played with smaller stylus—typically 0.001 inches (25 µm) wide, compared to 0.003 inches (76 µm) for a 78—so the new records were sometimes called Microgroove. In the mid-1950s all record companies agreed to a common recording standard called RIAA equalization. Prior to the establishment of the standard each company used its own preferred standard, requiring discriminating listeners to use pre-amplifiers with multiple selectable equalization curves.

What two formats replaced the 78?

33 1⁄3 rpm (often just referred to as the 33 rpm), and the 45 rpm

Who developed the 33 1/3 rpm LP?

Columbia Records

When did the 33 1/3 rpm hit the market?

June 1948

When did RCA release their 45 rpm format?

March 1949

When were RIAA standards established?


Some recordings, such as books for the blind, were pressed at 16 2⁄3 rpm. Prestige Records released jazz records in this format in the late 1950s; for example, two of their Miles Davis albums were paired together in this format. Peter Goldmark, the man who developed the 33 1⁄3 rpm record, developed the Highway Hi-Fi 16 2⁄3 rpm record to be played in Chrysler automobiles, but poor performance of the system and weak implementation by Chrysler and Columbia led to the demise of the 16 2⁄3 rpm records. Subsequently, the 16 2⁄3 rpm speed was used for narrated publications for the blind and visually impaired, and were never widely commercially available, although it was common to see new turntable models with a 16 rpm speed setting produced as late as the 1970s.

What was 16 2/3 rpm speed used for?

narrated publications

Who developed the 33 1/3 rpm speed record?

Peter Goldmark

What record format was created for use in Chrysler automobiles?

Highway Hi-Fi 16 2⁄3 rpm record

Why did Chrysler discontinue use of the Hifi 16 2/3 rpm record?

poor performance

To the end of which era could you find 16 rpm setting on record players?


The commercial rivalry between RCA Victor and Columbia Records led to RCA Victor's introduction of what it had intended to be a competing vinyl format, the 7-inch (175 mm) 45 rpm disc. For a two-year period from 1948 to 1950, record companies and consumers faced uncertainty over which of these formats would ultimately prevail in what was known as the "War of the Speeds". (See also format war.) In 1949 Capitol and Decca adopted the new LP format and RCA gave in and issued its first LP in January 1950. The 45 rpm size was gaining in popularity, too, and Columbia issued its first 45s in February 1951. By 1954, 200 million 45s had been sold.

Which two companies were involved in the "War of the Speeds"?

RCA Victor and Columbia Records

Over which years did the "War of the Speeds" last?

1948 to 1950

Which company lost the "War of the Speeds"?

RCA

What speed ultimantly ended up winning the war of the speeds?

45 rpm

By 1945 what was the total sale of 45s?

200 million


Eventually the 12-inch (300 mm) 33 1⁄3 rpm LP prevailed as the predominant format for musical albums, and 10-inch LPs were no longer issued. The last Columbia Records reissue of any Frank Sinatra songs on a 10-inch LP record was an album called Hall of Fame, CL 2600, issued on October 26, 1956, containing six songs, one each by Tony Bennett, Rosemary Clooney, Johnnie Ray, Frank Sinatra, Doris Day, and Frankie Laine. The 10-inch LP however had a longer life in the United Kingdom, where important early British rock and roll albums such as Lonnie Donegan's Lonnie Donegan Showcase and Billy Fury's The Sound of Fury were released in that form. The 7-inch (175 mm) 45 rpm disc or "single" established a significant niche for shorter duration discs, typically containing one item on each side. The 45 rpm discs typically emulated the playing time of the former 78 rpm discs, while the 12-inch LP discs eventually provided up to one half-hour of recorded material per side.

What format of LPs was discontinued?

What was the significance of October 26th, 1956?

The last Columbia Records reissue of any Frank Sinatra songs on a 10-inch LP

In which country did the 10 in LP exist the longest?

United Kingdom

Which format offered up to 1/2 an hour of recordings per side?

12-inch LP

Did the 45 rpm or 12 inch disc offer longer playing time?

12-inch LP


The 45 rpm discs also came in a variety known as extended play (EP), which achieved up to 10–15 minutes play at the expense of attenuating (and possibly compressing) the sound to reduce the width required by the groove. EP discs were cheaper to produce, and were used in cases where unit sales were likely to be more limited or to reissue LP albums on the smaller format for those people who had only 45 rpm players. LP albums could be purchased 1 EP at a time, with four items per EP, or in a boxed set with 3 EPs or 12 items. The large center hole on 45s allows for easier handling by jukebox mechanisms. EPs were generally discontinued by the late 1950s in the U.S. as three- and four-speed record players replaced the individual 45 players. One indication of the decline of the 45 rpm EP is that the last Columbia Records reissue of Frank Sinatra songs on 45 rpm EP records, called Frank Sinatra (Columbia B-2641) was issued on December 7, 1959. The EP lasted considerably longer in Europe, and was a popular format during the 1960s for recordings by artists such as Serge Gainsbourg and the Beatles.

What do the initials EP stand for?

extended play

Why were 45s more popular with jukeboxes?

The large center hole

What format was phased out by the end of the 1950s?

EPs

What was a benefit of EPs over LPs?

EP discs were cheaper


From the mid-1950s through the 1960s, in the U.S. the common home record player or "stereo" (after the introduction of stereo recording) would typically have had these features: a three- or four-speed player (78, 45, 33 1⁄3, and sometimes 16 2⁄3 rpm); with changer, a tall spindle that would hold several records and automatically drop a new record on top of the previous one when it had finished playing, a combination cartridge with both 78 and microgroove styli and a way to flip between the two; and some kind of adapter for playing the 45s with their larger center hole. The adapter could be a small solid circle that fit onto the bottom of the spindle (meaning only one 45 could be played at a time) or a larger adaptor that fit over the entire spindle, permitting a stack of 45s to be played.

What three speeds were sound on most home stereos in the mid 1950's?

78, 45, 33 1⁄3

What feature of 45s required an adapter in most home stereos?

larger center hole.

What feature was found on more home stereos that allowed continuous play between records?

changer

What format was less common but could sometimes be found on home stereos?

16 2⁄3 rpm


RCA 45s were also adapted to the smaller spindle of an LP player with a plastic snap-in insert known as a "spider". These inserts, commissioned by RCA president David Sarnoff and invented by Thomas Hutchison, were prevalent starting in the 1960s, selling in the tens of millions per year during the 45 rpm heyday. In countries outside the U.S., 45s often had the smaller album-sized holes, e.g., Australia and New Zealand, or as in the United Kingdom, especially before the 1970s, the disc had a small hole within a circular central section held only by three or four lands so that it could be easily punched out if desired (typically for use in jukeboxes).

Wy did records outside of the US often have small holes with the ability to punch out the center?

for use in jukeboxes

What were the plastic inserts which would adapt 45s to the smaller spindle of an LP player called?

spider

What invention did Thomas Hutchinson introduce?

spider

Whom were the adaptable inserts for 45s to LPs commissioned by?

RCA president David Sarnoff

How many spiders were sold in the 45 rpm heydays?

tens of millions per year


The term "high fidelity" was coined in the 1920s by some manufacturers of radio receivers and phonographs to differentiate their better-sounding products claimed as providing "perfect" sound reproduction. The term began to be used by some audio engineers and consumers through the 1930s and 1940s. After 1949 a variety of improvements in recording and playback technologies, especially stereo recordings, which became widely available in 1958, gave a boost to the "hi-fi" classification of products, leading to sales of individual components for the home such as amplifiers, loudspeakers, phonographs, and tape players. High Fidelity and Audio were two magazines that hi-fi consumers and engineers could read for reviews of playback equipment and recordings.

What term was coined to differentiate better sounding products in the 1920s?

high fidelity

What magazines provided reviews for audio equipment?

High Fidelity and Audio

What happened in 1958 that changed the home music scene?

variety of improvements in recording and playback technologies

During what years did the term HiFi take off with engineers?

1930s and 1940s

What term would be used when one said they produced perfect sound reproduction?

high fidelity


Stereophonic sound recording, which attempts to provide a more natural listening experience by reproducing the spatial locations of sound sources in the horizontal plane, was the natural extension to monophonic recording, and attracted various alternative engineering attempts. The ultimately dominant "45/45" stereophonic record system was invented by Alan Blumlein of EMI in 1931 and patented the same year. EMI cut the first stereo test discs using the system in 1933 (see Bell Labs Stereo Experiments of 1933) although the system was not exploited commercially until much later.

What did Alan Blumlein event?

stereophonic record system

When did EMI create the first stereo discs?

What was the benefit of 45/45 stereo sound?

more natural listening experience

What year was stereo sound patented?

How was the commercial success of stereo sound in the 1930s?

was not exploited commercially until much later.


The development of quadraphonic records was announced in 1971. These recorded four separate sound signals. This was achieved on the two stereo channels by electronic matrixing, where the additional channels were combined into the main signal. When the records were played, phase-detection circuits in the amplifiers were able to decode the signals into four separate channels. There were two main systems of matrixed quadraphonic records produced, confusingly named SQ (by CBS) and QS (by Sansui). They proved commercially unsuccessful, but were an important precursor to later surround-sound systems, as seen in SACD and home cinema today.

What did quadraphonic recording feature?

recorded four separate sound signals.

What was the newest break through in home sound systems in 1971?

development of quadraphonic records

How would the commercial success of quadraphonic records be defined?

commercially unsuccessful

What did developments in quadraphonic recordings inspire?

later surround-sound systems


A different format, CD-4 (not to be confused with compact disc), by RCA, encoded the front-rear difference information on an ultrasonic carrier, which required a special wideband cartridge to capture it on carefully calibrated pickup arm/turntable combinations. CD-4 was even less successful than the two matrixed formats. (A further problem was that no cutting heads were available that could handle the HF information. That was remedied by cutting at half the speed. Later, the special half-speed cutting heads and equalization techniques were employed to get a wider frequency response in stereo with reduced distortion and greater headroom.)

What was a major issue with CD-4 technology?

no cutting heads were available that could handle the HF information

How widespread was the success of CD-4 format?

even less successful than the two matrixed formats

What format was less successful than quadraphonic?

What were potential benefits of the CD-4 format?

reduced distortion and greater headroom

Who created the CD-4 format?

RCA


Under the direction of recording engineer C. Robert Fine, Mercury Records initiated a minimalist single microphone monaural recording technique in 1951. The first record, a Chicago Symphony Orchestra performance of Pictures at an Exhibition, conducted by Rafael Kubelik, was described as "being in the living presence of the orchestra" by The New York Times music critic. The series of records was then named Mercury Living Presence. In 1955, Mercury began three-channel stereo recordings, still based on the principle of the single microphone. The center (single) microphone was of paramount importance, with the two side mics adding depth and space. Record masters were cut directly from a three-track to two-track mixdown console, with all editing of the master tapes done on the original three-tracks. In 1961, Mercury enhanced this technique with three-microphone stereo recordings using 35 mm magnetic film instead of half-inch tape for recording. The greater thickness and width of 35 mm magnetic film prevented tape layer print-through and pre-echo and gained extended frequency range and transient response. The Mercury Living Presence recordings were remastered to CD in the 1990s by the original producer, Wilma Cozart Fine, using the same method of 3-to-2 mix directly to the master recorder.

For which company did C. Robert Fine work for?

Mercury Records

What benefits were found in using the 35mm magnetic film?

prevented tape layer print-through and pre-echo and gained extended frequency range and transient response

Who developed the 3-to-2 mix to create lifelike recordings?

Mercury

Which microphone hold the most importance in 3 microphone recording?

The center

In which year did Mercury begin 3 channel stereo recording?


Through the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s, various methods to improve the dynamic range of mass-produced records involved highly advanced disc cutting equipment. These techniques, marketed, to name two, as the CBS DisComputer and Teldec Direct Metal Mastering, were used to reduce inner-groove distortion. RCA Victor introduced another system to reduce dynamic range and achieve a groove with less surface noise under the commercial name of Dynagroove. Two main elements were combined: another disk material with less surface noise in the groove and dynamic compression for masking background noise. Sometimes this was called "diaphragming" the source material and not favoured by some music lovers for its unnatural side effects. Both elements were reflected in the brandname of Dynagroove, described elsewhere in more detail. It also used the earlier advanced method of forward-looking control on groove spacing with respect to volume of sound and position on the disk. Lower recorded volume used closer spacing; higher recorded volume used wider spacing, especially with lower frequencies. Also, the higher track density at lower volumes enabled disk recordings to end farther away from the disk center than usual, helping to reduce endtrack distortion even further.

What technique were used to reduce inner-groove distortion?

CBS DisComputer and Teldec Direct Metal Mastering

Who developed the Dynagroove format?

RCA Victor

Why did some music lovers frown upon diaphragming?

unnatural side effects

What did closer groove spacing result in?

Lower recorded volume

What would be found with higher recorded volumes?

wider spacing


Also in the late 1970s, "direct-to-disc" records were produced, aimed at an audiophile niche market. These completely bypassed the use of magnetic tape in favor of a "purist" transcription directly to the master lacquer disc. Also during this period, half-speed mastered and "original master" records were released, using expensive state-of-the-art technology. A further late 1970s development was the Disco Eye-Cued system used mainly on Motown 12-inch singles released between 1978 and 1980. The introduction, drum-breaks, or choruses of a track were indicated by widely separated grooves, giving a visual cue to DJs mixing the records. The appearance of these records is similar to an LP, but they only contain one track each side.

How did Disco Eye-Cued system benefit DJs?

visual cue to DJs mixing the records

How did Disco Eye-Cued sysems differ from LPs?

only contain one track each side

When was the Disco Eye-Cued System developed?

late 1970s

What were direct to disc recordings expected to product?

a "purist" transcription

When were 'half speed' and 'digitally remastered' recordings being released?

late 1970s


The mid-1970s saw the introduction of dbx-encoded records, again for the audiophile niche market. These were completely incompatible with standard record playback preamplifiers, relying on the dbx compandor encoding/decoding scheme to greatly increase dynamic range (dbx encoded disks were recorded with the dynamic range compressed by a factor of two in dB: quiet sounds were meant to be played back at low gain and loud sounds were meant to be played back at high gain, via automatic gain control in the playback equipment; this reduced the effect of surface noise on quiet passages). A similar and very short-lived scheme involved using the CBS-developed "CX" noise reduction encoding/decoding scheme.

What was required for quality playback of DBX recordings?

automatic gain control

When were DBX recordings released?

How compatible were DBX encoded recordings with prior technologies?

completely incompatible with

What was the intention of DBX encoded recordings?

reduced the effect of surface noise on quiet passages

What did CBS develop in order to reduce outside noise?

"CX" noise reduction


ELPJ, a Japanese-based company, sells a laser turntable that uses a laser to read vinyl discs optically, without physical contact. The laser turntable eliminates record wear and the possibility of accidental scratches, which degrade the sound, but its expense limits use primarily to digital archiving of analog records, and the laser does not play back colored vinyl or picture discs. Various other laser-based turntables were tried during the 1990s, but while a laser reads the groove very accurately, since it does not touch the record, the dust that vinyl attracts due to static electric charge is not mechanically pushed out of the groove, worsening sound quality in casual use compared to conventional stylus playback.

What company out of Japan offered laser turntables that read vinyl discs optically?

ELPJ

What was a benedit of laser read discs?

eliminates record wear

What was a drawback of laser read discs?

degrade the sound

What was the primary use of laser read discs?

archiving of analog records

What was a major issue for laser read discs?

dust


In some ways similar to the laser turntable is the IRENE scanning machine for disc records, which images with microphotography in two dimensions, invented by a team of physicists at Lawrence Berkeley Laboratories. IRENE will retrieve the information from a laterally modulated monaural grooved sound source without touching the medium itself, but cannot read vertically modulated information. This excludes grooved recordings such as cylinders and some radio transcriptions that feature a hill-and-dale format of recording, and stereophonic or quadraphonic grooved recordings, which utilize a combination of the two as well as supersonic encoding for quadraphonic.

Who is Irene?

scanning machine for disc records

Where was IRENE developed?

Lawrence Berkeley Laboratories

What is the primary use of IRENE?

retrieve the information

Can IRENE read vertically modulated information?

cannot read vertically modulated information

Does IRENE require the  ability to touch the media?

without touching the medium


Terms such as "long-play" (LP) and "extended-play" (EP) describe multi-track records that play much longer than the single-item-per-side records, which typically do not go much past four minutes per side. An LP can play for up to 30 minutes per side, though most played for about 22 minutes per side, bringing the total playing time of a typical LP recording to about forty-five minutes. Many pre-1952 LPs, however, played for about 15 minutes per side. The 7-inch 45 rpm format normally contains one item per side but a 7-inch EP could achieve recording times of 10 to 15 minutes at the expense of attenuating and compressing the sound to reduce the width required by the groove. EP discs were generally used to make available tracks not on singles including tracks on LPs albums in a smaller, less expensive format for those who had only 45 rpm players. The large center hole on 7-inch 45 rpm records allows for easier handling by jukebox mechanisms. The term "album", originally used to mean a "book" with liner notes, holding several 78 rpm records each in its own "page" or sleeve, no longer has any relation to the physical format: a single LP record, or nowadays more typically a compact disc.

What terms are used for recording with more than one track?

long-play" (LP) and "extended-play" (EP

What is a typical max playing time of an LP?

forty-five minutes

Which format is cheaper, LP or EP?

LPs

Which format held recordings ranging from 10 to 15 minutes?

7-inch EP

What was a normal play time per side for LPs?

22 minutes


In March 1949, as RCA released the 45, Columbia released several hundred 7 inch 33 1/3 rpm small spindle hole singles. This format was soon dropped as it became clear that the RCA 45 was the single of choice and the Columbia 12 inch LP would be the 'album' of choice. The first release of the 45 came in seven colors: black 47-xxxx popular series, yellow 47-xxxx juvenile series, green (teal) 48-xxxx country series, deep red 49-xxxx classical series, bright red (cerise) 50-xxxx blues/spiritual series, light blue 51-xxxx international series, dark blue 52-xxxx light classics. All colors were soon dropped in favor of black because of production problems. However, yellow and deep red were continued until about 1952. The first 45 rpm record created for sale was "PeeWee the Piccolo" RCA 47-0147 pressed in yellow translucent vinyl at the Sherman Avenue plant, Indianapolis Dec. 7, 1948, R.O. Price, plant manager.

Which colors of 45 were available as late as 1952 before being discontinued?

yellow and deep red

PeeWee the Piccolo was what?

The first 45 rpm record created for sale

What significance does Dec 7/ 1948 hold?

The first 45 rpm record created for sale

How many colors were 45s available in when first released?

seven colors

When did RCA release the 45?

March 1949


The normal commercial disc is engraved with two sound-bearing concentric spiral grooves, one on each side, running from the outside edge towards the center. The last part of the spiral meets an earlier part to form a circle. The sound is encoded by fine variations in the edges of the groove that cause a stylus (needle) placed in it to vibrate at acoustic frequencies when the disc is rotated at the correct speed. Generally, the outer and inner parts of the groove bear no intended sound (an exception is Split Enz's Mental Notes).

In which direction does the groove in a normal disc run?

outside edge towards the center

How is sound encoded on a commercial disc?

by fine variations

Does it matter at which speed a disc is spun?

correct speed

Do all grooves bear data?

no


Towards the center, at the end of the groove, there is another wide-pitched section known as the lead-out. At the very end of this section the groove joins itself to form a complete circle, called the lock groove; when the stylus reaches this point, it circles repeatedly until lifted from the record. On some recordings (for example Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band by The Beatles, Super Trouper by Abba and Atom Heart Mother by Pink Floyd), the sound continues on the lock groove, which gives a strange repeating effect. Automatic turntables rely on the position or angular velocity of the arm, as it reaches the wider spacing in the groove, to trigger a mechanism that lifts the arm off the record. Precisely because of this mechanism, most automatic turntables are incapable of playing any audio in the lock groove, since they will lift the arm before it reaches that groove.

What is a 'lead out'?

wide-pitched section

What is the center where the data joins to complete a circle?

lock groove

Do turntables play music on lock grooves?

most automatic turntables are incapable

What do most automatic turn tables do when they meet a lock groove?

lift the arm

Where do you find a lead out?

Towards the center, at the end of the groove


When auto-changing turntables were commonplace, records were typically pressed with a raised (or ridged) outer edge and a raised label area, allowing records to be stacked onto each other without the delicate grooves coming into contact, reducing the risk of damage. Auto-changers included a mechanism to support a stack of several records above the turntable itself, dropping them one at a time onto the active turntable to be played in order. Many longer sound recordings, such as complete operas, were interleaved across several 10-inch or 12-inch discs for use with auto-changing mechanisms, so that the first disk of a three-disk recording would carry sides 1 and 6 of the program, while the second disk would carry sides 2 and 5, and the third, sides 3 and 4, allowing sides 1, 2, and 3 to be played automatically; then the whole stack reversed to play sides 4, 5, and 6.

Where were records made with raised label areas?

reducing the risk of damage

Are longer recordings, as found in operas, made for use with auto-changing systems?

interleaved across several 10-inch or 12-inch discs for use with auto-changing mechanisms

Do grooves on records touch when stacked?

allowing records to be stacked onto each other without the delicate grooves coming into contact

Do records touch when in auto changers?

Auto-changers included a mechanism to support a stack


New or "virgin" heavy/heavyweight (180–220 g) vinyl is commonly used for modern audiophile vinyl releases in all genres. Many collectors prefer to have heavyweight vinyl albums, which have been reported to have better sound than normal vinyl because of their higher tolerance against deformation caused by normal play. 180 g vinyl is more expensive to produce only because it uses more vinyl. Manufacturing processes are identical regardless of weight. In fact, pressing lightweight records requires more care. An exception is the propensity of 200 g pressings to be slightly more prone to non-fill, when the vinyl biscuit does not sufficiently fill a deep groove during pressing (percussion or vocal amplitude changes are the usual locations of these artifacts). This flaw causes a grinding or scratching sound at the non-fill point.

What is the most used material for modern audiophile vinyl releases?

New or "virgin" heavy/heavyweight (180–220 g) vinyl

What is the material preference of collectors?

heavyweight vinyl

How does the manufacturing process differ between heavyweight and normal vinyl?

Manufacturing processes are identical

Would would a non filled area in a vinyl press cause when listening to a record?

grinding or scratching sound

Which pressing of vinyl require more attention to detail, lightweight or heavyweight?

lightweight records requires more care


The "orange peel" effect on vinyl records is caused by worn molds. Rather than having the proper mirror-like finish, the surface of the record will have a texture that looks like orange peel. This introduces noise into the record, particularly in the lower frequency range. With direct metal mastering (DMM), the master disc is cut on a copper-coated disc, which can also have a minor "orange peel" effect on the disc itself. As this "orange peel" originates in the master rather than being introduced in the pressing stage, there is no ill effect as there is no physical distortion of the groove.

What is an effect of using worn molds when casting records?

The "orange peel" effect

What is the expected finish of a vinyl record?

mirror-like

What is the effect on a copy if a master as an orange peel effect?

there is no ill effect

On what frequencies is an orange peel effect most noticeable?

lower frequency range

What material is on a direct metal mastering disc?

copper


Original master discs are created by lathe-cutting: a lathe is used to cut a modulated groove into a blank record. The blank records for cutting used to be cooked up, as needed, by the cutting engineer, using what Robert K. Morrison describes as a "metallic soap," containing lead litharge, ozokerite, barium sulfate, montan wax, stearin and paraffin, among other ingredients. Cut "wax" sound discs would be placed in a vacuum chamber and gold-sputtered to make them electrically conductive for use as mandrels in an electroforming bath, where pressing stamper parts were made. Later, the French company Pyral invented a ready-made blank disc having a thin nitro-cellulose lacquer coating (approximately 7 mils thickness on both sides) that was applied to an aluminum substrate. Lacquer cuts result in an immediately playable, or processable, master record. If vinyl pressings are wanted, the still-unplayed sound disc is used as a mandrel for electroforming nickel records that are used for manufacturing pressing stampers. The electroformed nickel records are mechanically separated from their respective mandrels. This is done with relative ease because no actual "plating" of the mandrel occurs in the type of electrodeposition known as electroforming, unlike with electroplating, in which the adhesion of the new phase of metal is chemical and relatively permanent. The one-molecule-thick coating of silver (that was sprayed onto the processed lacquer sound disc in order to make its surface electrically conductive) reverse-plates onto the nickel record's face. This negative impression disc (having ridges in place of grooves) is known as a nickel master, "matrix" or "father." The "father" is then used as a mandrel to electroform a positive disc known as a "mother". Many mothers can be grown on a single "father" before ridges deteriorate beyond effective use. The "mothers" are then used as mandrels for electroforming more negative discs known as "sons". Each "mother" can be used to make many "sons" before deteriorating. The "sons" are then converted into "stampers" by center-punching a spindle hole (which was lost from the lacquer sound disc during initial electroforming of the "father"), and by custom-forming the target pressing profile. This allows them to be placed in the dies of the target (make and model) record press and, by center-roughing, to facilitate the adhesion of the label, which gets stuck onto the vinyl pressing without any glue. In this way, several million vinyl discs can be produced from a single lacquer sound disc. When only a few hundred discs are required, instead of electroforming a "son" (for each side), the "father" is removed of its silver and converted into a stamper. Production by this latter method, known as the "two-step-process" (as it does not entail creation of "sons" but does involve creation of "mothers," which are used for test playing and kept as "safeties" for electroforming future "sons") is limited to a few hundred vinyl pressings. The pressing count can increase if the stamper holds out and the quality of the vinyl is high. The "sons" made during a "three-step" electroforming make better stampers since they don't require silver removal (which reduces some high fidelity because of etching erasing part of the smallest groove modulations) and also because they have a stronger metal structure than "fathers".

What is the two step process?

"father" is removed of its silver and converted into a stamper

What is the limitation of the two step process?

limited to a few hundred vinyl pressings

Which is preferred the two step or three step process?

three-step

Which have stronger structures the father or son mold?

sons

What can increase the output of a stamper mold?

quality of the vinyl is high


Breakage was very common in the shellac era. In the 1934 John O'Hara novel, Appointment in Samarra, the protagonist "broke one of his most favorites, Whiteman's Lady of the Evening ... He wanted to cry but could not." A poignant moment in J. D. Salinger's 1951 novel The Catcher in the Rye occurs after the adolescent protagonist buys a record for his younger sister but drops it and "it broke into pieces ... I damn-near cried, it made me feel so terrible." A sequence where a school teacher's collection of 78 rpm jazz records is smashed by a group of rebellious students is a key moment in the film Blackboard Jungle.

What was a known issue of using shellac to make records?

Breakage was very common

In which novel does 'Whiteman's Lady of the Evening" record get broken?

John O'Hara novel, Appointment in Samarra

In Blackboard Jungle what record breaking mention is made?

teacher's collection of 78 rpm jazz records is smashed


Vinyl records do not break easily, but the soft material is easily scratched. Vinyl readily acquires a static charge, attracting dust that is difficult to remove completely. Dust and scratches cause audio clicks and pops. In extreme cases, they can cause the needle to skip over a series of grooves, or worse yet, cause the needle to skip backwards, creating a "locked groove" that repeats over and over. This is the origin of the phrase "like a broken record" or "like a scratched record", which is often used to describe a person or thing that continually repeats itself. Locked grooves are not uncommon and were even heard occasionally in radio broadcasts.

What causes clicks and pops on vinyl records?

Dust and scratches

What is the cause of lock grooves on vinyl records?

Dust and scratches

Where does the saying "Like a broken record" originate?

locked groove

How easily do vinyl records break?

Vinyl records do not break easily

What is a common damage to vinyl records?

easily scratched.


Vinyl records can be warped by heat, improper storage, exposure to sunlight, or manufacturing defects such as excessively tight plastic shrinkwrap on the album cover. A small degree of warp was common, and allowing for it was part of the art of turntable and tonearm design. "wow" (once-per-revolution pitch variation) could result from warp, or from a spindle hole that was not precisely centered. Standard practice for LPs was to place the LP in a paper or plastic inner cover. This, if placed within the outer cardboard cover so that the opening was entirely within the outer cover, was said to reduce ingress of dust onto the record surface. Singles, with rare exceptions, had simple paper covers with no inner cover.

What causes warping in vinyl records?

heat, improper storage, exposure to sunlight, or manufacturing defects

What is a cause of once per revolution pitch variation?

warp, or from a spindle hole that was not precisely centered

What method was used to protect a vinyl record?

place the LP in a paper or plastic inner cover

What were often found with a paper outter cover and no inner cover?

Singles

What happens if a vinyl comes with a bit of warp?

A small degree of warp was common,


A further limitation of the gramophone record is that fidelity steadily declines as playback progresses; there is more vinyl per second available for fine reproduction of high frequencies at the large-diameter beginning of the groove than exist at the smaller-diameters close to the end of the side. At the start of a groove on an LP there are 510 mm of vinyl per second traveling past the stylus while the ending of the groove gives 200–210 mm of vinyl per second — less than half the linear resolution. Distortion towards the end of the side is likely to become more apparent as record wear increases.*

When is distortion most common on a gramophone record?

Distortion towards the end of the side

What happens as a record wears?

Distortion

What is a drawback of using gramophones?

fidelity steadily declines as playback progresses

How much vinyl can be found at the start of an LP?

510 mm

Where can you find only 200-210mm of vinyl?

ending of the groove


Tonearm skating forces and other perturbations are also picked up by the stylus. This is a form of frequency multiplexing as the control signal (restoring force) used to keep the stylus in the groove is carried by the same mechanism as the sound itself. Subsonic frequencies below about 20 Hz in the audio signal are dominated by tracking effects, which is one form of unwanted rumble ("tracking noise") and merges with audible frequencies in the deep bass range up to about 100 Hz. High fidelity sound equipment can reproduce tracking noise and rumble. During a quiet passage, woofer speaker cones can sometimes be seen to vibrate with the subsonic tracking of the stylus, at frequencies as low as just above 0.5 Hz (the frequency at which a 33 1⁄3 rpm record turns on the turntable; 5⁄9 Hz exactly on an ideal turntable). Another reason for very low frequency material can be a warped disk: its undulations produce frequencies of only a few hertz and present day amplifiers have large power bandwidths. For this reason, many stereo receivers contained a switchable subsonic filter. Some subsonic content is directly out of phase in each channel. If played back on a mono subwoofer system, the noise will cancel, significantly reducing the amount of rumble that is reproduced.

What would be a cause of low frequency sounds when listening?

warped disk

What is a feature many stereos contain to fight back against unwanted noises?

subsonic filter

What is a sounds commonly heard when listening to a vinyl that is unintentional.

Tonearm skating

Which frequencies are you most likely to hear tonearm skating?

frequencies below about 20 Hz

Are there any visual signs of tracking when listening to a record?

cones can sometimes be seen to vibrate with the subsonic tracking


Due to recording mastering and manufacturing limitations, both high and low frequencies were removed from the first recorded signals by various formulae. With low frequencies, the stylus must swing a long way from side to side, requiring the groove to be wide, taking up more space and limiting the playing time of the record. At high frequencies, hiss, pops, and ticks are significant. These problems can be reduced by using equalization to an agreed standard. During recording the amplitude of low frequencies is reduced, thus reducing the groove width required, and the amplitude at high frequencies is increased. The playback equipment boosts bass and cuts treble so as to restore the tonal balance in the original signal; this also reduces the high frequency noise. Thus more music will fit on the record, and noise is reduced.

What is a limitation of low frequency recordings?

limiting the playing time

What kinds of unwanted sounds are often heard at high frequencies?

hiss, pops, and ticks

What is done during recordings to help reduce unwanted sounds?

amplitude of low frequencies is reduced

What is a benefit of using equalization devices?

problems can be reduced

What is done to high frequency  sounds to lessen sound issues?

amplitude at high frequencies is increased


In 1926 Joseph P. Maxwell and Henry C. Harrison from Bell Telephone Laboratories disclosed that the recording pattern of the Western Electric "rubber line" magnetic disc cutter had a constant velocity characteristic. This meant that as frequency increased in the treble, recording amplitude decreased. Conversely, in the bass as frequency decreased, recording amplitude increased. Therefore, it was necessary to attenuate the bass frequencies below about 250 Hz, the bass turnover point, in the amplified microphone signal fed to the recording head. Otherwise, bass modulation became excessive and overcutting took place into the next record groove. When played back electrically with a magnetic pickup having a smooth response in the bass region, a complementary boost in amplitude at the bass turnover point was necessary. G. H. Miller in 1934 reported that when complementary boost at the turnover point was used in radio broadcasts of records, the reproduction was more realistic and many of the musical instruments stood out in their true form.

Whom found that they can make musical instruments sound more natural with an amplifier boost at the turnover point?

G. H. Miller

What is found when a complementary boost is used at the bass turnover point?

reproduction was more realistic

When frequency in the treble increases what happens to the recording amplitude?

recording amplitude decreased

What happens when frequency decreases in the bass?

recording amplitude increased


West in 1930 and later P. G. A. H. Voigt (1940) showed that the early Wente-style condenser microphones contributed to a 4 to 6 dB midrange brilliance or pre-emphasis in the recording chain. This meant that the electrical recording characteristics of Western Electric licensees such as Columbia Records and Victor Talking Machine Company in the 1925 era had a higher amplitude in the midrange region. Brilliance such as this compensated for dullness in many early magnetic pickups having drooping midrange and treble response. As a result, this practice was the empirical beginning of using pre-emphasis above 1,000 Hz in 78 rpm and 33 1⁄3 rpm records.

Whom found Wente-style condenser microphones helpful?

P. G. A. H. Voigt

How were Wente-Style condenser microphones helpful?

pre-emphasis in the recording

When was a pre-emphasis most useful?

above 1,000 Hz

On which recording types were pre-emphasis used most in the 1920s?

78 rpm and 33 1⁄3 rpm

In which Era was this finding most significant?

1925 era


Over the years a variety of record equalization practices emerged and there was no industry standard. For example, in Europe recordings for years required playback with a bass turnover setting of 250–300 Hz and a treble roll-off at 10,000 Hz ranging from 0 to −5 dB or more. In the US there were more varied practices and a tendency to use higher bass turnover frequencies such as 500 Hz as well as a greater treble rolloff like −8.5 dB and even more to record generally higher modulation levels on the record.

What was the industry standard in Europe for record equalization?

there was no industry standard

In which country was the treble roll off greater?

US

Which country prefers a bass turnover setting of 250-300 Hz?

Europe

What was the industry standard on equalization practices?

there was no industry standard

Which country used the most varied equalization practices?

US


Evidence from the early technical literature concerning electrical recording suggests that it wasn't until the 1942–1949 period that there were serious efforts to standardize recording characteristics within an industry. Heretofore, electrical recording technology from company to company was considered a proprietary art all the way back to the 1925 Western Electric licensed method used by Columbia and Victor. For example, what Brunswick-Balke-Collender (Brunswick Corporation) did was different from the practices of Victor.

How far back did records show the art of sound recordings?

How was standardization prior to 1942?

considered a proprietary art

Around what time period was there an attempt made to standardize recordings?


Broadcasters were faced with having to adapt daily to the varied recording characteristics of many sources: various makers of "home recordings" readily available to the public, European recordings, lateral-cut transcriptions, and vertical-cut transcriptions. Efforts were started in 1942 to standardize within the National Association of Broadcasters (NAB), later known as the National Association of Radio and Television Broadcasters (NARTB). The NAB, among other items, issued recording standards in 1949 for laterally and vertically cut records, principally transcriptions. A number of 78 rpm record producers as well as early LP makers also cut their records to the NAB/NARTB lateral standard.

Who made the move to standardize recordings?

National Association of Broadcasters

When were recording standards officially released?

Which recording types were effected by the imposed industry standards?

laterally and vertically cut records, principally transcriptions.

What was one issue of a lack of industry standards?

Broadcasters were faced with having to adapt daily to the varied recording

What is the NAB?

National Association of Broadcasters


The lateral cut NAB curve was remarkably similar to the NBC Orthacoustic curve that evolved from practices within the National Broadcasting Company since the mid-1930s. Empirically, and not by any formula, it was learned that the bass end of the audio spectrum below 100 Hz could be boosted somewhat to override system hum and turntable rumble noises. Likewise at the treble end beginning at 1,000 Hz, if audio frequencies were boosted by 16 dB at 10,000 Hz the delicate sibilant sounds of speech and high overtones of musical instruments could survive the noise level of cellulose acetate, lacquer/aluminum, and vinyl disc media. When the record was played back using a complementary inverse curve, signal-to-noise ratio was improved and the programming sounded more lifelike.

What was a benefit to broadcasters of recording standards?

programming sounded more lifelike.

How did the NBC Othacoustic curve relate to the NAB curve?

remarkably similar

What bass settings were needed to eliminate hum?

below 100 Hz

What helped cause the most life like sound?

using a complementary inverse curve


Ultimately, the New Orthophonic curve was disclosed in a publication by R.C. Moyer of RCA Victor in 1953. He traced RCA Victor characteristics back to the Western Electric "rubber line" recorder in 1925 up to the early 1950s laying claim to long-held recording practices and reasons for major changes in the intervening years. The RCA Victor New Orthophonic curve was within the tolerances for the NAB/NARTB, Columbia LP, and AES curves. It eventually became the technical predecessor to the RIAA curve.

How far back could these recording practices be traced?

What were the recording standards based off from?

long-held recording practices

What became the predecessor to the RIAA curve?

New Orthophonic curve

Who developed the New Orthophonic curve?

RCA Victor

Whom wrote the publication outlining the New Orthophonic curve?

R.C. Moyer


Delicate sounds and fine overtones were mostly lost, because it took a lot of sound energy to vibrate the recording horn diaphragm and cutting mechanism. There were acoustic limitations due to mechanical resonances in both the recording and playback system. Some pictures of acoustic recording sessions show horns wrapped with tape to help mute these resonances. Even an acoustic recording played back electrically on modern equipment sounds like it was recorded through a horn, notwithstanding a reduction in distortion because of the modern playback. Toward the end of the acoustic era, there were many fine examples of recordings made with horns.

What was the quality of sound recordings made with horns at the end of the acoustic era?

many fine examples

What were issues facing play back and recording mechanics?

acoustic limitations

Why do photos show take on horns?

help mute these resonances

How would a record recorded with a horn sound played through modern equipment?

like it was recorded through a horn

What was the cause of delicate and fine sound loss?

took a lot of sound energy


Electric recording which developed during the time that early radio was becoming popular (1925) benefited from the microphones and amplifiers used in radio studios. The early electric recordings were reminiscent tonally of acoustic recordings, except there was more recorded bass and treble as well as delicate sounds and overtones cut on the records. This was in spite of some carbon microphones used, which had resonances that colored the recorded tone. The double button carbon microphone with stretched diaphragm was a marked improvement. Alternatively, the Wente style condenser microphone used with the Western Electric licensed recording method had a brilliant midrange and was prone to overloading from sibilants in speech, but generally it gave more accurate reproduction than carbon microphones.

What technique offered realistic sounds during playback?

Western Electric licensed recording method

At at time was radio gaining popularity?

What type of microphones were losing popularity in the 1920s?

carbon microphones used,

What benefit did the use of the Wente style condenser microphone offer?

brilliant midrange

What was a benefit of early radio recordings?

microphones and amplifiers


It was not unusual for electric recordings to be played back on acoustic phonographs. The Victor Orthophonic phonograph was a prime example where such playback was expected. In the Orthophonic, which benefited from telephone research, the mechanical pickup head was redesigned with lower resonance than the traditional mica type. Also, a folded horn with an exponential taper was constructed inside the cabinet to provide better impedance matching to the air. As a result, playback of an Orthophonic record sounded like it was coming from a radio.

What is one example of an acoustic phonograph on which one would listen to electric recordings?

Victor Orthophonic phonograph

What allowed better sounds inside the cabinet of the orthoponic phonograph?

folded horn with an exponential taper

What adjustments were made to the orthophonic  to accommodate electric recordings?

mechanical pickup head was redesigned with lower resonance than the traditional mica type

Was it common to hear electric recordings on phonographs?

not unusual

How similar was the sound of a orthodontic  record to a radio?

sounded like


Eventually, when it was more common for electric recordings to be played back electrically in the 1930s and 1940s, the overall tone was much like listening to a radio of the era. Magnetic pickups became more common and were better designed as time went on, making it possible to improve the damping of spurious resonances. Crystal pickups were also introduced as lower cost alternatives. The dynamic or moving coil microphone was introduced around 1930 and the velocity or ribbon microphone in 1932. Both of these high quality microphones became widespread in motion picture, radio, recording, and public address applications.

What are two examples of high quality microphones?

moving coil microphone was introduced around 1930 and the velocity or ribbon microphone

What was used to dampen resonances in recordings?

Magnetic pickups

When would you have first found the moving coil microphone?

around 1930

What was a more economical option to magnetic pickups?

Crystal pickups

In what years would you find electronic recordings played electronically?

1930s and 1940s


Over time, fidelity, dynamic and noise levels improved to the point that it was harder to tell the difference between a live performance in the studio and the recorded version. This was especially true after the invention of the variable reluctance magnetic pickup cartridge by General Electric in the 1940s when high quality cuts were played on well-designed audio systems. The Capehart radio/phonographs of the era with large diameter electrodynamic loudspeakers, though not ideal, demonstrated this quite well with "home recordings" readily available in the music stores for the public to buy.

What was a benefit of the use of magnetic pickup cartridge?

high quality cuts

In what era could you find good quality recordings and playbacks at home?

What was a unique feature of the Capeart radio phonographs?

large diameter electrodynamic loudspeakers

How similar were live and recorded versions?

harder to tell the difference


There were important quality advances in recordings specifically made for radio broadcast. In the early 1930s Bell Telephone Laboratories and Western Electric announced the total reinvention of disc recording: the Western Electric Wide Range System, "The New Voice of Action". The intent of the new Western Electric system was to improve the overall quality of disc recording and playback. The recording speed was 33 1⁄3 rpm, originally used in the Western Electric/ERPI movie audio disc system implemented in the early Warner Brothers' Vitaphone "talkies" of 1927.

When was the Western Electric System introduced?

early 1930s

What two companies worked together to develop the Western Electric System?

Bell Telephone Laboratories and Western Electric

What system was used by Warner Brothers?

Western Electric system

What speed was used in the Western Electric System?

33 1⁄3 rpm

What was the Western Electric System believed to do?

improve the overall quality


The newly invented Western Electric moving coil or dynamic microphone was part of the Wide Range System. It had a flatter audio response than the old style Wente condenser type and didn't require electronics installed in the microphone housing. Signals fed to the cutting head were pre-emphasized in the treble region to help override noise in playback. Groove cuts in the vertical plane were employed rather than the usual lateral cuts. The chief advantage claimed was more grooves per inch that could be crowded together, resulting in longer playback time. Additionally, the problem of inner groove distortion, which plagued lateral cuts, could be avoided with the vertical cut system. Wax masters were made by flowing heated wax over a hot metal disc thus avoiding the microscopic irregularities of cast blocks of wax and the necessity of planing and polishing.

What was a benefit of vertical groove cuts?

longer playback time

What could be avoided by using vertical groove cuts?

inner groove distortion

How was the moving coil microphone unique to the Wente type?

didn't require electronics installed in the microphone housing

How was sound improved using the moving coil microphone?

override noise in playback

How was wax used to improve recordings?

avoiding the microscopic irregularities


Vinyl pressings were made with stampers from master cuts that were electroplated in vacuo by means of gold sputtering. Audio response was claimed out to 8,000 Hz, later 13,000 Hz, using light weight pickups employing jeweled styli. Amplifiers and cutters both using negative feedback were employed thereby improving the range of frequencies cut and lowering distortion levels. Radio transcription producers such as World Broadcasting System and Associated Music Publishers (AMP) were the dominant licensees of the Western Electric wide range system and towards the end of the 1930s were responsible for two-thirds of the total radio transcription business. These recordings use a bass turnover of 300 Hz and a 10,000 Hz rolloff of −8.5 dB.

What were used to make vinyl pressings?

master cuts

What were the top licensees of the Western Electric system in the 1930s?

World Broadcasting System and Associated Music Publishers

Who was responsible for 2/3 of all recordings in the 1930s?

World Broadcasting System and Associated Music Publishers

How was gold spluttering used in vinyl creation?

cuts that were electroplated in vacuo by means of gold sputtering


The complete technical disclosure of the Columbia LP by Peter C. Goldmark, Rene' Snepvangers and William S. Bachman in 1949 made it possible for a great variety of record companies to get into the business of making long playing records. The business grew quickly and interest spread in high fidelity sound and the do-it-yourself market for pickups, turntables, amplifier kits, loudspeaker enclosure plans, and AM/FM radio tuners. The LP record for longer works, 45 rpm for pop music, and FM radio became high fidelity program sources in demand. Radio listeners heard recordings broadcast and this in turn generated more record sales. The industry flourished.

When was the business booming for do it yourself sound fanatics?

What kind of recordings worked best for pop music?

45 rpm

What was used for longer recordings?

LP record

What opened doors for long recordings?

The complete technical disclosure of the Columbia LP by Peter C. Goldmark, Rene' Snepvangers and William S. Bachman

What aided in records sales in the 1950s?

Radio listeners heard recordings broadcast


There is a theory that vinyl records can audibly represent higher frequencies than compact discs. According to Red Book specifications, the compact disc has a frequency response of 20 Hz up to 22,050 Hz, and most CD players measure flat within a fraction of a decibel from at least 20 Hz to 20 kHz at full output. Turntable rumble obscures the low-end limit of vinyl but the upper end can be, with some cartridges, reasonably flat within a few decibels to 30 kHz, with gentle roll-off. Carrier signals of Quad LPs popular in the 1970s were at 30 kHz to be out of the range of human hearing. The average human auditory system is sensitive to frequencies from 20 Hz to a maximum of around 20,000 Hz. The upper and lower frequency limits of human hearing vary per person.

What is generally the lowest sound a human can hear?

20 Hz

What is believed to better offer sounds of higher frequencies, compact discs or records?

vinyl records

What is the higher end of typical human hearing?

20,000 Hz

Does the hearing range of the human vary?

The upper and lower frequency limits of human hearing vary per person


For the first several decades of disc record manufacturing, sound was recorded directly on to the "master disc" at the recording studio. From about 1950 on (earlier for some large record companies, later for some small ones) it became usual to have the performance first recorded on audio tape, which could then be processed and/or edited, and then dubbed on to the master disc. A record cutter would engrave the grooves into the master disc. Early versions of these master discs were soft wax, and later a harder lacquer was used. The mastering process was originally something of an art as the operator had to manually allow for the changes in sound which affected how wide the space for the groove needed to be on each rotation.

Who would engrave the master disc of a vinyl record?

record cutter

What was used in first recordings of vinyl records?

soft wax

What was used in final recordings of vinyl records?

harder lacquer

After the 1950s  what was a typical recording process?

first recorded on audio tape, which could then be processed and/or edited, and then dubbed on to the master disc

Where were sound recordings originally made to?

master disc


As the playing of gramophone records causes gradual degradation of the recording, they are best preserved by transferring them onto other media and playing the records as rarely as possible. They need to be stored on edge, and do best under environmental conditions that most humans would find comfortable. The medium needs to be kept clean, but alcohol should only be used on PVC or optical media, not on 78s.[citation needed] The equipment for playback of certain formats (e.g., 16 and 78 rpm) is manufactured only in small quantities, leading to increased difficulty in finding equipment to play the recordings.

Should alcohol be used to clean gramophone recordings?

alcohol should only be used on PVC or optical media

Is gramophone equipment readily available?

manufactured only in small quantities

What is the recommendation of gramophone recordings to preserve integrity?

transferring them onto other media

What is a drawback of gramophone use?

gradual degradation

How are gramophones best stored?

on edge


Where old disc recordings are considered to be of artistic or historic interest, from before the era of tape or where no tape master exists, archivists play back the disc on suitable equipment and record the result, typically onto a digital format, which can be copied and manipulated to remove analog flaws without any further damage to the source recording. For example, Nimbus Records uses a specially built horn record player to transfer 78s. Anyone can do this using a standard record player with a suitable pickup, a phono-preamp (pre-amplifier) and a typical personal computer. However, for accurate transfer, professional archivists carefully choose the correct stylus shape and diameter, tracking weight, equalisation curve and other playback parameters and use high-quality analogue-to-digital converters.

Is it difficult to transfer recording from historic interest to newer technologies?

Anyone can do this

What would offer the highest quality transfers of historic interest?

professional archivists

What would a hobbiest need to transfer historic recordings to digital formats?

standard record player with a suitable pickup, a phono-preamp (pre-amplifier) and a typical personal computer

Is an original destroyed when transferred to digital format?

without any further damage to the source recording

What is one benefit of transferring an older format to a newer format?

manipulated to remove analog flaws


Groove recordings, first designed in the final quarter of the 19th century, held a predominant position for nearly a century—withstanding competition from reel-to-reel tape, the 8-track cartridge, and the compact cassette. In 1988, the compact disc surpassed the gramophone record in unit sales. Vinyl records experienced a sudden decline in popularity between 1988 and 1991, when the major label distributors restricted their return policies, which retailers had been relying on to maintain and swap out stocks of relatively unpopular titles. First the distributors began charging retailers more for new product if they returned unsold vinyl, and then they stopped providing any credit at all for returns. Retailers, fearing they would be stuck with anything they ordered, only ordered proven, popular titles that they knew would sell, and devoted more shelf space to CDs and cassettes. Record companies also deleted many vinyl titles from production and distribution, further undermining the availability of the format and leading to the closure of pressing plants. This rapid decline in the availability of records accelerated the format's decline in popularity, and is seen by some as a deliberate ploy to make consumers switch to CDs, which were more profitable for the record companies.

What was a major cause of declined vinyl sales?

major label distributors restricted their return policies

Which allows for more profits, vinyl or compact discs?

CDs, which were more profitable for the record companies

When did vinyl record sales decline?

between 1988 and 1991

When did compact disc popularity take hold?

When were groove recordings developed?

final quarter of the 19th century,


In spite of their flaws, such as the lack of portability, records still have enthusiastic supporters. Vinyl records continue to be manufactured and sold today, especially by independent rock bands and labels, although record sales are considered to be a niche market composed of audiophiles, collectors, and DJs. Old records and out-of-print recordings in particular are in much demand by collectors the world over. (See Record collecting.) Many popular new albums are given releases on vinyl records and older albums are also given reissues, sometimes on audiophile-grade vinyl.

Are records generally out of print as of date?

Vinyl records continue to be manufactured and sold today

Are albums ever reproduced?

Many popular new albums are given releases

What types of vinyl hold the most popularity?

Old records and out-of-print recordings

Does vinyl record maintain any popularity?

records still have enthusiastic supporters


Many electronic dance music and hip hop releases today are still preferred on vinyl; however, digital copies are still widely available. This is because for disc jockeys ("DJs"), vinyl has an advantage over the CD: direct manipulation of the medium. DJ techniques such as slip-cueing, beatmatching, and scratching originated on turntables. With CDs or compact audio cassettes one normally has only indirect manipulation options, e.g., the play, stop, and pause buttons. With a record one can place the stylus a few grooves farther in or out, accelerate or decelerate the turntable, or even reverse its direction, provided the stylus, record player, and record itself are built to withstand it. However, many CDJ and DJ advances, such as DJ software and time-encoded vinyl, now have these capabilities and more.

What is a reason a DJ would prefer vinyl to CD?

direct manipulation

In what techniques would a DJ require a vinyl record?

slip-cueing, beatmatching, and scratching

Are all turn tables capable of DJ manipulation of vinyl records?

provided the stylus, record player, and record itself are built to withstand it

What is commonly preferred by DJs vinyl or CD?

any electronic dance music and hip hop releases today are still preferred on vinyl

Had vinyl technology ceased expanding?

However, many CDJ and DJ advances, such as DJ software and time-encoded vinyl, now have these capabilities and more.


In 2014 artist Jack White sold 40,000 copies of his second solo release, Lazaretto, on vinyl. The sales of the record beat the largest sales in one week on vinyl since 1991. The sales record was previously held by Pearl Jam's, Vitalogy, which sold 34,000 copies in one week in 1994. In 2014, the sale of vinyl records was the only physical music medium with increasing sales with relation to the previous year. Sales of other mediums including individual digital tracks, digital albums and compact discs have fallen, the latter having the greatest drop-in-sales rate.

Whom set the most recent sales record of vinyl records since 1991?

Jack White

What medium has seen the biggest fall in sales as of late?

compact discs

What was unique to vinyl sales in 2014?

was the only physical music medium with increasing sales with relation to the previous year

Who sold 34,000 vinyl records in 1994?

Pearl Jam

Prior to 2014 when was the most recent large sale of vinyl records?


Historically, the channel's programming consisted mainly of featured classic theatrically released feature films from the Turner Entertainment film library – which comprises films from Warner Bros. Pictures (covering films released before 1950) and Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (covering films released before May 1986). However, TCM now has licensing deals with other Hollywood film studios as well as its Time Warner sister company, Warner Bros. (which now controls the Turner Entertainment library and its own later films), and occasionally shows more recent films. Turner Classic Movies is a dedicated film channel and is available in United States, United Kingdom, France (TCM Cinéma), Spain (TCM España), Nordic countries, Middle East and Africa.

Warner Bros. pictures before what year are part of the Turner Entertainment library?

Up until what month and year of release are films from Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer part of the Turner Entertainment library?

May 1986

What company owns TCM and Warner Bros.?

Time Warner

What is Turner Classic Movies called in France?

TCM Cinéma

What is the Spanish version of Turner Classic Movies?

TCM España

Warner Bros. pictures before what year are part of the TCM?

I'm not sure.

Up until what month and year of release are films from TCM part of the Turner Entertainment Library?

I'm not sure.

What is Turner Classic Movies called in Africa?

I'm not sure.

What is a dedicated licensing channel?

I'm not sure.

Who has licensing deals with libraries?

I'm not sure.


In 1986, eight years before the launch of Turner Classic Movies, Ted Turner acquired the Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer film studio for $1.5 billion. Concerns over Turner Entertainment's corporate debt load resulted in Turner selling the studio that October back to Kirk Kerkorian, from whom Turner had purchased the studio less than a year before. As part of the deal, Turner Entertainment retained ownership of MGM's library of films released up to May 9, 1986. Turner Broadcasting System was split into two companies; Turner Broadcasting System and Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer and reincorporated as MGM/UA Communications Co.

How much did Ted Turner pay for Metro-Goldwyn Mayer?

$1.5 billion

In what year did Ted Turner buy Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer?

Who did Ted Turner sell Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer to?

Kirk Kerkorian

Who did Ted Turner buy Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer from?

Kirk Kerkorian

Up to what date of release did Turner retain ownership of the MGM film library?

May 9, 1986

How much did Ted Turner pay for UA?

I'm not sure.

In what year did Ted Turner buy UA?

I'm not sure.

Who did Ted Turner sell UA to?

I'm not sure.

Who did Ted Turner buy UA from?

I'm not sure.

Up to what date of release did Kerkorian retain ownership of the MGM film library?

I'm not sure.


The film library of Turner Entertainment would serve as the base form of programming for TCM upon the network's launch. Before the creation of Turner Classic Movies, films from Turner's library of movies aired on the Turner Broadcasting System's advertiser-supported cable network TNT – along with colorized versions of black-and-white classics such as The Maltese Falcon. After the library was acquired, MGM/UA signed a deal with Turner to continue distributing the pre-May 1986 MGM and to begin distributing the pre-1950 Warner Bros. film libraries for video release (the rest of the library went to Turner Home Entertainment).

On what network did Turner Entertainment's film library air prior to the creation of TCM?

TNT

What was a notable film that Turner colorized?

The Maltese Falcon

Who did Turner ink a deal with to distribute Warner Bros. films from before 1950?

MGM/UA

The MGM/UA-Turner deal concerned MGM films released prior to what date?

May 1986

On what network did Turner Entertainment's film library air prior to the creation of MGM/UA?

I'm not sure.

What was a notable film that Warner Bros. colorized?

I'm not sure.

Who did Warner Bros. ink a deal with to distribute Warner Bros. films from before 1950?

I'm not sure.

The MGM/UA-Turner deal concerned TCM films released prior to what date?

I'm not sure.

What would serve as the base form of programming for MGM?

I'm not sure.


At the time of its launch, TCM was available to approximately one million cable television subscribers. The network originally served as a competitor to AMC – which at the time was known as "American Movie Classics" and maintained a virtually identical format to TCM, as both networks largely focused on films released prior to 1970 and aired them in an uncut, uncolorized, and commercial-free format. AMC had broadened its film content to feature colorized and more recent films by 2002 and abandoned its commercial-free format, leaving TCM as the only movie-oriented cable channel to devote its programming entirely to classic films without commercial interruption.

How many subscribers had access to TCM upon it launch?

one million

When TCM premiered, what was AMC called?

American Movie Classics

What sorts of films did American Movie Classics primarily show?

released prior to 1970

By what year was AMC showing commercials?

How many subscribers had access to AMC upon its launch?

I'm not sure.

When TCM ended, what was AMC called?

I'm not sure.

What sorts of films did TCM primarily show?

I'm not sure.

By what year was TCM showing commercials?

I'm not sure.

Who originally served as a free format to AMC?

I'm not sure.


In 1996, Turner Broadcasting System merged with Time Warner, which besides placing Turner Classic Movies and Warner Bros. Entertainment under the same corporate umbrella, also gave TCM access to Warner Bros.' library of films released after 1949 (which itself includes other acquired entities such as the Lorimar, Saul Zaentz and National General Pictures libraries); incidentally, TCM had already been running select Warner Bros. film titles through a licensing agreement with the studio that was signed prior to the launch of the channel. In March 1999, MGM paid Warner Bros. and gave up the home video rights to the MGM/UA films owned by Turner to Warner Home Video.

With what company did Turner Broadcasting Systems merge in 1996?

Time Warner

Along with Lorimar and National General Pictures, what library was included in the Warner Bros. library?

Saul Zaentz

When did MGM give Warner Home Video the rights to MGM/UA's films on home video?

March 1999

With what company did Turner Broadcasting Systems merge in 1999?

I'm not sure.

Along with Lorimar and National General Pictures, what library was included in the Time Warner library?

I'm not sure.

When did MGM give Warner Home Video the rights to Turner Broadcasting's films on home video?

I'm not sure.

When did Warner Home Video merge with Time Warner?

I'm not sure.

What placed Warner Bros. Entertainment and Warner Home Video under the same corporate umbrella?

I'm not sure.


In 2000, TCM started the annual Young Composers Film Competition, inviting aspiring composers to participate in a judged competition that offers the winner of each year's competition the opportunity to score a restored, feature-length silent film as a grand prize, mentored by a well-known composer, with the new work subsequently premiering on the network. As of 2006, films that have been rescored include the 1921 Rudolph Valentino film Camille, two Lon Chaney films: 1921's The Ace of Hearts and 1928's Laugh, Clown, Laugh, and Greta Garbo's 1926 film The Temptress.

In what year did TCM begin the Young Composers Film Competition?

How often is the Young Composers Film Competition?

annual

What is the grand prize in the Young Composers Film Competition?

score a restored, feature-length silent film

In what year was Laugh, Clown, Laugh released?

Who starred in The Temptress?

Greta Garbo

In what year did TCM end the Young Composers Film Competition?

I'm not sure.

How often is the TCM?

I'm not sure.

What is the grand prize in the TCM?

I'm not sure.

In what year was TCM realeased?

I'm not sure.

Who starred in he Ace of Hearts?

I'm not sure.


In 2008, TCM won a Peabody Award for excellence in broadcasting. In April 2010, Turner Classic Movies held the first TCM Classic Film Festival, an event – now held annually – at the Grauman's Chinese Theater and the Grauman's Egyptian Theater in Hollywood. Hosted by Robert Osborne, the four-day long annual festival celebrates Hollywood and its movies, and features celebrity appearances, special events, and screenings of around 50 classic movies including several newly restored by the Film Foundation, an organization devoted to preserving Hollywood's classic film legacy.

In what year did TCM receive a Peabody Award?

For what reason is a Peabody Award granted?

excellence in broadcasting

When did the inaugural TCM Classic Film Festival take place?

April 2010

In addition to the Grauman's Chinese Theater, where did the first TCM Classic Film Festival take place?

Grauman's Egyptian Theater

Where is Grauman's Chinese Theater located?

Hollywood

In what year did TCM receive a film legacy?

I'm not sure.

For what reason is a film legacy granted?

I'm not sure.

When did the inaugural TCM film legacy take place?

I'm not sure.

In addition to the Grauman's Chinese Theater, where did the first film legacy take place?

I'm not sure.

Where is the film legacy located?

I'm not sure.


Turner Classic Movies essentially operates as a commercial-free service, with the only advertisements on the network being shown between features – which advertise TCM products, network promotions for upcoming special programs and the original trailers for films that are scheduled to be broadcast on TCM (particularly those that will air during the primetime hours), and featurettes about classic film actors and actresses. In addition to this, extended breaks between features are filled with theatrically released movie trailers and classic short subjects – from series such as The Passing Parade, Crime Does Not Pay, Pete Smith Specialties, and Robert Benchley – under the banner name TCM Extras (formerly One Reel Wonders). In 2007, some of the short films featured on TCM were made available for streaming on TCM's website. Partly to allow these interstitials, Turner Classic Movies schedules its feature films either at the top of the hour or at :15, :30 or :45 minutes past the hour, instead of in timeslots of varying five-minute increments.

What were TCM Extras previously known as?

One Reel Wonders

When did short films from TCM begin to stream on TCM's website?

Along with The Passing Parade, Crime Does Not Pay and Pete Smith Specialties, what short subjects feature on TCM?

Robert Benchley

Along with :45, :30 and :15 past the hour, at what time do TCM features begin?

top of the hour

What were TCM products previously known as?

I'm not sure.

When did short films from TCM begin to stream on Passing Parade's website?

I'm not sure.

What short subjects feature on primetime hours along with The Passing Parade, Crime Does Not Pay and Pete Smith Specialties?

I'm not sure.

Along with :35, :30, and :15 past the hour, at what time does Benchley begin?

I'm not sure.

What are filled with theatricallly released banner names?

I'm not sure.


TCM's film content has remained mostly uncut and uncolorized (with films natively filmed or post-produced in the format being those only ones presented in color), depending upon the original content of movies, particularly movies released after the 1968 implementation of the Motion Picture Association of America's ratings system and the concurrent disestablishment of the Motion Picture Production Code. Because of this, TCM is formatted similarly to a premium channel with certain films – particularly those made from the 1960s onward – sometimes featuring nudity, sexual content, violence and/or strong profanity; the network also features rating bumpers prior to the start of a program (most programs on TCM, especially films, are rated for content using the TV Parental Guidelines, in lieu of the MPAA's rating system).

In what year did the Motion Picture Association of America introduce its rating system?

In what year did the Motion Picture Production Code cease?

What rating system is often used by TCM?

TV Parental Guidelines

In what year did TCM introduce its rating system?

I'm not sure.

In what year did the TCM cease?

I'm not sure.

What rating system is often used by the Motion Picture Association of America?

I'm not sure.

Whose content has remained mostly cut?

I'm not sure.

What bumpers were particularly formatted?

I'm not sure.