Other historians believe that conversion during the Roman era was limited in number and did not account for much of the Jewish population growth, due to various factors such as the illegality of male conversion to Judaism in the Roman world from the mid-2nd century. Another factor that would have made conversion difficult in the Roman world was the halakhic requirement of circumcision, a requirement that proselytizing Christianity quickly dropped. The Fiscus Judaicus, a tax imposed on Jews in 70 CE and relaxed to exclude Christians in 96 CE, also limited Judaism's appeal. In addition, historians argue the very figure (4 million) that had been guessed to account for the population of Jews in the ancient Roman Empire is an error that has long been disproven and thus the assumption that conversion impacted Jewish population growth in ancient Rome on a large scale is false. The 8 million figure is also in doubt as it may refer to a census of total Roman citizens.

What is a tax imposed on Jews in 70 CE?

The Fiscus Judaicus

When did the FIscus Judaicus relax to exclude Christians?

96 CE

Name one reason historians believe the conversion during the Roman era was limited in number and did not account for much of the Jewish population growth?

illegality of male conversion to Judaism

What religion was it legal to convert to in the Roman world from the mid-2nd century?

I'm not sure.

Where was it legal to convert to Judaism?

I'm not sure.

What made conversion easy in the Roman world?

I'm not sure.

When was the Fiscus Judaicus expanded to also include Christians?

I'm not sure.

What was a tax imposed on non Jewish citizens in 70 CE?

I'm not sure.


Within the world's Jewish population there are distinct ethnic divisions, most of which are primarily the result of geographic branching from an originating Israelite population, and subsequent independent evolutions. An array of Jewish communities was established by Jewish settlers in various places around the Old World, often at great distances from one another, resulting in effective and often long-term isolation. During the millennia of the Jewish diaspora the communities would develop under the influence of their local environments: political, cultural, natural, and populational. Today, manifestations of these differences among the Jews can be observed in Jewish cultural expressions of each community, including Jewish linguistic diversity, culinary preferences, liturgical practices, religious interpretations, as well as degrees and sources of genetic admixture.

What resulted in effective and long-term isolation of Jewish communities?

An array of Jewish communities was established by Jewish settlers in various places around the Old World, often at great distances from one another

Name one way Jewish cultural expressions differ in each community?

religious interpretations

Name another way Jewish cultural expressions differ in each community?

culinary preferences

What did not cause ethnic divisions between Jews?

I'm not sure.

Where did Jewish people not settle?

I'm not sure.

What is one way Jewish cultural expressions stayed the same in each community?

I'm not sure.

What is another way Jewish cultural expressions stayed the same in each community?

I'm not sure.

At what time did Jewish communities not develop under the influence of their local environments?

I'm not sure.


Jews are often identified as belonging to one of two major groups: the Ashkenazim and the Sephardim. Ashkenazim, or "Germanics" (Ashkenaz meaning "Germany" in Hebrew), are so named denoting their German Jewish cultural and geographical origins, while Sephardim, or "Hispanics" (Sefarad meaning "Spain/Hispania" or "Iberia" in Hebrew), are so named denoting their Spanish/Portuguese Jewish cultural and geographic origins. The more common term in Israel for many of those broadly called Sephardim, is Mizrahim (lit. "Easterners", Mizrach being "East" in Hebrew), that is, in reference to the diverse collection of Middle Eastern and North African Jews who are often, as a group, referred to collectively as Sephardim (together with Sephardim proper) for liturgical reasons, although Mizrahi Jewish groups and Sephardi Jews proper are ethnically distinct.

Name one major group that Jews are often identified as belonging to.

Ashkenazim

Name another major group that Jews are often identified as belonging to?

Sephardim

What does Ashkenaz mean in Hebrew?

Germany

What is the more common term in Israel for many of those broadly called Sephardim?

Mizrahim

What does Mizrach mean in Hebrew?

East

How many major groups do the Ashkenazim belong to?

I'm not sure.

What term means "Westerners" in Israel?

I'm not sure.

What does Ashkenaz mean in German?

I'm not sure.

What word means "Spain" in Spanish?

I'm not sure.

What two groups are not ethnically distinct?

I'm not sure.


The divisions between all these groups are approximate and their boundaries are not always clear. The Mizrahim for example, are a heterogeneous collection of North African, Central Asian, Caucasian, and Middle Eastern Jewish communities that are no closer related to each other than they are to any of the earlier mentioned Jewish groups. In modern usage, however, the Mizrahim are sometimes termed Sephardi due to similar styles of liturgy, despite independent development from Sephardim proper. Thus, among Mizrahim there are Egyptian Jews, Iraqi Jews, Lebanese Jews, Kurdish Jews, Libyan Jews, Syrian Jews, Bukharian Jews, Mountain Jews, Georgian Jews, Iranian Jews and various others. The Teimanim from Yemen are sometimes included, although their style of liturgy is unique and they differ in respect to the admixture found among them to that found in Mizrahim. In addition, there is a differentiation made between Sephardi migrants who established themselves in the Middle East and North Africa after the expulsion of the Jews from Spain and Portugal in the 1490s and the pre-existing Jewish communities in those regions.

In modern usage, why is Mizrahim sometimes termed Sephardi?

due to similar styles of liturgy

When did the expulsion of Jews from Spain and Portugal occur?

the 1490s

Where are the Teimanim from?

Yemen

What is always clear between these groups?

I'm not sure.

Why are Mizrahim sometimes termed Sephardi in historical usage?

I'm not sure.

What Jews are not included in the Mizrahim?

I'm not sure.

When were the Jews welcomed into Spain and Portugal?

I'm not sure.

Where are the Georgian Jews from?

I'm not sure.


Ashkenazi Jews represent the bulk of modern Jewry, with at least 70% of Jews worldwide (and up to 90% prior to World War II and the Holocaust). As a result of their emigration from Europe, Ashkenazim also represent the overwhelming majority of Jews in the New World continents, in countries such as the United States, Canada, Argentina, Australia, and Brazil. In France, the immigration of Jews from Algeria (Sephardim) has led them to outnumber the Ashkenazim. Only in Israel is the Jewish population representative of all groups, a melting pot independent of each group's proportion within the overall world Jewish population.

What group of Jews represent the bulk of modern Jewry?

Ashkenazi Jews

Which group represents at least 70% of Jews worldwide?

Ashkenazi Jews

Why does Ashkenazim represent the overwhelming majority of Jews in the New World continents?

As a result of their emigration from Europe

In what country does the immigration of Jews from Algeria (Sephardim) has led them to outnumber the Ashkenazim?

France

Who represents the minority of modern Jewry?

I'm not sure.

Which group represents less than 70% of Jews worldwide?

I'm not sure.

What is a country where Ashkenazi Jews have not emigrated to?

I'm not sure.

Why do Sephardim represent the overwhelming majority of Jews in the New World?

I'm not sure.

Where is the Jewish population least representative of all groups?

I'm not sure.


Hebrew is the liturgical language of Judaism (termed lashon ha-kodesh, "the holy tongue"), the language in which most of the Hebrew scriptures (Tanakh) were composed, and the daily speech of the Jewish people for centuries. By the 5th century BCE, Aramaic, a closely related tongue, joined Hebrew as the spoken language in Judea. By the 3rd century BCE, some Jews of the diaspora were speaking Greek. Others, such as in the Jewish communities of Babylonia, were speaking Hebrew and Aramaic, the languages of the Babylonian Talmud. These languages were also used by the Jews of Israel at that time.[citation needed]

What is the liturgical language of Judaism?

Hebrew

What is also termed lason ha-kodesh, "the holy tongue?"

Hebrew

What are the Hebrew scriptures called?

Tanakh

What are the two languages of the Babylonian Talmud?

Hebrew and Aramaic

What is a closely related tongue to Hebrew?

Aramaic

What is Judaism termed?

I'm not sure.

What language did the Jews never speak?

I'm not sure.

How many Jews spoke Greek before the 3rd century BCE?

I'm not sure.

What language was the Babylonian Talmud not written in?

I'm not sure.

What language did the Jews of Israel not use at that time?

I'm not sure.


For centuries, Jews worldwide have spoken the local or dominant languages of the regions they migrated to, often developing distinctive dialectal forms or branches that became independent languages. Yiddish is the Judæo-German language developed by Ashkenazi Jews who migrated to Central Europe. Ladino is the Judæo-Spanish language developed by Sephardic Jews who migrated to the Iberian peninsula. Due to many factors, including the impact of the Holocaust on European Jewry, the Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries, and widespread emigration from other Jewish communities around the world, ancient and distinct Jewish languages of several communities, including Judæo-Georgian, Judæo-Arabic, Judæo-Berber, Krymchak, Judæo-Malayalam and many others, have largely fallen out of use.

What is the Judaeo-German language developed by Ashkenazi Jews who migrated to Central Europe?

Yiddish

What is the Judaeo-Spanish language developed by Sephardic Jews who migrated to the Iberian peninsula?

Ladino

Name one reason the ancient and distinct Jewish languages have largely fallen out of use?

Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries

For how long have Jews not spoken the local languages of the regions they migrated to?

I'm not sure.

What have Jews never spoken?

I'm not sure.

What language was developed by Ashkenazi Jews who migrated to the Iberian peninsula?

I'm not sure.

What was not a factor in Jewish languages falling out of use?

I'm not sure.

What is a Jewish language that has not fallen out of use?

I'm not sure.


Despite efforts to revive Hebrew as the national language of the Jewish people, knowledge of the language is not commonly possessed by Jews worldwide and English has emerged as the lingua franca of the Jewish diaspora. Although many Jews once had sufficient knowledge of Hebrew to study the classic literature, and Jewish languages like Yiddish and Ladino were commonly used as recently as the early 20th century, most Jews lack such knowledge today and English has by and large superseded most Jewish vernaculars. The three most commonly spoken languages among Jews today are Hebrew, English, and Russian. Some Romance languages, particularly French and Spanish, are also widely used. Yiddish has been spoken by more Jews in history than any other language, but it is far less used today following the Holocaust and the adoption of Modern Hebrew by the Zionist movement and the State of Israel. In some places, the mother language of the Jewish community differs from that of the general population or the dominant group. For example, in Quebec, the Ashkenazic majority has adopted English, while the Sephardic minority uses French as its primary language. Similarly, South African Jews adopted English rather than Afrikaans. Due to both Czarist and Soviet policies, Russian has superseded Yiddish as the language of Russian Jews, but these policies have also affected neighboring communities. Today, Russian is the first language for many Jewish communities in a number of Post-Soviet states, such as Ukraine and Uzbekistan, as well as for Ashkenazic Jews in Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Tajikistan. Although communities in North Africa today are small and dwindling, Jews there had shifted from a multilingual group to a monolingual one (or nearly so), speaking French in Algeria, Morocco, and the city of Tunis, while most North Africans continue to use Arabic as their mother tongue.[citation needed]

What language is spoken by more Jews in history than any other language?

Yiddish

North Africans continue to use what language as their mother tongue?

North Africans

What are the three most commonly spoken languages among Jews today?

Hebrew, English, and Russian

South African Jews adopted which language?

English

Which language has by and far superseded most Jewish vernaculars?

English

When was Hebrew last commonly used?

I'm not sure.

What language has surpassed English as a Jewish vernacular?

I'm not sure.

What are the three least commonly spoken languages among Jews?

I'm not sure.

What language have Ashkenazi Jews adopted outside of Quebec?

I'm not sure.

What group has shifted from a monolingual group to a multilingual one?

I'm not sure.


Y DNA studies tend to imply a small number of founders in an old population whose members parted and followed different migration paths. In most Jewish populations, these male line ancestors appear to have been mainly Middle Eastern. For example, Ashkenazi Jews share more common paternal lineages with other Jewish and Middle Eastern groups than with non-Jewish populations in areas where Jews lived in Eastern Europe, Germany and the French Rhine Valley. This is consistent with Jewish traditions in placing most Jewish paternal origins in the region of the Middle East. Conversely, the maternal lineages of Jewish populations, studied by looking at mitochondrial DNA, are generally more heterogeneous. Scholars such as Harry Ostrer and Raphael Falk believe this indicates that many Jewish males found new mates from European and other communities in the places where they migrated in the diaspora after fleeing ancient Israel. In contrast, Behar has found evidence that about 40% of Ashkenazi Jews originate maternally from just four female founders, who were of Middle Eastern origin. The populations of Sephardi and Mizrahi Jewish communities "showed no evidence for a narrow founder effect." Subsequent studies carried out by Feder et al. confirmed the large portion of non-local maternal origin among Ashkenazi Jews. Reflecting on their findings related to the maternal origin of Ashkenazi Jews, the authors conclude "Clearly, the differences between Jews and non-Jews are far larger than those observed among the Jewish communities. Hence, differences between the Jewish communities can be overlooked when non-Jews are included in the comparisons."

Ashkenazi Jews share more common paternal lineages with what group?

Jewish and Middle Eastern groups

Jewish traditions place most Jewish paternal origins in which region?

Middle East

Which lineages are generally more heterogeneous?

maternal lineages

What tends to imply a large number of founders in an old population?

I'm not sure.

What do male line ancestors appear to be outside of Jewish populations?

I'm not sure.

Who believes many Jewish males did not find new mates from European communities?

I'm not sure.

What percent of Ashkenazi Jews originate from four male founders?

I'm not sure.

What did studies carried out by Feder not confirm?

I'm not sure.


Studies of autosomal DNA, which look at the entire DNA mixture, have become increasingly important as the technology develops. They show that Jewish populations have tended to form relatively closely related groups in independent communities, with most in a community sharing significant ancestry in common. For Jewish populations of the diaspora, the genetic composition of Ashkenazi, Sephardi, and Mizrahi Jewish populations show a predominant amount of shared Middle Eastern ancestry. According to Behar, the most parsimonious explanation for this shared Middle Eastern ancestry is that it is "consistent with the historical formulation of the Jewish people as descending from ancient Hebrew and Israelite residents of the Levant" and "the dispersion of the people of ancient Israel throughout the Old World". North African, Italian and others of Iberian origin show variable frequencies of admixture with non-Jewish historical host populations among the maternal lines. In the case of Ashkenazi and Sephardi Jews (in particular Moroccan Jews), who are closely related, the source of non-Jewish admixture is mainly southern European, while Mizrahi Jews show evidence of admixture with other Middle Eastern populations and Sub-Saharan Africans. Behar et al. have remarked on an especially close relationship of Ashkenazi Jews and modern Italians.

What looks at the entire DNA mixture?

autosomal DNA

What has become increasingly important as the technology deveops?

autosomal DNA

Mizrahi Jews show evidence of admixture with whom?

Middle Eastern populations and Sub-Saharan Africans

What looks at a small part of the DNA mixture?

I'm not sure.

What has become less important as technology develops?

I'm not sure.

What does not show shared Middle Eastern ancestry?

I'm not sure.

Who did Behar say has an especially close relationship with Sephardi Jews?

I'm not sure.

What is the least parsimonious explantion for shared Middle Eastern ancestry?

I'm not sure.


The studies also show that the Sephardic Bnei Anusim (descendants of the "anusim" forced converts to Catholicism) of Iberia (estimated at about 19.8% of modern Iberia) and Ibero-America (estimated at least 10% of modern Ibero-America) have Sephardic Jewish origins within the last few centuries, while the Bene Israel and Cochin Jews of India, Beta Israel of Ethiopia, and a portion of the Lemba people of Southern Africa, despite more closely resembling the local populations of their native countries, also have some more remote ancient Jewish descent.

What are Sephardic Bnei Anusim?

descendants of the "anusim" forced converts to Catholicism

Who are descendants of the "anusim" forced converts to Catholicism?

Sephardic Bnei Anusim

What percentage of Iberians are Sephardic Bnei Anusim?

Who are the descendants of the willing converts to Catholicism?

I'm not sure.

What percentage of historical Iberia was Sephardic Bnei Anusim?

I'm not sure.

What percentage of ancient Ibero-America was Sephardic Bnei Anusim?

I'm not sure.

What population does not have some more remote ancient Jewish descent?

I'm not sure.

What other population does not have some more remote ancient Jewish descent?

I'm not sure.


Between 1948 and 1958, the Jewish population rose from 800,000 to two million. Currently, Jews account for 75.4% of the Israeli population, or 6 million people. The early years of the State of Israel were marked by the mass immigration of Holocaust survivors in the aftermath of the Holocaust and Jews fleeing Arab lands. Israel also has a large population of Ethiopian Jews, many of whom were airlifted to Israel in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Between 1974 and 1979 nearly 227,258 immigrants arrived in Israel, about half being from the Soviet Union. This period also saw an increase in immigration to Israel from Western Europe, Latin America, and North America.

What years did the Jewish population rise from 800,000 to two million?

1948 and 1958

What is the population of Israel?

6 million

Between 1974 and 1979, how many immigrants arrived in Israel?

What did the Jewish population rise to before 1948?

I'm not sure.

What percent of the Israeli population is not Jewish?

I'm not sure.

What were the latest years of the State of Israel marked by?

I'm not sure.

Before 1974 how many immigrants arrived in Israel?

I'm not sure.

Where did this period see a decrease in immigration to Israel?

I'm not sure.


More than half of the Jews live in the Diaspora (see Population table). Currently, the largest Jewish community outside Israel, and either the largest or second-largest Jewish community in the world, is located in the United States, with 5.2 million to 6.4 million Jews by various estimates. Elsewhere in the Americas, there are also large Jewish populations in Canada (315,000), Argentina (180,000-300,000), and Brazil (196,000-600,000), and smaller populations in Mexico, Uruguay, Venezuela, Chile, Colombia and several other countries (see History of the Jews in Latin America). Demographers disagree on whether the United States has a larger Jewish population than Israel, with many maintaining that Israel surpassed the United States in Jewish population during the 2000s, while others maintain that the United States still has the largest Jewish population in the world. Currently, a major national Jewish population survey is planned to ascertain whether or not Israel has overtaken the United States in Jewish population.

More than half of the Jews live where?

Diaspora

How many Jews live in Canada?

How many Jews live in Argentina?

How many Jews live in Brazil?

Where do less than half of Jews live?

I'm not sure.

Where is the smallest Jewish community located?

I'm not sure.

How many Jews live in Mexico?

I'm not sure.

What do demographers agree on?

I'm not sure.

When did the United States surpass Israel in Jewish population?

I'm not sure.


Western Europe's largest Jewish community, and the third-largest Jewish community in the world, can be found in France, home to between 483,000 and 500,000 Jews, the majority of whom are immigrants or refugees from North African Arab countries such as Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia (or their descendants). The United Kingdom has a Jewish community of 292,000. In Eastern Europe, there are anywhere from 350,000 to one million Jews living in the former Soviet Union, but exact figures are difficult to establish. In Germany, the 102,000 Jews registered with the Jewish community are a slowly declining population, despite the immigration of tens of thousands of Jews from the former Soviet Union since the fall of the Berlin Wall. Thousands of Israelis also live in Germany, either permanently or temporarily, for economic reasons.

Where is Western Europe's largest Jewish community?

France

How many Jews live in France?

between 483,000 and 500,000

What is the population of Jews in the United Kingdom?

What is Western Europe's smallest Jewish community?

I'm not sure.

Where are the majority of immigrants in the United Kingdom's Jewish community from?

I'm not sure.

How many Israelis live outside of Germany?

I'm not sure.

How many Jews immigrated to Germany before the fall of the Berlin Wall?

I'm not sure.

What is a slowly increasing Jewish community?

I'm not sure.


Prior to 1948, approximately 800,000 Jews were living in lands which now make up the Arab world (excluding Israel). Of these, just under two-thirds lived in the French-controlled Maghreb region, 15–20% in the Kingdom of Iraq, approximately 10% in the Kingdom of Egypt and approximately 7% in the Kingdom of Yemen. A further 200,000 lived in Pahlavi Iran and the Republic of Turkey. Today, around 26,000 Jews live in Arab countries and around 30,000 in Iran and Turkey. A small-scale exodus had begun in many countries in the early decades of the 20th century, although the only substantial aliyah came from Yemen and Syria. The exodus from Arab and Muslim countries took place primarily from 1948. The first large-scale exoduses took place in the late 1940s and early 1950s, primarily in Iraq, Yemen and Libya, with up to 90% of these communities leaving within a few years. The peak of the exodus from Egypt occurred in 1956. The exodus in the Maghreb countries peaked in the 1960s. Lebanon was the only Arab country to see a temporary increase in its Jewish population during this period, due to an influx of refugees from other Arab countries, although by the mid-1970s the Jewish community of Lebanon had also dwindled. In the aftermath of the exodus wave from Arab states, an additional migration of Iranian Jews peaked in the 1980s when around 80% of Iranian Jews left the country.[citation needed]

Prior to 1948, how many Jews were living in lands which now make up the Arab world (excluding Israel)?

When did a small-scale exodus begin in many countries?

early decades of the 20th century

The only substantial aliyah came from where?

Yemen and Syria

How many Jews lived in Arab world prior to 1948, including Israel?

I'm not sure.

What percentage of Jews lived in Pahlavi Iran?

I'm not sure.

How many Jews lived outside of the Arab world prior to 1948?

I'm not sure.

Where did the last large scale exoduses of the 1940s and 1950s occur?

I'm not sure.

When did the migration of Iranian Jews hit its lowest point?

I'm not sure.


Since at least the time of the Ancient Greeks, a proportion of Jews have assimilated into the wider non-Jewish society around them, by either choice or force, ceasing to practice Judaism and losing their Jewish identity. Assimilation took place in all areas, and during all time periods, with some Jewish communities, for example the Kaifeng Jews of China, disappearing entirely. The advent of the Jewish Enlightenment of the 18th century (see Haskalah) and the subsequent emancipation of the Jewish populations of Europe and America in the 19th century, accelerated the situation, encouraging Jews to increasingly participate in, and become part of, secular society. The result has been a growing trend of assimilation, as Jews marry non-Jewish spouses and stop participating in the Jewish community.

When did the advent of the Jewish Enlightenment occur?

18th century

What was a result of the Jewish Enlightenment?

growing trend of assimilation

Name a Jewish community that disappeared entirely?

Kaifeng Jews of China

Where did assimilation never take place?

I'm not sure.

What Jewish community has never disappeared?

I'm not sure.

What encouraged Jews to not participate in secular society?

I'm not sure.

What has not been caused by Jews assimilating?

I'm not sure.


Rates of interreligious marriage vary widely: In the United States, it is just under 50%, in the United Kingdom, around 53%; in France; around 30%, and in Australia and Mexico, as low as 10%. In the United States, only about a third of children from intermarriages affiliate with Jewish religious practice. The result is that most countries in the Diaspora have steady or slightly declining religiously Jewish populations as Jews continue to assimilate into the countries in which they live.[citation needed]

What is the rate of interreligious marriage in the United States?

just under 50%

What is the rate of interreligious marriage in the United Kingdom?

What is the rate of interreligious marriage in France?

What is the rate of interreligious marriage in Mexico?

as low as 10%

What is the rate of interreligious marriage in Australia?

as low as 10%

What does not vary by much?

I'm not sure.

How many children from intermarriage affiliate with Jewish religious practice in the United Kingdom?

I'm not sure.

How many children from intermarriage affiliate with Jewish religious practice in France?

I'm not sure.

Why do most countries in the Diaspora have increasing religiously Jewish populations?

I'm not sure.

Where are Jews not assimilating into?

I'm not sure.


In the Papal States, which existed until 1870, Jews were required to live only in specified neighborhoods called ghettos. In the 19th and (before the end of World War II) 20th centuries, the Roman Catholic Church adhered to a distinction between "good antisemitism" and "bad antisemitism". The "bad" kind promoted hatred of Jews because of their descent. This was considered un-Christian because the Christian message was intended for all of humanity regardless of ethnicity; anyone could become a Christian. The "good" kind criticized alleged Jewish conspiracies to control newspapers, banks, and other institutions, to care only about accumulation of wealth, etc.

When did the Papal States exist?

until 1870

In the Papal States, what is the name for the specified neighborhoods where Jews were required to live?

ghettos

What promoted hatred of Jews because of their descent?

bad antisemitism

What existed after 1870?

I'm not sure.

Where were Jews required to live outside of in the Papal States?

I'm not sure.

Who did not make a distinction between "good" and "bad" antisemitism?

I'm not sure.

What conspiracies were alleged about the Catholic Church?

I'm not sure.

What did the "bad" kind of antisemitism not promote?

I'm not sure.


Islam and Judaism have a complex relationship. Traditionally Jews and Christians living in Muslim lands, known as dhimmis, were allowed to practice their religions and administer their internal affairs, but they were subject to certain conditions. They had to pay the jizya (a per capita tax imposed on free adult non-Muslim males) to the Islamic state. Dhimmis had an inferior status under Islamic rule. They had several social and legal disabilities such as prohibitions against bearing arms or giving testimony in courts in cases involving Muslims. Many of the disabilities were highly symbolic. The one described by Bernard Lewis as "most degrading" was the requirement of distinctive clothing, not found in the Quran or hadith but invented in early medieval Baghdad; its enforcement was highly erratic. On the other hand, Jews rarely faced martyrdom or exile, or forced compulsion to change their religion, and they were mostly free in their choice of residence and profession.

What were Jews and Christians living in Muslim lands known as?

dhimmis

What is the per capita tax imposed on free adult non-Muslim males known as?

jizya

Which group had an inferior status under Islamic rule?

Dhimmis

What was the disability described by Bernard Lewis as "most degrading?"

requirement of distinctive clothing

What religions have a simple relationship?

I'm not sure.

Who did not have to pay the jizya?

I'm not sure.

Who had a superior status under Muslim rule?

I'm not sure.

What was a prohibition placed on Muslims under Christian rule?

I'm not sure.

What was the least degrading prohibition placed on non Muslims?

I'm not sure.


Notable exceptions include the massacre of Jews and forcible conversion of some Jews by the rulers of the Almohad dynasty in Al-Andalus in the 12th century, as well as in Islamic Persia, and the forced confinement of Moroccan Jews to walled quarters known as mellahs beginning from the 15th century and especially in the early 19th century. In modern times, it has become commonplace for standard antisemitic themes to be conflated with anti-Zionist publications and pronouncements of Islamic movements such as Hezbollah and Hamas, in the pronouncements of various agencies of the Islamic Republic of Iran, and even in the newspapers and other publications of Turkish Refah Partisi."

What were walled quarters known as?

mellahs

Who was forced into confinement in mellahs?

Moroccan Jews

When did the confinement of Moroccan Jews in mellahs begin?

15th century

What dynasty did not massacre Jews?

I'm not sure.

Where were Jews in Islamic Persia confined to?

I'm not sure.

Where were Jews confined after the 19th century?

I'm not sure.

What was conflated with anti-Zionist publications in historical times?

I'm not sure.

What Jewish movements have made antisemitic pronouncements?

I'm not sure.


Throughout history, many rulers, empires and nations have oppressed their Jewish populations or sought to eliminate them entirely. Methods employed ranged from expulsion to outright genocide; within nations, often the threat of these extreme methods was sufficient to silence dissent. The history of antisemitism includes the First Crusade which resulted in the massacre of Jews; the Spanish Inquisition (led by Tomás de Torquemada) and the Portuguese Inquisition, with their persecution and autos-da-fé against the New Christians and Marrano Jews; the Bohdan Chmielnicki Cossack massacres in Ukraine; the Pogroms backed by the Russian Tsars; as well as expulsions from Spain, Portugal, England, France, Germany, and other countries in which the Jews had settled. According to a 2008 study published in the American Journal of Human Genetics, 19.8% of the modern Iberian population has Sephardic Jewish ancestry, indicating that the number of conversos may have been much higher than originally thought.

What was one method used to entirely eliminate Jewish populations?

expulsion

What resulted in the massacre of Jews?

First Crusade

Who led the Spanish Inquisition?

Tomás de Torquemada

According to the American Journal of Human Genetics, what percentage of modern Iberian population has Sephardic Jewish ancestry?

What methods were never used on Jewish populations?

I'm not sure.

What was not sufficient to silence dissent?

I'm not sure.

Who was the First Crusade led by?

I'm not sure.

What was opposed by the Russian Tsars?

I'm not sure.

What percent of the historical Iberian population has Sephardic Jewish ancestry?

I'm not sure.


The persecution reached a peak in Nazi Germany's Final Solution, which led to the Holocaust and the slaughter of approximately 6 million Jews. Of the world's 15 million Jews in 1939, more than a third were killed in the Holocaust. The Holocaust—the state-led systematic persecution and genocide of European Jews (and certain communities of North African Jews in European controlled North Africa) and other minority groups of Europe during World War II by Germany and its collaborators remains the most notable modern-day persecution of Jews. The persecution and genocide were accomplished in stages. Legislation to remove the Jews from civil society was enacted years before the outbreak of World War II. Concentration camps were established in which inmates were used as slave labour until they died of exhaustion or disease. Where the Third Reich conquered new territory in Eastern Europe, specialized units called Einsatzgruppen murdered Jews and political opponents in mass shootings. Jews and Roma were crammed into ghettos before being transported hundreds of miles by freight train to extermination camps where, if they survived the journey, the majority of them were killed in gas chambers. Virtually every arm of Germany's bureaucracy was involved in the logistics of the mass murder, turning the country into what one Holocaust scholar has called "a genocidal nation."

How many Jews were slaughtered in the Holocaust?

approximately 6 million

Worldwide, how many Jews were there in 1939?

15 million

What was the state-led systematic persecution and genocide of European Jews and other minority groups?

The Holocaust

In 1939, what fraction of Jews were killed in The Holocaust?

more than a third

Where did the persecution reach its lowest amount?

I'm not sure.

How many Jews were not killed in the Holocaust?

I'm not sure.

When was legislation to remove the Jews from civil society struck down?

I'm not sure.

How many Jews were there before 1939?

I'm not sure.

What happened when the Third Reich conquered territory in Western Europe?

I'm not sure.


There is also a trend of Orthodox movements pursuing secular Jews in order to give them a stronger Jewish identity so there is less chance of intermarriage. As a result of the efforts by these and other Jewish groups over the past 25 years, there has been a trend (known as the Baal Teshuva movement) for secular Jews to become more religiously observant, though the demographic implications of the trend are unknown. Additionally, there is also a growing rate of conversion to Jews by Choice of gentiles who make the decision to head in the direction of becoming Jews.

What is one method used to prevent intermarriage?

pursuing secular Jews in order to give them a stronger Jewish identity

What is the trend for secular Jews to become more religiously observant known as?

the Baal Teshuva movement

Who leads the movement that pursues secular Jews in order to give them stronger Jewish identity?

Orthodox

Why do secular Jews persue Orthodox movements?

I'm not sure.

Why has there been a trend for secular Jews to become less religious?

I'm not sure.

Who has a shrinking rate of conversion?

I'm not sure.

What is the trend for Jews to become less religiously observant called?

I'm not sure.

When have Jews made efforts to be less religiously observant?

I'm not sure.


The fiber is most often spun into yarn or thread and used to make a soft, breathable textile. The use of cotton for fabric is known to date to prehistoric times; fragments of cotton fabric dated from 5000 BC have been excavated in Mexico and the Indus Valley Civilization in Ancient India (modern-day Pakistan and some parts of India). Although cultivated since antiquity, it was the invention of the cotton gin that lowered the cost of production that led to its widespread use, and it is the most widely used natural fiber cloth in clothing today.

What is the most frequent use of cotton?

fabric

To what date has cotton been dated?

5000 BC

Where in India has cotton been found from prehistoric times?

Indus Valley

In what Central American country has cotton use been found from early times?

Mexico

What machinery has lead to the  easily made and widespread use of cotton?

cotton gin

What is the most frequent use of cloth?

I'm not sure.

To what date has the cotton gin been dated?

I'm not sure.

Where in India has the cotton gin been found from prehistoric times?

I'm not sure.

In what Central American country has cotton gin use been found from early times?

I'm not sure.

What textile has lead to the easily and widespread use of cotton?

I'm not sure.


The earliest evidence of cotton use in South Asia has been found at the site of Mehrgarh, Pakistan, where cotton threads have been found preserved in copper beads; these finds have been dated to Neolithic (between 6000 and 5000 BCE). Cotton cultivation in the region is dated to the Indus Valley Civilization, which covered parts of modern eastern Pakistan and northwestern India between 3300 and 1300 BCE The Indus cotton industry was well-developed and some methods used in cotton spinning and fabrication continued to be used until the industrialization of India. Between 2000 and 1000 BC cotton became widespread across much of India. For example, it has been found at the site of Hallus in Karnataka dating from around 1000 BC.

Where in Southeast Asia has early use of cotton been discovered?

Mehrgarh, Pakistan

To what period has cotton been dated in Pakistan?

Neolithic

When did the Indus Valley Civilization cover parts of India and Pakistan?

3300 and 1300 BCE

Until what event did the ancient methods of spinning and fabrication of cotton last?

industrialization

During what time did cotton become widely used in India?

2000 and 1000 BC

Where in Southeast Asia has early use of industry been discovered?

I'm not sure.

To what period has industry been dated in Pakistan?

I'm not sure.

When did cotton cover parts of Inida and Pakistan?

I'm not sure.

Until what event did the ancient methods of bead spinning last?

I'm not sure.

During what time did copper beads become widely used in India?

I'm not sure.


In Iran (Persia), the history of cotton dates back to the Achaemenid era (5th century BC); however, there are few sources about the planting of cotton in pre-Islamic Iran. The planting of cotton was common in Merv, Ray and Pars of Iran. In Persian poets' poems, especially Ferdowsi's Shahname, there are references to cotton ("panbe" in Persian). Marco Polo (13th century) refers to the major products of Persia, including cotton. John Chardin, a French traveler of the 17th century who visited the Safavid Persia, spoke approvingly of the vast cotton farms of Persia.

Use of cotton in Iran dates back to what period?

Achaemenid era

When was the Achaemenid era?

5th century BC

In what source can references to cotton be found in Iran?

Persian poets' poems

What 13th century explorer saw cotton in Persia?

Marco Polo

What Frenchman in the 17th century noted cotton farming in Persia?

John Chardin

Us of cotton in France dates back to what period?

I'm not sure.

When was the Persian era?

I'm not sure.

In what source can references to cotton be found in France?

I'm not sure.

What 13th century explorer saw cotton in France?

I'm not sure.

What Frenchman in the 13th century noted cotton farming in Persia?

I'm not sure.


Though known since antiquity the commercial growing of cotton in Egypt only started in 1820's, following a Frenchman, by the name of M. Jumel, propositioning the then ruler, Mohamed Ali Pasha, that he could earn a substantial income by growing an extra-long staple Maho (Barbadence) cotton, in Lower Egypt, for the French market. Mohamed Ali Pasha accepted the proposition and granted himself the monopoly on the sale and export of cotton in Egypt; and later dictated cotton should be grown in preference to other crops. By the time of the American Civil war annual exports had reached $16 million (120,000 bales), which rose to $56 million by 1864, primarily due to the loss of the Confederate supply on the world market. Exports continued to grow even after the reintroduction of US cotton, produced now by a paid workforce, and Egyptian exports reached 1.2 million bales a year by 1903.

When did cotton begin to be commercially grown in Egypt?

What French businessman convinced the ruler of Egypt to grow cotton for the French market?

M. Jumel

Who was ruler of Egypt in the 1820s?

Mohamed Ali Pasha

How high had cotton revenues risen by the time of the American Civil War?

$56 million

How many bales of cotton were produced by Egypt by 1903?

1.2 million bales a year

When did cotton begin to be commercially grown in the US?

I'm not sure.

What French businessman convinced the ruler of Egypt to grow cotton for the US market?

I'm not sure.

Who was ruler of Egypt in 1903?

I'm not sure.

How high had cotton revenues risen by the time of the French Civil War?

I'm not sure.

How many bales of cotton were produced by Egypt by 1820?

I'm not sure.


During the late medieval period, cotton became known as an imported fiber in northern Europe, without any knowledge of how it was derived, other than that it was a plant. Because Herodotus had written in his Histories, Book III, 106, that in India trees grew in the wild producing wool, it was assumed that the plant was a tree, rather than a shrub. This aspect is retained in the name for cotton in several Germanic languages, such as German Baumwolle, which translates as "tree wool" (Baum means "tree"; Wolle means "wool"). Noting its similarities to wool, people in the region could only imagine that cotton must be produced by plant-borne sheep. John Mandeville, writing in 1350, stated as fact the now-preposterous belief: "There grew there [India] a wonderful tree which bore tiny lambs on the endes of its branches. These branches were so pliable that they bent down to allow the lambs to feed when they are hungrie  [sic]." (See Vegetable Lamb of Tartary.) By the end of the 16th century, cotton was cultivated throughout the warmer regions in Asia and the Americas.

In the late medieval period in Europe as what was cotton viewed?

imported fiber

What ancient writer gave later eras the idea that cotton might be a tree?

Herodotus

What 1350 writer stated that cotton was produced by sheep that grew on trees?

John Mandeville

By the end of what century was cotton grown in the Americas and Asia?

16th century

Why was it easy for people to believe that cotton grew on sheep that grew in plants?

similarities to wool

What was cotton viewed as in the late medieval period in Asia?

I'm not sure.

What ancient writer gave later eras the idea that wool might be a tree?

I'm not sure.

What 1350 writer stated that wool was produced by sheep that grew on trees?

I'm not sure.

By the end of what century was cotton grown in Germany?

I'm not sure.

Why was it easy for people to believe that cotton grew on sheep that grew in northern Europe?

I'm not sure.


India's cotton-processing sector gradually declined during British expansion in India and the establishment of colonial rule during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. This was largely due to aggressive colonialist mercantile policies of the British East India Company, which made cotton processing and manufacturing workshops in India uncompetitive. Indian markets were increasingly forced to supply only raw cotton and, by British-imposed law, to purchase manufactured textiles from Britain.[citation needed]

How did British rule effect Indian cotton processing?

declined

During what centuries did British rule effect Indian cotton production?

late 18th and early 19th

What British business's policies damaged the Indian cotton industry?

British East India Company

What cotton products did British law mandate that India was allowed to sell?

raw cotton

If instead of producing fabrics, where was India forced to purchase cotton products?

Britain

How did East India rule effect Indian cotton processing?

I'm not sure.

During what centuries did East India rule effect Indian cotton production?

I'm not sure.

What British business's policies damaged the British cotton industry?

I'm not sure.

What cotton products did Indian law mandate that India was allowed to sell?

I'm not sure.

Where was the British East India Company forced to purchase cotton products?

I'm not sure.


The advent of the Industrial Revolution in Britain provided a great boost to cotton manufacture, as textiles emerged as Britain's leading export. In 1738, Lewis Paul and John Wyatt, of Birmingham, England, patented the roller spinning machine, as well as the flyer-and-bobbin system for drawing cotton to a more even thickness using two sets of rollers that traveled at different speeds. Later, the invention of the James Hargreaves' spinning jenny in 1764, Richard Arkwright's spinning frame in 1769 and Samuel Crompton's spinning mule in 1775 enabled British spinners to produce cotton yarn at much higher rates. From the late 18th century on, the British city of Manchester acquired the nickname "Cottonopolis" due to the cotton industry's omnipresence within the city, and Manchester's role as the heart of the global cotton trade.

What event produced an expansion of the British cotton industry?

Industrial Revolution

When was a new spinning machine patented that boosted cotton production?

What device did James Hargreaves invent?

spinning jenny

What was Samuel Crompton's invention of 1775?

spinning mule

Whic British city was nicknamed "Cottonopolis" because of its cotton production?

Manchester

What event produced an expansion of John Wyatt's cotton industry?

I'm not sure.

When was a new spinning machine patented that boosted frame production?

I'm not sure.

What device did Manchester invent?

I'm not sure.

What was Samuel Crompton's invention of 1769?

I'm not sure.

Which British city was nicknamed "Cottonopolis" because of its frame production?

I'm not sure.


Production capacity in Britain and the United States was improved by the invention of the cotton gin by the American Eli Whitney in 1793. Before the development of cotton gins, the cotton fibers had to be pulled from the seeds tediously by hand. By the late 1700s a number of crude ginning machines had been developed. However, to produce a bale of cotton required over 600 hours of human labor, making large-scale production uneconomical in the United States, even with the use of humans as slave labor. The gin that Whitney manufactured (the Holmes design) reduced the hours down to just a dozen or so per bale. Although Whitney patented his own design for a cotton gin, he manufactured a prior design from Henry Odgen Holmes, for which Holmes filed a patent in 1796. Improving technology and increasing control of world markets allowed British traders to develop a commercial chain in which raw cotton fibers were (at first) purchased from colonial plantations, processed into cotton cloth in the mills of Lancashire, and then exported on British ships to captive colonial markets in West Africa, India, and China (via Shanghai and Hong Kong).

What invention improved the cotton industry in both America and Britain?

cotton gin

What American invented the cotton gin?

Eli Whitney

Before the use of the cotton gin, how was cotton separated?

by hand

What business development did the British use to establish a hold on the global cotton market?

commercial chain

From what source was raw cotton first bought and later resold?

colonial markets

What invention improved the cotton industry in both Holmes and Britain?

I'm not sure.

What British person invented the cotton gin?

I'm not sure.

Before the use of the cotton gin, how were bales separated?

I'm not sure.

What business development did the Americans use to establish a hold on the global cotton market?

I'm not sure.

From what source were cotton gins first bought and later resold?

I'm not sure.


By the 1840s, India was no longer capable of supplying the vast quantities of cotton fibers needed by mechanized British factories, while shipping bulky, low-price cotton from India to Britain was time-consuming and expensive. This, coupled with the emergence of American cotton as a superior type (due to the longer, stronger fibers of the two domesticated native American species, Gossypium hirsutum and Gossypium barbadense), encouraged British traders to purchase cotton from plantations in the United States and plantations in the Caribbean. By the mid-19th century, "King Cotton" had become the backbone of the southern American economy. In the United States, cultivating and harvesting cotton became the leading occupation of slaves.

What was the difference that made American cotton preferred over Indian cotton?

longer, stronger fibers

In the 1840s, what country could no longer adequately supply the British cotton mills?

India

Besides buying from the American plantations, where else in the western hemisphere did Britain buy cotton?

Caribbean

By what time had cotton become prominent in the American economy of the south?

mid-19th century

What was cotton called in the 19th century?

King Cotton

What was the difference that made Indian cotton preferred over British cotton?

I'm not sure.

In the 1840s, what country could no longer adequately supply the Indian cotton mills?

I'm not sure.

Besides buying from the American plantations, where else in the western hemisphere did India buy cotton?

I'm not sure.

By what time had cotton become prominent in the Indian economy of the south?

I'm not sure.

What was America called in the 19th century?

I'm not sure.


During the American Civil War, American cotton exports slumped due to a Union blockade on Southern ports, and also because of a strategic decision by the Confederate government to cut exports, hoping to force Britain to recognize the Confederacy or enter the war. This prompted the main purchasers of cotton, Britain and France, to turn to Egyptian cotton. British and French traders invested heavily in cotton plantations. The Egyptian government of Viceroy Isma'il took out substantial loans from European bankers and stock exchanges. After the American Civil War ended in 1865, British and French traders abandoned Egyptian cotton and returned to cheap American exports,[citation needed] sending Egypt into a deficit spiral that led to the country declaring bankruptcy in 1876, a key factor behind Egypt's occupation by the British Empire in 1882.

When did the American cotton industry fail?

American Civil War

What action of the Union damaged the southern cotton exports?

Union blockade

To what county's cotton did European buyers turn due to the American Civil War?

Egyptian

What characteristic of American cotton attracted buyers after the end of the Civil war?

cheap

What did the abandonment of Egyptian cotton mean to the Egyptian economy?

bankruptcy

When did the Egyptian cotton industry fall?

I'm not sure.

What action of the Union damaged the French cotton exports?

I'm not sure.

To what country's cotton did Southern buyers turn due to the American Civil War?

I'm not sure.

What characteristic of Egyptian cotton attracted buyers after the end of the Civil war?

I'm not sure.

What did the abandonment of Southern cotton mean to the Egyptian economy?

I'm not sure.


Cotton remained a key crop in the Southern economy after emancipation and the end of the Civil War in 1865. Across the South, sharecropping evolved, in which landless black and white farmers worked land owned by others in return for a share of the profits. Some farmers rented the land and bore the production costs themselves. Until mechanical cotton pickers were developed, cotton farmers needed additional labor to hand-pick cotton. Picking cotton was a source of income for families across the South. Rural and small town school systems had split vacations so children could work in the fields during "cotton-picking."

What was the procedure called which involved workers to work for a share of the profits?

sharecropping

What difficulty in harvesting cotton required a large labor force?

hand-pick

Besides adults what segment of the southern US population was involved in the harvesting of cotton?

children

What function of southern schools was created for children to pick cotton?

split vacations

What part of the southern population worked as sharecroppers?

landless

What was the procedure called which involved the South to work for a share of the profits?

I'm not sure.

What difficulty in harvesting cotton required a larger economy?

I'm not sure.

Besides adults what segment of the southern US population was involved in school systems?

I'm not sure.

What function of southern schools was created for adults to pick cotton?

I'm not sure.

What part of the southern population worked as farmers?

I'm not sure.


Successful cultivation of cotton requires a long frost-free period, plenty of sunshine, and a moderate rainfall, usually from 600 to 1,200 mm (24 to 47 in). Soils usually need to be fairly heavy, although the level of nutrients does not need to be exceptional. In general, these conditions are met within the seasonally dry tropics and subtropics in the Northern and Southern hemispheres, but a large proportion of the cotton grown today is cultivated in areas with less rainfall that obtain the water from irrigation. Production of the crop for a given year usually starts soon after harvesting the preceding autumn. Cotton is naturally a perennial but is grown as an annual to help control pests. Planting time in spring in the Northern hemisphere varies from the beginning of February to the beginning of June. The area of the United States known as the South Plains is the largest contiguous cotton-growing region in the world. While dryland (non-irrigated) cotton is successfully grown in this region, consistent yields are only produced with heavy reliance on irrigation water drawn from the Ogallala Aquifer. Since cotton is somewhat salt and drought tolerant, this makes it an attractive crop for arid and semiarid regions. As water resources get tighter around the world, economies that rely on it face difficulties and conflict, as well as potential environmental problems. For example, improper cropping and irrigation practices have led to desertification in areas of Uzbekistan, where cotton is a major export. In the days of the Soviet Union, the Aral Sea was tapped for agricultural irrigation, largely of cotton, and now salination is widespread.

What is the optimum amount of rainfall for cotton growth?

600 to 1,200 mm

In what soil type does cotton prefer to grow ?

heavy

Why is cotton grown as an annual crop?

control pests

Where in the US is considered the best place to grow cotton on Earth?

South Plains

What type of tolerances make cotton an ideal crop for semiarid areas?

salt and drought

What is the minimum amount of rainfall for cotton growth?

I'm not sure.

In what rainfall type does cotton prefer to grow?

I'm not sure.

Why is cotton grown as a regional crop?

I'm not sure.

Where in the US is considered the best place to control pests on Earth?

I'm not sure.

What type of tolerances make cotton an ideal crop for the Northern hemisphere?

I'm not sure.


Genetically modified (GM) cotton was developed to reduce the heavy reliance on pesticides. The bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) naturally produces a chemical harmful only to a small fraction of insects, most notably the larvae of moths and butterflies, beetles, and flies, and harmless to other forms of life. The gene coding for Bt toxin has been inserted into cotton, causing cotton, called Bt cotton, to produce this natural insecticide in its tissues. In many regions, the main pests in commercial cotton are lepidopteran larvae, which are killed by the Bt protein in the transgenic cotton they eat. This eliminates the need to use large amounts of broad-spectrum insecticides to kill lepidopteran pests (some of which have developed pyrethroid resistance). This spares natural insect predators in the farm ecology and further contributes to noninsecticide pest management.

To stop reliance on what was GM cotton developed?

pesticides

What form of cotton is GM?

Genetically modified

What bacterium is used to produced GM cotton?

Bacillus thuringiensis

What farming pest management technique does the use of GM grown plants promote?

noninsecticide

What part of the life cycle of moths does Bt toxin effect?

larvae

To stop refinance on what was GM larvae developed?

I'm not sure.

What form of larvae is larvae?

I'm not sure.

What farming pest management technique does the use of larvae grown plants promote?

I'm not sure.

What part of the life cycle of cotton does Bt toxin effect

I'm not sure.

What bacterium is used to produce larvae cotton?

I'm not sure.


But Bt cotton is ineffective against many cotton pests, however, such as plant bugs, stink bugs, and aphids; depending on circumstances it may still be desirable to use insecticides against these. A 2006 study done by Cornell researchers, the Center for Chinese Agricultural Policy and the Chinese Academy of Science on Bt cotton farming in China found that after seven years these secondary pests that were normally controlled by pesticide had increased, necessitating the use of pesticides at similar levels to non-Bt cotton and causing less profit for farmers because of the extra expense of GM seeds. However, a 2009 study by the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Stanford University and Rutgers University refuted this. They concluded that the GM cotton effectively controlled bollworm. The secondary pests were mostly miridae (plant bugs) whose increase was related to local temperature and rainfall and only continued to increase in half the villages studied. Moreover, the increase in insecticide use for the control of these secondary insects was far smaller than the reduction in total insecticide use due to Bt cotton adoption. A 2012 Chinese study concluded that Bt cotton halved the use of pesticides and doubled the level of ladybirds, lacewings and spiders. The International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications (ISAAA) said that, worldwide, GM cotton was planted on an area of 25 million hectares in 2011. This was 69% of the worldwide total area planted in cotton.

In what year did a research study find that the use of Bt toxin plants failed to be effective after 7 years?

On what did a 2009 study conclude that increased insects were dependent?

temperature and rainfall

What did a 2012 study suggest  was halved by the use of GM plants?

pesticides

What did the 2012 study say was doubled by the use of GM cotton?

ladybirds, lacewings and spiders

How much of the Earth's cotton crops are planted in GM cotton?

On what did a 2009 study conclude that increased pests were dependent?

I'm not sure.

What did a 2012 study suggest was halved by the use of secondary plants?

I'm not sure.

What did the 2012 study say was doubled by the use of Chinese cotton?

I'm not sure.

How much of the Earth's cotton crops are planted in China?

I'm not sure.

How much GM cotton was planted in 2009?

I'm not sure.


GM cotton acreage in India grew at a rapid rate, increasing from 50,000 hectares in 2002 to 10.6 million hectares in 2011. The total cotton area in India was 12.1 million hectares in 2011, so GM cotton was grown on 88% of the cotton area. This made India the country with the largest area of GM cotton in the world. A long-term study on the economic impacts of Bt cotton in India, published in the Journal PNAS in 2012, showed that Bt cotton has increased yields, profits, and living standards of smallholder farmers. The U.S. GM cotton crop was 4.0 million hectares in 2011 the second largest area in the world, the Chinese GM cotton crop was third largest by area with 3.9 million hectares and Pakistan had the fourth largest GM cotton crop area of 2.6 million hectares in 2011. The initial introduction of GM cotton proved to be a success in Australia – the yields were equivalent to the non-transgenic varieties and the crop used much less pesticide to produce (85% reduction). The subsequent introduction of a second variety of GM cotton led to increases in GM cotton production until 95% of the Australian cotton crop was GM in 2009 making Australia the country with the fifth largest GM cotton crop in the world. Other GM cotton growing countries in 2011 were Argentina, Myanmar, Burkina Faso, Brazil, Mexico, Colombia, South Africa and Costa Rica.

How much area was planted in India in GM cotton in 2011?

10.6 million hectares

What was the percentage of GM cotton planted in India in 2011?

Waht country has the largest area of GM cotton on Earth?

India

At what rank does US GM cotton stand in the world?

second largest

What percentage of Australia's cotton crop was GM in 2009?

How much area was planted in India in GM cotton in 2009?

I'm not sure.

What was the percentage of GM cotton planted in India in 2009?

I'm not sure.

What country has the largest area of non-transgenic cotton on Earth?

I'm not sure.

At what rank does US non-trangenic cotton stand in the world?

I'm not sure.

What percentage of Australia's cotton crop was non-transgenic in 2009?

I'm not sure.


Organic cotton is generally understood as cotton from plants not genetically modified and that is certified to be grown without the use of any synthetic agricultural chemicals, such as fertilizers or pesticides. Its production also promotes and enhances biodiversity and biological cycles. In the United States, organic cotton plantations are required to enforce the National Organic Program (NOP). This institution determines the allowed practices for pest control, growing, fertilizing, and handling of organic crops. As of 2007, 265,517 bales of organic cotton were produced in 24 countries, and worldwide production was growing at a rate of more than 50% per year.

What are organic plants understood to be?

not genetically modified

Without what are organic plants meant to be grown ?

synthetic agricultural chemicals

What is meant by synthetic chemicals?

fertilizers or pesticides

What group in the US determines the allowed practices in organic agriculture?

National Organic Program

How much organic cotton was produced worldwide in 2007?

265,517 bales

What are NOP plants understood to be?

I'm not sure.

Without what are NOP plants meant to be grown?

I'm not sure.

What is meant by NOP chemicals?

I'm not sure.

What group in the US determines the allowed practices in 24 countries?

I'm not sure.

How much sythetic cotton was produced worldwide in 2007?

I'm not sure.


Historically, in North America, one of the most economically destructive pests in cotton production has been the boll weevil. Due to the US Department of Agriculture's highly successful Boll Weevil Eradication Program (BWEP), this pest has been eliminated from cotton in most of the United States. This program, along with the introduction of genetically engineered Bt cotton (which contains a bacterial gene that codes for a plant-produced protein that is toxic to a number of pests such as cotton bollworm and pink bollworm), has allowed a reduction in the use of synthetic insecticides.

What insect is the most destructive pest in cotton growing in the US?

boll weevil

What program has effectively eliminated the boll weevil in the US?

Boll Weevil Eradication Program

What is the organization that instigated the Boll Weevil Eradication Program?

US Department of Agriculture

What form of cotton contains a genetically modified gene?

Bt cotton

On what does the use of Bt cotton reduce reliance?

synthetic insecticides.

What insect is the most destructive pest in cotton growing in the BWEP?

I'm not sure.

What program has effectively eliminated pests in the US?

I'm not sure.

What is the organization that instigated the boll weevil?

I'm not sure.

What form of cotton contains a genetically modified pest?

I'm not sure.

On what does the use of BWEP reduce reliance?

I'm not sure.


Most cotton in the United States, Europe and Australia is harvested mechanically, either by a cotton picker, a machine that removes the cotton from the boll without damaging the cotton plant, or by a cotton stripper, which strips the entire boll off the plant. Cotton strippers are used in regions where it is too windy to grow picker varieties of cotton, and usually after application of a chemical defoliant or the natural defoliation that occurs after a freeze. Cotton is a perennial crop in the tropics, and without defoliation or freezing, the plant will continue to grow.

How is most cotton harvested?

mechanically

What is the cotton harvesting machine that removes the boll with damaging the plant?

cotton picker

What machine strips off the entire head of the cotton plant?

cotton stripper

What weather conditions mandate the planting of stripper types of cotton?

windy

What type of plant is cotton?

perennial

How are most plants harvested?

I'm not sure.

What is the cotton harvesting machine that removes the bolll and damages the plant?

I'm not sure.

What machine strips off the chemicals off the cotton plant?

I'm not sure.

What weather conditions mandate the planting of defoliation types of cotton?

I'm not sure.

What type of plant is defoliant?

I'm not sure.


The era of manufactured fibers began with the development of rayon in France in the 1890s. Rayon is derived from a natural cellulose and cannot be considered synthetic, but requires extensive processing in a manufacturing process, and led the less expensive replacement of more naturally derived materials. A succession of new synthetic fibers were introduced by the chemicals industry in the following decades. Acetate in fiber form was developed in 1924. Nylon, the first fiber synthesized entirely from petrochemicals, was introduced as a sewing thread by DuPont in 1936, followed by DuPont's acrylic in 1944. Some garments were created from fabrics based on these fibers, such as women's hosiery from nylon, but it was not until the introduction of polyester into the fiber marketplace in the early 1950s that the market for cotton came under threat. The rapid uptake of polyester garments in the 1960s caused economic hardship in cotton-exporting economies, especially in Central American countries, such as Nicaragua, where cotton production had boomed tenfold between 1950 and 1965 with the advent of cheap chemical pesticides. Cotton production recovered in the 1970s, but crashed to pre-1960 levels in the early 1990s.

What was the first manufactured fiber?

rayon

When was rayon first made in France?

What type of industry produced a growing chain of synthetic fibers?

chemicals industry

What was manufactured completely from petrochemicals?

Nylon

What company produced nylon and acrylic in the 1930s and 1940s?

DuPont

What was the first polyester fiber?

I'm not sure.

When was polyester first made in France?

I'm not sure.

What type of industry produced a growing chain of DuPont?

I'm not sure.

What was manufactured completely from DuPont?

I'm not sure.

What company produced polyester and nylon in the 1930s and 1940s?

I'm not sure.


Beginning as a self-help program in the mid-1960s, the Cotton Research and Promotion Program (CRPP) was organized by U.S. cotton producers in response to cotton's steady decline in market share. At that time, producers voted to set up a per-bale assessment system to fund the program, with built-in safeguards to protect their investments. With the passage of the Cotton Research and Promotion Act of 1966, the program joined forces and began battling synthetic competitors and re-establishing markets for cotton. Today, the success of this program has made cotton the best-selling fiber in the U.S. and one of the best-selling fibers in the world.[citation needed]

What prompted a help program produced by cotton producers in the 1960s?

decline in market share

What law was passed in 1966 to aid cotton producers?

Cotton Research and Promotion Act

What type of competitors does the 1966 act help combat?

synthetic competitors

Where has the Cotton Research and Promotion Act made cotton the best selling fiber?

U.S.

What did producers of cotton have to re-establish after the market declined?

markets for cotton

What prompted a help program produced by investments in the 1960s?

I'm not sure.

What law was passed in 1966 to aid investments?

I'm not sure.

What type of competitors does the 1966 act help?

I'm not sure.

Where has the Cotton Research and Promotion Act made synthetics the best selling fiber?

I'm not sure.

What did producers of synthetics have to re-establish after the market declined?

I'm not sure.


Cotton is used to make a number of textile products. These include terrycloth for highly absorbent bath towels and robes; denim for blue jeans; cambric, popularly used in the manufacture of blue work shirts (from which we get the term "blue-collar"); and corduroy, seersucker, and cotton twill. Socks, underwear, and most T-shirts are made from cotton. Bed sheets often are made from cotton. Cotton also is used to make yarn used in crochet and knitting. Fabric also can be made from recycled or recovered cotton that otherwise would be thrown away during the spinning, weaving, or cutting process. While many fabrics are made completely of cotton, some materials blend cotton with other fibers, including rayon and synthetic fibers such as polyester. It can either be used in knitted or woven fabrics, as it can be blended with elastine to make a stretchier thread for knitted fabrics, and apparel such as stretch jeans.

For what is cotton used to make?

textile products

Besides new cotton fibers, what type of fibers can be used to make cotton products?

recycled or recovered cotton

With what is cotton often blended to make a new style of fabric?

synthetic fibers

What kinds of fabrics can be made from blended fibers?

knitted or woven

For what can cotton yarn be used?

crochet and knitting

For what are jeans used to make?

I'm not sure.

Besides new cotton fivers, what type of fivers can be used to make elastine?

I'm not sure.

With what is cotton often blended to make a new style of elastine?

I'm not sure.

What kinds of fabrics can be made from stretch jeans?

I'm not sure.

For what can cotton elastine be used?

I'm not sure.


The cottonseed which remains after the cotton is ginned is used to produce cottonseed oil, which, after refining, can be consumed by humans like any other vegetable oil. The cottonseed meal that is left generally is fed to ruminant livestock; the gossypol remaining in the meal is toxic to monogastric animals. Cottonseed hulls can be added to dairy cattle rations for roughage. During the American slavery period, cotton root bark was used in folk remedies as an abortifacient, that is, to induce a miscarriage. Gossypol was one of the many substances found in all parts of the cotton plant and it was described by the scientists as 'poisonous pigment'. It also appears to inhibit the development of sperm or even restrict the mobility of the sperm. Also, it is thought to interfere with the menstrual cycle by restricting the release of certain hormones.

For what is cottonseed used after it is separate from the fibers?

cottonseed oil

What product is processed cottonseed oil?

vegetable oil.

What is cottonseed meal used for feed?

ruminant livestock

For what purpose are cottonseed hulls used in feed?

roughage

As what did early scientists describe gossypol ?

poisonous pigment

For what is cottonseed used after it is separate from root bark?

I'm not sure.

What product is processed cottonseed bark?

I'm not sure.

For what purpose is root bark used in feed?

I'm not sure.

As what did early scientists describe cottonseed oil?

I'm not sure.

What inhibits the development of root bark?

I'm not sure.


Cotton linters are fine, silky fibers which adhere to the seeds of the cotton plant after ginning. These curly fibers typically are less than 1⁄8 inch (3.2 mm) long. The term also may apply to the longer textile fiber staple lint as well as the shorter fuzzy fibers from some upland species. Linters are traditionally used in the manufacture of paper and as a raw material in the manufacture of cellulose. In the UK, linters are referred to as "cotton wool". This can also be a refined product (absorbent cotton in U.S. usage) which has medical, cosmetic and many other practical uses. The first medical use of cotton wool was by Sampson Gamgee at the Queen's Hospital (later the General Hospital) in Birmingham, England.

What part of the cotton plant is used for paper manufacture?

Cotton linters

What do cotton linters look like?

fine, silky fibers

What are cotton linters called in the UK?

cotton wool

What is cotton wool called in the US?

absorbent cotton

What individual first used cotton wool medically?

Sampson Gamgee

What part of wool is used for paper manufacture?

I'm not sure.

What does wool look like?

I'm not sure.

What are cotton linters called in the U.S.?

I'm not sure.

What individual first used wool medically?

I'm not sure.

Where did Sampson Gamgee first use wool medically?

I'm not sure.


Cotton lisle is a finely-spun, tightly twisted type of cotton that is noted for being strong and durable. Lisle is composed of two strands that have each been twisted an extra twist per inch than ordinary yarns and combined to create a single thread. The yarn is spun so that it is compact and solid. This cotton is used mainly for underwear, stockings, and gloves. Colors applied to this yarn are noted for being more brilliant than colors applied to softer yarn. This type of thread was first made in the city of Lisle, France (now Lille), hence its name.

What is a fine, tightly twisted type of cotton fabric?

Cotton lisle

What is lisle considered to be as a fabric?

strong and durable

What does extra twisting of lisle thread produce?

single thread

Where was the lisle thread originally made?

Lisle, France

How is color perceived to be for lisle in comparison to softer yarns?

more brilliant

What is a fine, tightly twisted type of cotton glove?

I'm not sure.

What is lisle considered to be as a city?

I'm not sure.

What does extra twisting of gloves produce?

I'm not sure.

Where were gloves originally made?

I'm not sure.

How is color perceived to be for gloves in comparison with stockings?

I'm not sure.


The largest producers of cotton, currently (2009), are China and India, with annual production of about 34 million bales and 33.4 million bales, respectively; most of this production is consumed by their respective textile industries. The largest exporters of raw cotton are the United States, with sales of $4.9 billion, and Africa, with sales of $2.1 billion. The total international trade is estimated to be $12 billion. Africa's share of the cotton trade has doubled since 1980. Neither area has a significant domestic textile industry, textile manufacturing having moved to developing nations in Eastern and South Asia such as India and China. In Africa, cotton is grown by numerous small holders. Dunavant Enterprises, based in Memphis, Tennessee, is the leading cotton broker in Africa, with hundreds of purchasing agents. It operates cotton gins in Uganda, Mozambique, and Zambia. In Zambia, it often offers loans for seed and expenses to the 180,000 small farmers who grow cotton for it, as well as advice on farming methods. Cargill also purchases cotton in Africa for export.

In 2009 what were the largest producers of cotton?

China and India

How do the US and Africa rank as exporters of cotton?

largest exporters

What is the combined international trade in cotton?

$12 billion

What company is the top cotton broker in Africa?

Dunavant Enterprises

Where is Dunavant Enterprises based?

Memphis, Tennessee

In 2009 what were the largest importers?

I'm not sure.

How do the US and Africa rank as exporters of rice?

I'm not sure.

What is the combined international trade in rice?

I'm not sure.

What company is the top cotton broker in India?

I'm not sure.

Where is Cargill based?

I'm not sure.


The 25,000 cotton growers in the United States of America are heavily subsidized at the rate of $2 billion per year although China now provides the highest overall level of cotton sector support. The future of these subsidies is uncertain and has led to anticipatory expansion of cotton brokers' operations in Africa. Dunavant expanded in Africa by buying out local operations. This is only possible in former British colonies and Mozambique; former French colonies continue to maintain tight monopolies, inherited from their former colonialist masters, on cotton purchases at low fixed prices.

How many subsidized cotton growers are in the US?

What is the rate of subsidies of cotton growers in the US?

$2 billion per year

What country provides the highest rate of support for cotton growers?

China

Which former colonies still have tight monopolies on cotton brokering?

French

Where in Africa is it possible to buy out brokerages in cotton?

former British colonies

How many subsidized cotton growers are in Africa?

I'm not sure.

What is the rate of subsidies of cotton growers in Africa?

I'm not sure.

What country provides the highest rate of support for colonies?

I'm not sure.

Which former colonies still have tight monopolies on colonies?

I'm not sure.

Where in the United States is it possible to buy out brokerages in cotton?

I'm not sure.


While Brazil was fighting the US through the WTO's Dispute Settlement Mechanism against a heavily subsidized cotton industry, a group of four least-developed African countries – Benin, Burkina Faso, Chad, and Mali – also known as "Cotton-4" have been the leading protagonist for the reduction of US cotton subsidies through negotiations. The four introduced a "Sectoral Initiative in Favour of Cotton", presented by Burkina Faso's President Blaise Compaoré during the Trade Negotiations Committee on 10 June 2003.

What was Brazil's argument against the US cotton industry?

heavily subsidized

What are the African countries of Benin, Burkina Faso, Chad, and Mali referred to as in the cotton industry?

What has the Cotton-4 been in regards to the US cotton subsidies?

leading protagonist

What could the US do that would please the foreign cotton industry concerning cotton subsidies?

reduction

What organization has Brazil tried to use to curb US cotton subsidies?

WTO's Dispute Settlement Mechanism

What was Brazil's argument against Chad's cotton industry?

I'm not sure.

What has the Cotton-4 been in regards to the cotton industry?

I'm not sure.

What could the US do that would please the WTO concerning cotton subsidies?

I'm not sure.

What organization has the US tried to use to curb Brazilian subsidies?

I'm not sure.

When were cotton subsidies introduced?

I'm not sure.


In addition to concerns over subsidies, the cotton industries of some countries are criticized for employing child labor and damaging workers' health by exposure to pesticides used in production. The Environmental Justice Foundation has campaigned against the prevalent use of forced child and adult labor in cotton production in Uzbekistan, the world's third largest cotton exporter. The international production and trade situation has led to "fair trade" cotton clothing and footwear, joining a rapidly growing market for organic clothing, fair fashion or "ethical fashion". The fair trade system was initiated in 2005 with producers from Cameroon, Mali and Senegal.

What type of labor have some countries come under fire for employing?

child

What usage that causes worker damage have some countries been reported doing?

exposure to pesticides

What country has been accused of forced child and adult labor?

Uzbekistan

Where does Uzbekistan rank as a cotton exporter?

third largest

What system was started in 2005 to deal with organic and ethically produced products?

fair trade

What type of footwear have some countries come under fire for employing?

I'm not sure.

What usage that causes footwear damage have some countries been reported to doing?

I'm not sure.

What country has been accused of fair fashion?

I'm not sure.

Where does Mali rank as a cotton exporter?

I'm not sure.

What system was started in 2005 to deal with forced labor?

I'm not sure.


A public genome sequencing effort of cotton was initiated in 2007 by a consortium of public researchers. They agreed on a strategy to sequence the genome of cultivated, tetraploid cotton. "Tetraploid" means that cultivated cotton actually has two separate genomes within its nucleus, referred to as the A and D genomes. The sequencing consortium first agreed to sequence the D-genome relative of cultivated cotton (G. raimondii, a wild Central American cotton species) because of its small size and limited number of repetitive elements. It is nearly one-third the number of bases of tetraploid cotton (AD), and each chromosome is only present once.[clarification needed] The A genome of G. arboreum would be sequenced next. Its genome is roughly twice the size of G. raimondii's. Part of the difference in size between the two genomes is the amplification of retrotransposons (GORGE). Once both diploid genomes are assembled, then research could begin sequencing the actual genomes of cultivated cotton varieties. This strategy is out of necessity; if one were to sequence the tetraploid genome without model diploid genomes, the euchromatic DNA sequences of the AD genomes would co-assemble and the repetitive elements of AD genomes would assembly independently into A and D sequences respectively. Then there would be no way to untangle the mess of AD sequences without comparing them to their diploid counterparts.

What is the final sequencing goal of sequencing diploid cotton genomes first ?

tetraploid cotton

What type of cotton has two separate genomes within its nucleus?

Tetraploid

When did a group of researchers decide to sequence the genomic structure of tetraploid cotton?

What type of genome must be sequenced first to prevent confusion before the tetraploid form?

diploid

In order to understand the tetraploid forms, what must be used as a comparison in cotton gene sequencing?

diploid counterparts

What is the final sequencing goal of sequencing tetraploid genomes first?

I'm not sure.

What type of cotton has two separate genomes within its sequence?

I'm not sure.

When did a group or researchers decide to sequence the genomic structure of diploid counterparts?

I'm not sure.

What type of genome must be sequenced first to prevent confusion before GORGE?

I'm not sure.

In order to understand the tetraploid forms, what must be used as a comparison in cotton GORGE?

I'm not sure.


The public sector effort continues with the goal to create a high-quality, draft genome sequence from reads generated by all sources. The public-sector effort has generated Sanger reads of BACs, fosmids, and plasmids as well as 454 reads. These later types of reads will be instrumental in assembling an initial draft of the D genome. In 2010, two companies (Monsanto and Illumina), completed enough Illumina sequencing to cover the D genome of G. raimondii about 50x. They announced that they would donate their raw reads to the public. This public relations effort gave them some recognition for sequencing the cotton genome. Once the D genome is assembled from all of this raw material, it will undoubtedly assist in the assembly of the AD genomes of cultivated varieties of cotton, but a lot of hard work remains.

What companies finished much of the sequencing of the D genome?

Monsanto and Illumina

When was the sequencing of D genome of G.  raimondii mostly completed?

What did Monsanto and Illumina say they would do with the research?

donate

What is the seeming result of donating genetic cotton sequencing to the public?

public relations

What plants are the goal of sequencing wild forms of cotton?

cultivated varieties

What companies finished much of the sequencing of the BAC genome?

I'm not sure.

When was the sequencing of D genome of AD, raimondii mostly completed?

I'm not sure.

What did Monsanto and Illumina say they would do with the D genome of G?

I'm not sure.

What is the seeming result of donating genetic cotton sequencing to the AD genomes?

I'm not sure.

What plants are the goal of sequencing wild forms of BAC?

I'm not sure.


In signal processing, data compression, source coding, or bit-rate reduction involves encoding information using fewer bits than the original representation. Compression can be either lossy or lossless. Lossless compression reduces bits by identifying and eliminating statistical redundancy. No information is lost in lossless compression. Lossy compression reduces bits by identifying unnecessary information and removing it. The process of reducing the size of a data file is referred to as data compression. In the context of data transmission, it is called source coding (encoding done at the source of the data before it is stored or transmitted) in opposition to channel coding.

What involves encoding information using fewer bits than the original representation?

data compression

What can be either lossy or lossless?

Compression

What reduces bits by identifying and eliminating statistical redundancy?

Lossless compression

What is the process called of reducing the size of a data file?

data compression

What is the process called of encoding at the source of the data before it's processed?

source coding

What involves encoding information using fewer bits than the channel coding?

I'm not sure.

What can not be lossy or lossless?

I'm not sure.

What reduces bits by identifying and eliminating source coding?

I'm not sure.

What is the process called of reducing the size of a lossless?

I'm not sure.


Compression is useful because it helps reduce resource usage, such as data storage space or transmission capacity. Because compressed data must be decompressed to use, this extra processing imposes computational or other costs through decompression; this situation is far from being a free lunch. Data compression is subject to a space–time complexity trade-off. For instance, a compression scheme for video may require expensive hardware for the video to be decompressed fast enough to be viewed as it is being decompressed, and the option to decompress the video in full before watching it may be inconvenient or require additional storage. The design of data compression schemes involves trade-offs among various factors, including the degree of compression, the amount of distortion introduced (when using lossy data compression), and the computational resources required to compress and decompress the data.

What helps reduce resource usage?

Compression

What must be decompressed?

compressed data

What is subject to a space-time complexity trade off?

Data compression

What type of scheme involves trade offs among other things?

data compression

What helps reduce trade-offs?

I'm not sure.

What is subject to a space-time hardware?

I'm not sure.

What type of scheme involves storage among other things?

I'm not sure.

What must compressed data be to be inconvenient?

I'm not sure.

What does extra processing impose through distortion?

I'm not sure.


Lossless data compression algorithms usually exploit statistical redundancy to represent data without losing any information, so that the process is reversible. Lossless compression is possible because most real-world data exhibits statistical redundancy. For example, an image may have areas of colour that do not change over several pixels; instead of coding "red pixel, red pixel, ..." the data may be encoded as "279 red pixels". This is a basic example of run-length encoding; there are many schemes to reduce file size by eliminating redundancy.

What usually exploits statistical redundancy?

Lossless data compression algorithms

What represents statistical redundancy?

Lossless compression

What may have colors that do not change over several pixels?

an image

What usually exploits run-length coding?

I'm not sure.

What may have redundancy that does not change over several pixels?

I'm not sure.

What is possible because most real-world data have areas of color?

I'm not sure.

What allows many schemes to reduce lossless compression?

I'm not sure.

What do red pixel algorithms usually exploit?

I'm not sure.


The Lempel–Ziv (LZ) compression methods are among the most popular algorithms for lossless storage. DEFLATE is a variation on LZ optimized for decompression speed and compression ratio, but compression can be slow. DEFLATE is used in PKZIP, Gzip and PNG. LZW (Lempel–Ziv–Welch) is used in GIF images. Also noteworthy is the LZR (Lempel-Ziv–Renau) algorithm, which serves as the basis for the Zip method.[citation needed] LZ methods use a table-based compression model where table entries are substituted for repeated strings of data. For most LZ methods, this table is generated dynamically from earlier data in the input. The table itself is often Huffman encoded (e.g. SHRI, LZX). Current LZ-based coding schemes that perform well are Brotli and LZX. LZX is used in Microsoft's CAB format.

What compression methods are among the most popular?

Lempel–Ziv (LZ)

What is used in PKZIP, Gzip and PNG?

DEFLATE

What serves as the basis of the Zip method?

LZR

What is a current LZ based coding scheme that does well?

Brotli

What is used in Microsoft's CAB format?

LZX

What speed methods are among the most popular?

I'm not sure.

What is used in PKZIP, LZR, and Huffman?

I'm not sure.

What serves as the dynamically generated table for the Zip method?

I'm not sure.

What is a current LZ based CAB that does well?

I'm not sure.

What is used in Microsoft's DEFLATE format?

I'm not sure.


In a further refinement of the direct use of probabilistic modelling, statistical estimates can be coupled to an algorithm called arithmetic coding. Arithmetic coding is a more modern coding technique that uses the mathematical calculations of a finite-state machine to produce a string of encoded bits from a series of input data symbols. It can achieve superior compression to other techniques such as the better-known Huffman algorithm. It uses an internal memory state to avoid the need to perform a one-to-one mapping of individual input symbols to distinct representations that use an integer number of bits, and it clears out the internal memory only after encoding the entire string of data symbols. Arithmetic coding applies especially well to adaptive data compression tasks where the statistics vary and are context-dependent, as it can be easily coupled with an adaptive model of the probability distribution of the input data. An early example of the use of arithmetic coding was its use as an optional (but not widely used) feature of the JPEG image coding standard. It has since been applied in various other designs including H.264/MPEG-4 AVC and HEVC for video coding.

What can be paired with an algorithm called arithmetic coding?

statistical estimates

What can achieve superior compression?

Arithmetic coding

What uses an internal memory state?

Huffman algorithm

What can e paired with adaptive data called arithmetic coding?

I'm not sure.

What can achieve superior internal memory state?

I'm not sure.

What uses a JPEG memory state?

I'm not sure.

What applies well to coding standard compression tasks?

I'm not sure.

What were early examples of probability distribution applied in?

I'm not sure.


Lossy data compression is the converse of lossless data compression. In these schemes, some loss of information is acceptable. Dropping nonessential detail from the data source can save storage space. Lossy data compression schemes are designed by research on how people perceive the data in question. For example, the human eye is more sensitive to subtle variations in luminance than it is to the variations in color. JPEG image compression works in part by rounding off nonessential bits of information. There is a corresponding trade-off between preserving information and reducing size. A number of popular compression formats exploit these perceptual differences, including those used in music files, images, and video.

What type of data compression is the converse of lossless date data compression?

Lossy

What can save storage space?

Dropping nonessential detail from the data source

What helps by eliminating off nonessential bits of information?

JPEG image compression

What type of data compression is the converse of subtle variations?

I'm not sure.

What helps by eliminating off nonessential bits of perceptual differences?

I'm not sure.

What is more sensitive to reducing size in luminance than variations in color?

I'm not sure.

What are Lossy data compression music files designed by?

I'm not sure.

What is there a corresponding compression scheme between?

I'm not sure.


In lossy audio compression, methods of psychoacoustics are used to remove non-audible (or less audible) components of the audio signal. Compression of human speech is often performed with even more specialized techniques; speech coding, or voice coding, is sometimes distinguished as a separate discipline from audio compression. Different audio and speech compression standards are listed under audio coding formats. Voice compression is used in internet telephony, for example, audio compression is used for CD ripping and is decoded by the audio players.

What methods are used to remove non-audible components of audio signals?

psychoacoustics

What compression is usually performed with even more specialized techniques?

human speech

What is used in internet telephony?

Voice compression

What is used for CD ripping?

audio compression

What is encoded by audio players?

audio compression

What methods are used to removed coding components of audio signals?

I'm not sure.

What compression is usually performed with even more psychoacoustics?

I'm not sure.

What are different audio and speech CD ripping listed under?

I'm not sure.

What is distinguished as a separate lossy from audio compression?

I'm not sure.

Voice speech is used in what?

I'm not sure.


There is a close connection between machine learning and compression: a system that predicts the posterior probabilities of a sequence given its entire history can be used for optimal data compression (by using arithmetic coding on the output distribution) while an optimal compressor can be used for prediction (by finding the symbol that compresses best, given the previous history). This equivalence has been used as a justification for using data compression as a benchmark for "general intelligence."

What is Machine learning closely related to?

compression

What type of compressor can be used for prediction?

optimal

What has been used as a benchmark for "general intelligence"?

data compression

What type of compressor can be used for general intelligence?

I'm not sure.

What can a benchmark compressor be used for?

I'm not sure.

What has a close connection to machine equivalence?

I'm not sure.

What can be used for optimal justification?

I'm not sure.

How is an arithmetic compressor used for prediction?

I'm not sure.


Data compression can be viewed as a special case of data differencing: Data differencing consists of producing a difference given a source and a target, with patching producing a target given a source and a difference, while data compression consists of producing a compressed file given a target, and decompression consists of producing a target given only a compressed file. Thus, one can consider data compression as data differencing with empty source data, the compressed file corresponding to a "difference from nothing." This is the same as considering absolute entropy (corresponding to data compression) as a special case of relative entropy (corresponding to data differencing) with no initial data.

What can be looked at as a special case of data differencing?

Data compression

What is made up of producing a difference given a source and a target?

Data differencing

What can classified as data differencing with empty source data?

data compression

What can be looked at as a special case of relative entropy?

I'm not sure.

What is made up of producing a compressed file given a source and a target?

I'm not sure.

What can be classified as data differencing with corresponding data?

I'm not sure.

What means producing a target given only a special case?

I'm not sure.

What means producing a compressed file given no initial data?

I'm not sure.


Audio data compression, not to be confused with dynamic range compression, has the potential to reduce the transmission bandwidth and storage requirements of audio data. Audio compression algorithms are implemented in software as audio codecs. Lossy audio compression algorithms provide higher compression at the cost of fidelity and are used in numerous audio applications. These algorithms almost all rely on psychoacoustics to eliminate less audible or meaningful sounds, thereby reducing the space required to store or transmit them.

What has the potential to reduce the transmission bandwidth and storage requirements of audio data?

Audio data compression

What is inserted in software as audio codecs?

Audio compression algorithms

What compression algorithms provide higher compression at the cost of fidelity?

Lossy

What has the potential to reduce the transmission bandwidth and storage requirements of software?

I'm not sure.

What is inserted in psychoacoustics as audio codecs?

I'm not sure.

What compression algorithms provide higher compression at the transmission?

I'm not sure.

What do algorithms rely on to eliminate requirements?

I'm not sure.

What does audio data compression have the potential to reduce the dynamic range of?

I'm not sure.