During the Partitions of Poland from 1772 to 1795, its members began to lose these legal privileges and social status. From that point until 1918, the legal status of the nobility was essentially dependent upon the policies of the three partitioning powers: the Russian Empire, the Kingdom of Prussia, and the Habsburg Monarchy. The legal privileges of the szlachta were legally abolished in the Second Polish Republic by the March Constitution of 1921.

When, during the partitions of Poland, did the szlachta lose legal and social status.

1772 to 1795

What was one name of a power that the szlachta was dependent on.

Russian Empire

When was the March constitution implemented.

What did the Mach constitution do?

legal privileges of the szlachta were legally abolished

In what republic did the szlachta lose their legal privileges.

Second Polish Republic


The notion that all Polish nobles were social equals, regardless of their financial status or offices held, is enshrined in a traditional Polish saying:

What was the notion for all polish nobles?

social equals

What ethnic saying is this traditional from?

Polish saying

Did it matter how much money a person had to polish nobles?

regardless of their financial status


The term szlachta is derived from the Old High German word slahta (modern German Geschlecht), which means "(noble) family", much as many other Polish words pertaining to the nobility derive from German words—e.g., the Polish "rycerz" ("knight", cognate of the German "Ritter") and the Polish "herb" ("coat of arms", from the German "Erbe", "heritage").

What german word does the term szlachta come from?

slahta

What does slahta mean?

"(noble) family"

What is the polish name for knight?

rycerz

German name for knight?

Ritter

Where does the word her derive from in german?

Erbe


Poles of the 17th century assumed that "szlachta" came from the German "schlachten" ("to slaughter" or "to butcher"); also suggestive is the German "Schlacht" ("battle"). Early Polish historians thought the term may have derived from the name of the legendary proto-Polish chief, Lech, mentioned in Polish and Czech writings.

What did the poles of the 17th century think the term szlachta came from?

German "schlachten"

What does schlachtan mean in german?

("to slaughter" or "to butcher")

What German word is also suggestive deriving from  szlachta?

Schlacht

What does schlacht mean?

battle

The polish believed szlachta derived from the name of who?

legendary proto-Polish chief, Lech


Some powerful Polish nobles were referred to as "magnates" (Polish singular: "magnat", plural: "magnaci") and "możny" ("magnate", "oligarch"; plural: "możni"); see Magnates of Poland and Lithuania.

What were some powerful Polish nobles referred too?

magnates

What is the singular version of magnates?

magnat

What is another name referring polish nobles?

możny

What is the plural version of mozny?

możni

What other country  besides Poland were polish nobles most likely found?

Lithuania


The Polish term "szlachta" designated the formalized, hereditary noble class of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. In official Latin documents of the old Commonwealth, hereditary szlachta are referred to as "nobilitas" and are indeed the equivalent in legal status of the English nobility.

What term designated the noble class of polish Lithuania common wealth?

szlachta

What are two adjectives that best describe the szlachta?

formalized, hereditary

Who is referred to as nobilitas?

hereditary szlachta

What is the legal status of nobilitas?

equivalent in legal status of the English nobility


Today the word szlachta in the Polish language simply translates to "nobility". In its broadest meaning, it can also denote some non-hereditary honorary knighthoods granted today by some European monarchs. Occasionally, 19th-century non-noble landowners were referred to as szlachta by courtesy or error, when they owned manorial estates though they were not noble by birth. In the narrow sense, szlachta denotes the old-Commonwealth nobility.

What simple word does the term szlachta translate too?

nobility

What were the non noble land owners referred too as?

szlachta

Why were the non nobles and nobles referred as the same term?

by courtesy or error

What does szlachta mainly denote?

old-Commonwealth nobility


In the past, a certain misconception sometimes led to the mistranslation of "szlachta" as "gentry" rather than "nobility".:206 :xvi This mistaken practice began due to the economic status of some szlachta members being inferior to that of the nobility in other European countries (see also Estates of the Realm regarding wealth and nobility). The szlachta included those almost rich and powerful enough to be magnates down to rascals with a noble lineage, no land, no castle, no money, no village, and no peasants.:xvi

Why did the mistranslation of szlachta come about?

included those almost rich and powerful enough to be magnates down to rascals

Who was inferior of the other, European countries or szlachta?

szlachta


As some szlachta were poorer than some non-noble gentry, some particularly impoverished szlachta were forced to become tenants of the wealthier gentry. In doing so, however, these szlachta retained all their constitutional prerogatives, as it was not wealth or lifestyle (obtainable by the gentry), but hereditary juridical status, that determined nobility.

What ultimately determined nobility?

hereditary juridical status

What were some impoverished szlachta forced to do?

to become tenants of the wealthier gentry.

Did the tenants of the wealthier genrty lose their nobility?

no

What was one noble thing the poor szlachta did?

retained all their constitutional prerogatives


The origins of the szlachta, while ancient, have always been considered obscure.:207 As a result, its members often referred to it as odwieczna (perennial).:207 Two popular historic theories of origin forwarded by its members and earlier historians and chroniclers involved descent from the ancient Iranian tribes known as Sarmatians or from Japheth, one of Noah's sons (by contrast, the peasantry were said to be the offspring of another son of Noah, Ham—and hence subject to bondage under the Curse of Ham—and the Jews as the offspring of Shem). Other fanciful theories included its foundation by Julius Caesar, Alexander the Great:207 or regional leaders who had not mixed their bloodlines with those of 'slaves, prisoners, and aliens'.:208

Have the origins of the szlachta been clear or obscure?

obscure

What did they use to refer to the origin of szlactha?

odwieczna

What was one historic theory of the szlachta origins?

descent from the ancient Iranian tribes known as Sarmatians

What was another regional leader involved in the origins of szlachta?

Alexander the Great

What was important and unique about regional leaders?

had not mixed their bloodlines with those of 'slaves, prisoners, and aliens


Another theory describes its derivation from a non-Slavic warrior class,:42, 64–66 forming a distinct element known as the Lechici/Lekhi (Lechitów):430 :482 within the ancient Polonic tribal groupings (Indo-European caste systems). This hypothesis states this upper class was not of Slavonic extraction:482 and was of a different origin than the Slavonic peasants (kmiecie; Latin: cmethones):430 :118 over which they ruled.:482 The Szlachta were differentiated from the rural population. The nobleman's sense of distinction led to practices that in later periods would be characterized as racism.:233 The Szlachta were noble in the Aryan sense -- "noble" in contrast to the people over whom they ruled after coming into contact with them.:482 The szlachta traced their descent from Lech/Lekh, who probably founded the Polish kingdom in about the fifth century.:482 Lechia was the name of Poland in antiquity, and the szlachta's own name for themselves was Lechici/Lekhi.:482 An exact counterpart of Szlachta society was the Meerassee system of tenure of southern India—an aristocracy of equality—settled as conquerors among a separate race.:484 The Polish state paralleled the Roman Empire in that full rights of citizenship were limited to the szlachta. The szlachta were a caste, a military caste, as in Hindu society.

WHat was the name of the distinct element from a nnon-Slavic warrior class?

Lechici/Lekhi (Lechitów):

In this theory, what was the upper class?

was of a different origin than the Slavonic peasants

WHen did they find the polish kingdom?

about the fifth century.

WHat caste system does the hindu society have?

military caste

Who shares the same caste system as Hindu?

The szlachta


The documentation regarding Raciborz and Albert's tenure is the earliest surviving of the use of the clan name and cry defining the honorable status of Polish knights. The names of knightly genealogiae only came to be associated with heraldic devices later in the Middle Ages and in the early modern period. The Polish clan name and cry ritualized the ius militare, i.e., the power to command an army; and they had been used some time before 1244 to define knightly status. (Górecki 1992, pp. 183–185).

WHat is the earliest surviving use of the clan name of the polish knights?

documentation regarding Raciborz and Albert's tenure

WHn did the knightly genealogiae associate with heraldic devices?

Middle Ages and in the early modern period

The polish anem and cry ritualized what?

the ius militare,

In 1244 the power to command and army had been used to do what?

define knightly status


Around the 14th century, there was little difference between knights and the szlachta in Poland. Members of the szlachta had the personal obligation to defend the country (pospolite ruszenie), thereby becoming the kingdom's most privileged social class. Inclusion in the class was almost exclusively based on inheritance.

Around what time were the knights and szlachta very similiar?

Around the 14th century

What was a personal obligation of the szlachtas?

defend the country


Concerning the early Polish tribes, geography contributed to long-standing traditions. The Polish tribes were internalized and organized around a unifying religious cult, governed by the wiec, an assembly of free tribesmen. Later, when safety required power to be consolidated, an elected prince was chosen to govern. The election privilege was usually limited to elites.

What contributed to the long standing traditions?

geography

What was governing the polish tribes?

wiec

What was the wiec?

an assembly of free tribesmen

When power needed to be consolidated what was chosen to govern?

an elected prince

What was the governing position limited to?

elites


The tribes were ruled by clans (ród) consisting of people related by blood or marriage and theoretically descending from a common ancestor, giving the ród/clan a highly developed sense of solidarity. (See gens.) The starosta (or starszyna) had judicial and military power over the ród/clan, although this power was often exercised with an assembly of elders. Strongholds called grόd were built where the religious cult was powerful, where trials were conducted, and where clans gathered in the face of danger. The opole was the territory occupied by a single tribe. (Manteuffel 1982, p. 44)

What ruled over the tribes?

clans (ród)

What did the clans people all have in common?

theoretically descending from a common ancestor

What gave them a sense of solidarity?

related by blood or marriage

What were stronghold called?

grόd

What was the territory occupied by a single tribe?

opole


Mieszko I of Poland (c. 935 – 25 May 992) established an elite knightly retinue from within his army, which he depended upon for success in uniting the Lekhitic tribes and preserving the unity of his state. Documented proof exists of Mieszko I's successors utilizing such a retinue, as well.

WHo established an elite knightly retinue?

Mieszko I of Poland

How long was Miesko I of Poland reigning?

(c. 935 – 25 May 992)

Along with uniting the lekhitic tribes what did poland succeed in?

preserving the unity of his state

Who also established this retinue as well?

Mieszko I's successors


Another class of knights were granted land by the prince, allowing them the economic ability to serve the prince militarily. A Polish nobleman living at the time prior to the 15th century was referred to as a "rycerz", very roughly equivalent to the English "knight," the critical difference being the status of "rycerz" was almost strictly hereditary; the class of all such individuals was known as the "rycerstwo". Representing the wealthier families of Poland and itinerant knights from abroad seeking their fortunes, this other class of rycerstwo, which became the szlachta/nobility ("szlachta" becomes the proper term for Polish nobility beginning about the 15th century), gradually formed apart from Mieszko I's and his successors' elite retinues. This rycerstwo/nobility obtained more privileges granting them favored status. They were absolved from particular burdens and obligations under ducal law, resulting in the belief only rycerstwo (those combining military prowess with high/noble birth) could serve as officials in state administration.

WHat was a polish nobleman referred to as before the 15th century?

rycerz

What is roughly the same to the english version of rycerz?

knight

What people did the rycerstwo class represent?

wealthier families of Poland and itinerant knights from abroad seeking their fortunes

What positive did the szlachta class receive?

gradually formed apart from Mieszko I's and his successors' elite retinues.

What did ducal law implement for the rycerstwo/nobility?

could serve as officials in state administration.


The Period of Division from, A.D., 1138 – A.D., 1314, which included nearly 200 years of feudal fragmentation and which stemmed from Bolesław III's division of Poland among his sons, was the genesis of the social structure which saw the economic elevation of the great landowning feudal nobles (możni/Magnates, both ecclesiastical and lay) from the rycerstwo they originated from. The prior social structure was one of Polish tribes united into the historic Polish nation under a state ruled by the Piast dynasty, this dynasty appearing circa 850 A.D.

WHen was the period of Division?

A.D., 1138 – A.D., 1314

What stemmed the period of division?

Bolesław III's division of Poland among his sons

What tribe was the prior social structure from?

Polish

WHen did the Piast dynasty appear?

850 A.D.

Polish nation ruled by what dynasty?

Piast dynasty,


Some możni (Magnates) descending from past tribal dynasties regarded themselves as co-proprietors of Piast realms, even though the Piasts attempted to deprive them of their independence. These możni (Magnates) constantly sought to undermine princely authority.:75, 76 In Gall Anonym's chronicle, there is noted the nobility's alarm when the Palatine Sieciech "elevated those of a lower class over those who were noble born" entrusting them with state offices. (Manteuffel 1982, p. 149)

What did some Mozni regard themselves with?

co-proprietors of Piast realms

What did the magnates do to the Piasts realms?

attempted to deprive them of their independence

Who constantly sought to undermine princely authority?

możni


In Lithuania Propria and in Samogitia prior to the creation of the Kingdom of Lithuania by Mindaugas, nobles were named die beste leuten in sources that were written in German language. In the Lithuanian language nobles were named ponai. The higher nobility were named 'kunigai' or 'kunigaikščiai' (dukes)—i.e., loanword from Scandinavic konung. They were the established local leaders and warlords. During the development of the state they gradually became subordinated to higher dukes, and later to the King of Lithuania. Because of expansion of Lithuanian duchy into lands of Ruthenia in the mid of 14th century a new term appeared to denominate nobility bajorai—from Ruthenian (modern Ukrainian and Belarusian languages) бояре. This word to this day is used in Lithuanian language to name nobility, not only for own, but also for nobility of other countries.

WHat were nobles named in german language?

die beste leuten

What were the nobles named in lithuanian?

ponai

What were the higher nobility named?

kunigai' or 'kunigaikščiai'

The kunigai were subordinate to who?

King of Lithuania.

What word is used to denominate nobility?

бояре


After the Union of Horodło the Lithuanian nobility acquired equal status with the Polish szlachta, and over time began to become more and more polonized, although they did preserve their national consciousness, and in most cases recognition of their Lithuanian family roots. In the 16th century some of the Lithuanian nobility claimed that they were of Roman extraction, and the Lithuanian language was just a morphed Latin language. This led to paradox: Polish nobility claimed own ancestry from Sarmatian tribes, but Sarmatians were considered enemies to Romans. Thus new Roman-Sarmatian theory was created. Strong cultural ties with Polish nobility led that in the 16th century the new term to name Lithuanian nobility appeared šlėkta—a direct loanword from Polish szlachta. From the view of historical truth Lithuanians also should use this term, šlėkta (szlachta), to name own nobility, but Lithuanian linguists forbade the usage of this Polish loanword. This refusal to use word szlachta (in Lithuanian text šlėkta) complicates all naming.

What other group had equal status with the lithuanian nobility?

Polish szlachta

What did the polish szlachta become more of?

polonized

What did some lithuanian nobility claim that caused a paradox?

they were of Roman extraction

What is the new term used for the lithuanian nobility?

šlėkta

Who forbid the use of the word slekta?

Lithuanian linguists


The process of polonization took place over a lengthy period of time. At first only the highest members of the nobility were involved, although gradually a wider group of the population was affected. The major effects on the lesser Lithuanian nobility took place after various sanctions were imposed by the Russian Empire such as removing Lithuania from the names of the Gubernyas few years after the November Uprising. After the January Uprising the sanctions went further, and Russian officials announced that "Lithuanians are Russians seduced by Poles and Catholicism" and began to intensify russification, and to ban the printing of books in the Lithuanian language.

WHo was first invloved in the polonization?

the highest members of the nobility

Who imposed various sanction on the people?

Russian Empire

What was an example of imposing sanctions on lithuanians?

removing Lithuania from the names of the Gubernyas

What did the russian officials announce as a sanction?

"Lithuanians are Russians seduced by Poles and Catholicism"

What language was banned from printing on books?

Lithuanian language.


In Ruthenia the nobility gradually gravitated its loyalty towards the multicultural and multilingual Grand Duchy of Lithuania after the principalities of Halych and Volhynia became a part of it. Many noble Ruthenian families intermarried with Lithuanian ones.

What group did the Nobility of Ruthenia gravitate its loyalty towards?

Grand Duchy of Lithuania

What type of people were the Grand Duchy of Lithuania?

multicultural and multilingual

What eventually became a part of the grand duchy of lithuania?

principalities of Halych and Volhynia

What was common for families of ruthenian and lithuanian?

intermarried


The Orthodox nobles' rights were nominally equal to those enjoyed by Polish and Lithuanian nobility, but there was a cultural pressure to convert to Catholicism, that was greatly eased in 1596 by the Union of Brest. See for example careers of Senator Adam Kisiel and Jerzy Franciszek Kulczycki.

What other rights were equal to orthodox nobles?

Polish and Lithuanian nobility

What social pressure was pressing down the people?

convert to Catholicism

What greatly eased the cultural pressure towards Catholicism.

Union of Brest

What year was the union of brest


In the Kingdom of Poland and later in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, ennoblement (nobilitacja) may be equated with an individual given legal status as a szlachta (member of the Polish nobility). Initially, this privilege could be granted by monarch, but from the 1641 onward, this right was reserved for the sejm. Most often the individual being ennobled would join an existing noble szlachta clan and assume the undifferentiated coat of arms of that clan.

Before 1641 the privileged ennoblement was granted by what?

by monarch

What right was reversed by sijm?

ennoblement

What would be given to the enobled one?

undifferentiated coat of arms

After 1641 who was given the privilege of ennoblement?

sejm

What clan was given the privileged of enoblement?

szlachta clan


According to heraldic sources total number of legal ennoblements issued between the 14th century and the mid-18th century, is estimated at approximately 800. This is an average of only about two ennoblements per year or only 0.000 000 14 – 0.000 001 of historical population. Compare: historical demography of Poland.

Around what time was the total legal number of ennoblement at 800?

between the 14th century and the mid-18th century,

What is average for ennoblements between 14th and min 18th century.

two ennoblements per year

What type of sources give information regarding total number of enablements?

heraldic sources


According to heraldic sources 1,600 is a total estimated number of all legal ennoblements throughout the history of Kingdom of Poland and Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from the 14th century onward (half of which were performed in the final years of the late 18th century).

What was the toalt number of legal ennoblements thoughout history of poland and polish commonwealth

When did theys tart recording the ennoblements?

14th century onward

When were most ennoblements implemented?

final years of the late 18th century


In the late 14th century, in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Vytautas the Great reformed the Grand Duchy's army: instead of calling all men to arms, he created forces comprising professional warriors—bajorai ("nobles"; see the cognate "boyar"). As there were not enough nobles, Vytautas trained suitable men, relieving them of labor on the land and of other duties; for their military service to the Grand Duke, they were granted land that was worked by hired men (veldams). The newly formed noble families generally took up, as their family names, the Lithuanian pagan given names of their ennobled ancestors; this was the case with the Goštautai, Radvilos, Astikai, Kęsgailos and others. These families were granted their coats of arms under the Union of Horodlo (1413).

WHo reformed the grand duchy army?

Vytautas the Great

vytautas created what for compromising professional warriors?

bajorai

What names did the newly formed noble families take afteR?

Lithuanian pagan given names of their ennobled ancestors

What is an example of noble family name?

Goštautai,

Who gave the coat of arms to others?

Union of Horodlo


Significant legislative changes in the status of the szlachta, as defined by Robert Bideleux and Ian Jeffries, consist of its 1374 exemption from the land tax, a 1425 guarantee against the 'arbitrary arrests and/or seizure of property' of its members, a 1454 requirement that military forces and new taxes be approved by provincial Sejms, and statutes issued between 1496 and 1611 that prescribed the rights of commoners.

Who defined the significant legislative changes?

Robert Bideleux and Ian Jeffries

What is one exemption was part of the significant changes in legislation?

1374 exemption from the land tax,

What did the 1425 requirement entail?

requirement that military forces and new taxes be approved by provincial Sejms

What were the statutes issued between 1496 and 1611 prescribed from?

rights of commoners


Nobles were born into a noble family, adopted by a noble family (this was abolished in 1633) or ennobled by a king or Sejm for various reasons (bravery in combat, service to the state, etc.—yet this was the rarest means of gaining noble status). Many nobles were, in actuality, really usurpers, being commoners, who moved into another part of the country and falsely pretended to noble status. Hundreds of such false nobles were denounced by Hieronim Nekanda Trepka in his Liber generationis plebeanorium (or Liber chamorum) in the first half of the 16th century. The law forbade non-nobles from owning nobility-estates and promised the estate to the denouncer. Trepka was an impoverished nobleman who lived a townsman life and collected hundreds of such stories hoping to take over any of such estates. It does not seem he ever succeeded in proving one at the court. Many sejms issued decrees over the centuries in an attempt to resolve this issue, but with little success. It is unknown what percentage of the Polish nobility came from the 'lower' orders of society, but most historians agree that nobles of such base origins formed a 'significant' element of the szlachta.

What was a rarest rare to become a noble?

service to the state

Many nobles were actually surprisingly acting in what way?

really usurpers, being commoners,

Who denounced many nobles?

Hieronim Nekanda Trepka

When did the denouncing of many nobles take place?

first half of the 16th century

What did the nobles lose by being denounced?

owning nobility-estates and promised the estate to the denouncer


The Polish nobility enjoyed many rights that were not available to the noble classes of other countries and, typically, each new monarch conceded them further privileges. Those privileges became the basis of the Golden Liberty in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Despite having a king, Poland was called the nobility's Commonwealth because the king was elected by all interested members of hereditary nobility and Poland was considered to be the property of this class, not of the king or the ruling dynasty. This state of affairs grew up in part because of the extinction of the male-line descendants of the old royal dynasty (first the Piasts, then the Jagiellons), and the selection by the nobility of the Polish king from among the dynasty's female-line descendants.

THe polish nobility had many positives compared to others including what?

many rights

What was the nobilities commonwealth?

Poland

WHo elected the king?

not of the king or the ruling dynasty

WHy did the state affairs partly grow up on?

the extinction of the male-line descendants of the old royal dynasty

The selection of nobility oh the polish kingdom was selected my whom?

dynasty's female-line descendants.


Poland's successive kings granted privileges to the nobility at the time of their election to the throne (the privileges being specified in the king-elect's Pacta conventa) and at other times in exchange for ad hoc permission to raise an extraordinary tax or a pospolite ruszenie.

When did kings grant privileges to the nobles?

at the time of their election to the throne

What specified the kings privileges?

king-elect's Pacta conventa

What was also in exchange during he election of the throne?

ad hoc permission to raise an extraordinary tax

What did nobles get in from the king during election?

privileges


In 1355 in Buda King Casimir III the Great issued the first country-wide privilege for the nobility, in exchange for their agreement that in the lack of Casimir's male heirs, the throne would pass to his nephew, Louis I of Hungary. He decreed that the nobility would no longer be subject to 'extraordinary' taxes, or use their own funds for military expeditions abroad. He also promised that during travels of the royal court, the king and the court would pay for all expenses, instead of using facilities of local nobility.

When did buda king casimir issue the heir to his nephew?

who issied the first country wide privilege for the nobility?

Buda King Casimir III the Great

WHo is the nephew of buda king casimer III the great?

Louis I of Hungary

What was promised by Buda King Casimer?

the nobility would no longer be subject to 'extraordinary' taxes

WHo would pay for expenses during travels or the royal courts?

the king and the court


In 1374 King Louis of Hungary approved the Privilege of Koszyce (Polish: "przywilej koszycki" or "ugoda koszycka") in Košice in order to guarantee the Polish throne for his daughter Jadwiga. He broadened the definition of who was a member of the nobility and exempted the entire class from all but one tax (łanowy, which was limited to 2 grosze from łan (an old measure of land size)). In addition, the King's right to raise taxes was abolished; no new taxes could be raised without the agreement of the nobility. Henceforth, also, district offices (Polish: "urzędy ziemskie") were reserved exclusively for local nobility, as the Privilege of Koszyce forbade the king to grant official posts and major Polish castles to foreign knights. Finally, this privilege obliged the King to pay indemnities to nobles injured or taken captive during a war outside Polish borders.

When did King Louis of Hungary approve the privilege of Koszyce?

WHy did King louis approve the privilege?

in order to guarantee the Polish throne for his daughter Jadwiga

What did king louis of hungary do for the nobles?

exempted the entire class from all but one tax

WHat happened to the kings right to raise taxes?

abolished

What could the king do to nobles injured or taken during war?

King to pay indemnities


In 1422 King Władysław II Jagiełło by the Privilege of Czerwińsk (Polish: "przywilej czerwiński") established the inviolability of nobles' property (their estates could not be confiscated except upon a court verdict) and ceded some jurisdiction over fiscal policy to the Royal Council (later, the Senat of Poland), including the right to mint coinage.

Who establishd the inviolability of nobles property?

King Władysław II Jagiełło

When did the established right for inviolability of nobles property?

What happened to the right to mint coinage?

ceded


In 1430 with the Privileges of Jedlnia, confirmed at Kraków in 1433 (Polish: "przywileje jedlneńsko-krakowskie"), based partially on his earlier Brześć Kujawski privilege (April 25, 1425), King Władysław II Jagiełło granted the nobility a guarantee against arbitrary arrest, similar to the English Magna Carta's Habeas corpus, known from its own Latin name as "neminem captivabimus (nisi jure victum)." Henceforth no member of the nobility could be imprisoned without a warrant from a court of justice: the king could neither punish nor imprison any noble at his whim. King Władysław's quid pro quo for this boon was the nobles' guarantee that his throne would be inherited by one of his sons (who would be bound to honour the privileges theretofore granted to the nobility). On May 2, 1447 the same king issued the Wilno Privilege which gave the Lithuanian boyars the same rights as those possessed by the Polish szlachta.

Where did the confirmation of privileges of Jedlnia take place?

at Kraków in 1433

WHat was the privileges of jedlnia based mostly off of?

Brześć Kujawski privilege

What was simliar to the english magna cartas habeas corpus?

nobility a guarantee against arbitrary arrest

What does a court need to imprison a member of the nobility?

warrant from a court of justice

What was the nobles guarantee that his throne would be inherited by his sons?

King Władysław's quid pro quo for this boon


In 1454 King Casimir IV granted the Nieszawa Statutes (Polish: "statuty cerkwicko-nieszawskie"), clarifying the legal basis of voivodship sejmiks (local parliaments). The king could promulgate new laws, raise taxes, or call for a levée en masse (pospolite ruszenie) only with the consent of the sejmiks, and the nobility were protected from judicial abuses. The Nieszawa Statutes also curbed the power of the magnates, as the Sejm (national parliament) received the right to elect many officials, including judges, voivods and castellans. These privileges were demanded by the szlachta as a compensation for their participation in the Thirteen Years' War.

When were the Nieszawa statutes granted?

What did the Nieszawa statues clarify?

the legal basis of voivodship sejmiks

THe nobility was protected from what?

judicial abuses

Whos power was curbed?

magnates

Why did the szlachta demand privileges?

their participation in the Thirteen Years' War.


The first "free election" (Polish: "wolna elekcja") of a king took place in 1492. (To be sure, some earlier Polish kings had been elected with help from bodies such as that which put Casimir II on the throne, thereby setting a precedent for free elections.) Only senators voted in the 1492 free election, which was won by John I Albert. For the duration of the Jagiellonian Dynasty, only members of that royal family were considered for election; later, there would be no restrictions on the choice of candidates.

When did the first free election take place?

What was different about later elections then first free election?

no restrictions on the choice of candidates.

Who only voted in the election of 1492?

senators

Who won the election of 1492?

John I Albert

What dynasty was in reign during the election of 1492?

Jagiellonian Dynasty


On April 26, 1496 King John I Albert granted the Privilege of Piotrków (Polish: "Przywilej piotrkowski", "konstytucja piotrkowska" or "statuty piotrkowskie"), increasing the nobility's feudal power over serfs. It bound the peasant to the land, as only one son (not the eldest) was permitted to leave the village; townsfolk (Polish: "mieszczaństwo") were prohibited from owning land; and positions in the Church hierarchy could be given only to nobles.

Who granted the privilege of Piotrkow?

King John I Albert

Privilege of Piotrkow was granted when?

On April 26, 1496

WHat happened to the nobilities feudal power?

increasing

Who was allowed to leave the village?

one son (not the eldest)

What were the townsfolk prohibited from doing?

owning land


On 23 October 1501, at Mielnik Polish–Lithuanian union was reformed at the Union of Mielnik (Polish: unia mielnicka, unia piotrkowsko-mielnicka). It was there that the tradition of the coronation Sejm (Polish: "Sejm koronacyjny") was founded. Once again the middle nobility (middle in wealth, not in rank) attempted to reduce the power of the magnates with a law that made them impeachable before the Senate for malfeasance. However the Act of Mielno (Polish: Przywilej mielnicki) of 25 October did more to strengthen the magnate dominated Senate of Poland then the lesser nobility. The nobles were given the right to disobey the King or his representatives—in the Latin, "non praestanda oboedientia"—and to form confederations, an armed rebellion against the king or state officers if the nobles thought that the law or their legitimate privileges were being infringed.

When did the Mielnik Polish–Lithuanian union reform?

23 October 1501

Where was the Mielnik Polish–Lithuanian union refromed?

Union of Mielnik

Where was the  coronation Sejm founded?

Union of Mielnik

What did the actof of milno do?

more to strengthen the magnate dominated Senate of Poland then the lesser nobility

What right was given to the nobles?

disobey the King or his representatives


On 3 May 1505 King Alexander I Jagiellon granted the Act of "Nihil novi nisi commune consensu" (Latin: "I accept nothing new except by common consent"). This forbade the king to pass any new law without the consent of the representatives of the nobility, in Sejm and Senat assembled, and thus greatly strengthened the nobility's political position. Basically, this act transferred legislative power from the king to the Sejm. This date commonly marks the beginning of the First Rzeczpospolita, the period of a szlachta-run "Commonwealth".

When did the Act of "Nihil novi nisi commune consensu" happen?

3 May 1505

Who granted the act Act of "Nihil novi nisi commune consensu"?

King Alexander I Jagiellon

What did The Act of "Nihil novi nisi commune consensu" Do

forbade the king to pass any new law without the consent of the representatives of the nobility

What happened to the notabilities political position?

greatly strengthened

What has happened to the legislative power?

legislative power from the king to the Sejm.


About that time the "executionist movement" (Polish: "egzekucja praw"--"execution of the laws") began to take form. Its members would seek to curb the power of the magnates at the Sejm and to strengthen the power of king and country. In 1562 at the Sejm in Piotrków they would force the magnates to return many leased crown lands to the king, and the king to create a standing army (wojsko kwarciane). One of the most famous members of this movement was Jan Zamoyski. After his death in 1605, the movement lost its political force.

What was the movement called also known as execution of laws?

"executionist movement

What were the intentions of executionists movement?

seek to curb the power of the magnates at the Sejm and to strengthen the power of king and country

what did the Sejm in Piotrków forced the magnates to do?

return many leased crown lands to the king,

WHen did Jan Zamoyski. die?

What happened when Jan Zamoyski died?

movement lost its political force.


Until the death of Sigismund II Augustus, the last king of the Jagiellonian dynasty, monarchs could be elected from within only the royal family. However, starting from 1573, practically any Polish noble or foreigner of royal blood could become a Polish–Lithuanian monarch. Every newly elected king was supposed to sign two documents—the Pacta conventa ("agreed pacts")—a confirmation of the king's pre-election promises, and Henrican articles (artykuły henrykowskie, named after the first freely elected king, Henry of Valois). The latter document served as a virtual Polish constitution and contained the basic laws of the Commonwealth:

Who was the last king of the Jagiellonian dynasty?

Sigismund II Augustus

What stopped after the death of Sigismund II Augustus?

monarchs could be elected from within only the royal family

After 1573 who could become a polish-lithuanian monarch?

any Polish noble or foreigner of royal blood

How many documents should the new elected king sign?

two documents

What was contained in the Henrican articles and the Pacta conventa?

basic laws of the Commonwealth


In 1578 king Stefan Batory created the Crown Tribunal in order to reduce the enormous pressure on the Royal Court. This placed much of the monarch's juridical power in the hands of the elected szlachta deputies, further strengthening the nobility class. In 1581 the Crown Tribunal was joined by a counterpart in Lithuania, the Lithuanian Tribunal.

The crown tribunal was created when?

Who created the crown tribunal?

king Stefan Batory

What was the crown tribunal supposed to do?

reduce the enormous pressure on the Royal Court

Where was a lot of power placed in result of the crown tribunal?

the nobility class

WHo joined the crown tribunal eventually?

Lithuanian Tribunal


For many centuries, wealthy and powerful members of the szlachta sought to gain legal privileges over their peers. Few szlachta were wealthy enough to be known as magnates (karmazyni—the "Crimsons", from the crimson colour of their boots). A proper magnate should be able to trace noble ancestors back for many generations and own at least 20 villages or estates. He should also hold a major office in the Commonwealth.

What did powerful leaders of szlachta sought?

gain legal privileges over their peers

What were most szlachtas class?

Few szlachta were wealthy enough to be known as magnates

What is another name for magnates?

Crimsons

A proper magnates own what?

own at least 20 villages or estates.

Who is properly in the major office in the commonwealth?

magnates


Some historians estimate the number of magnates as 1% of the number of szlachta. Out of approx. one million szlachta, tens of thousands of families, only 200–300 persons could be classed as great magnates with country-wide possessions and influence, and 30–40 of them could be viewed as those with significant impact on Poland's politics.

Historians estimate how much of magnates make up szlachta?

Out of one million szlachtas how many were magnates?

Out of one million how many people could be viewed with significant impact politically?


Magnates often received gifts from monarchs, which significantly increased their wealth. Often, those gifts were only temporary leases, which the magnates never returned (in the 16th century, the anti-magnate opposition among szlachta was known as the ruch egzekucji praw—movement for execution of the laws—which demanded that all such possessions are returned to their proper owner, the king).

Magnates recieved gifts often from who?

monarchs

What significantly increased the magnates wealth?

Magnates

What terms were these gifts given?

temporary leases

What did the magnates do eventually with the gifts?

never returned


One of the most important victories of the magnates was the late 16th century right to create ordynacja's (similar to majorats), which ensured that a family which gained wealth and power could more easily preserve this. Ordynacje's of families of Radziwiłł, Zamoyski, Potocki or Lubomirski often rivalled the estates of the king and were important power bases for the magnates.

The right to create ordynacja's was important to what group?

magnates

When did the right to create ordynacja's happen?

late 16th century

What did the right to create ordynacja's entail?

ensured that a family which gained wealth and power could more easily preserve this

What did the powerful families do with the kings estates?

often rivalled

What was an important power basis for the magnates?

estates of the king


The sovereignty of szlachta was ended in 1795 by Partitions of Poland, and until 1918 their legal status was dependent on policies of the Russian Empire, the Kingdom of Prussia or the Habsburg Monarchy.

When did the sovereignty of szlachta end?

Who ended the sovereignty of szlachta?

Partitions of Poland

UNtil 1918 whos legal status was dependent on the russian empiresovereignty of szlachta?

szlachta


In the 1840s Nicholas I reduced 64,000 szlachta to commoner status. Despite this, 62.8% of Russia's nobles were szlachta in 1858 and still 46.1% in 1897. Serfdom was abolished in Russian Poland on February 19, 1864. It was deliberately enacted in a way that would ruin the szlachta. It was the only area where peasants paid the market price in redemption for the land (the average for the empire was 34% above the market price). All land taken from Polish peasants since 1846 was to be returned without redemption payments. The ex serfs could only sell land to other peasants, not szlachta. 90% of the ex serfs in the empire who actually gained land after 1861 were in the 8 western provinces. Along with Romania, Polish landless or domestic serfs were the only ones to be given land after serfdom was abolished. All this was to punish the szlachta's role in the uprisings of 1830 and 1863. By 1864 80% of szlachta were déclassé, 1/4 petty nobles were worse off than the average serf, 48.9% of land in Russian Poland was in peasant hands, nobles still held 46%. In Second Polish Republic the privileges of the nobility were lawfully abolished by the March Constitution in 1921 and as such not granted by any future Polish law.

Who redused 64,000 szlachta to commoner status?

Nicholas I

IN 1858 who was szlachta out of all the russian nobles?

When and who abolished the serfdom?

Russian Poland on February 19, 1864

Who could the ex serfs sell their land to?

only sell land to other peasants, not szlachta

How much land was held by the peasants?


The Polish nobility differed in many respects from the nobility of other countries. The most important difference was that, while in most European countries the nobility lost power as the ruler strove for absolute monarchy, in Poland the reverse process occurred: the nobility actually gained power at the expense of the king, and the political system evolved into an oligarchy.

What was different between the polish nobility and others?

European countries the nobility lost power as the ruler strove for absolute monarchy

What happened to nobility at expense of the king?

actually gained power

What did the political system eventually evolve into?

oligarchy

What did the ruler strive for?

absolute monarchy


Poland's nobility were also more numerous than those of all other European countries, constituting some 10–12% of the total population of historic Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth also some 10–12% among ethnic Poles on ethnic Polish lands (part of Commonwealth), but up to 25% of all Poles worldwide (szlachta could dispose more of resources to travels and/or conquering), while in some poorer regions (e.g., Mazowsze, the area centred on Warsaw) nearly 30%. However, according to  szlachta comprised around 8% of the total population in 1791 (up from 6.6% in the 16th century), and no more than 16% of the Roman Catholic (mostly ethnically Polish) population. It should be noted, though, that Polish szlachta usually incorporated most local nobility from the areas that were absorbed by Poland–Lithuania (Ruthenian boyars, Livonian nobles, etc.) By contrast, the nobilities of other European countries, except for Spain, amounted to a mere 1–3%, however the era of sovereign rules of Polish nobility ended earlier than in other countries (excluding France) yet in 1795 (see: Partitions of Poland), since then their legitimation and future fate depended on legislature and procedures of Russian Empire, Kingdom of Prussia or Habsburg Monarchy. Gradually their privileges were under further limitations to be completely dissolved by March Constitution of Poland in 1921.

How much of the total population was polish common wealth?

IN 1791 how much did the szalchta comprimise the total population?

Polish szlachta usually incorporated who?

most local nobility from the areas that were absorbed by Poland–Lithuania

How many nobilities made up other European countries besides poland lithuania?

What dissolved the priveleges of Russian Empire, Kingdom of Prussia or Habsburg Monarchy?

March Constitution of Poland


There were a number of avenues to upward social mobility and the achievement of nobility. Poland's nobility was not a rigidly exclusive, closed class. Many low-born individuals, including townsfolk, peasants and Jews, could and did rise to official ennoblement in Polish society. Each szlachcic had enormous influence over the country's politics, in some ways even greater than that enjoyed by the citizens of modern democratic countries. Between 1652 and 1791, any nobleman could nullify all the proceedings of a given sejm (Commonwealth parliament) or sejmik (Commonwealth local parliament) by exercising his individual right of liberum veto (Latin for "I do not allow"), except in the case of a confederated sejm or confederated sejmik.

What class was polands nobility?

closed class

Who could rise into polish ennoblement?

Many low-born individuals

How much influence did each szlachcic have over politics?

enormous influence

WHo could nullify all the proceedings of a given sejm?

any nobleman

What is is called to nullify proceedings?

liberum veto


All children of the Polish nobility inherited their noble status from a noble mother and father. Any individual could attain ennoblement (nobilitacja) for special services to the state. A foreign noble might be naturalised as a Polish noble (Polish: "indygenat") by the Polish king (later, from 1641, only by a general sejm).

Children inherited polish nobility from whom?

noble mother and father

What does an individual do to attain ennoblement?

special services to the state

WHo could naturalize a polish noble?

Polish king

What is another name for ennoblement?

nobilitacja

WHat is another name for polish noble?

indygenat


In theory at least, all Polish noblemen were social equals. Also in theory, they were legal peers. Those who held 'real power' dignities were more privileged but these dignities were not hereditary. Those who held honorary dignities were higher in 'ritual' hierarchy but these dignities were also granted for a lifetime. Some tenancies became hereditary and went with both privilege and titles. Nobles who were not direct barons of the Crown but held land from other lords were only peers "de iure".

In theory how were all polish noblemen viewed?

equals

Was was unique about the dignities?

not hereditary

If one is high in dignities they are also high in what other form?

ritual

Nobles held land form whom?

other lords were only peers "de iure"


Note that the Polish landed gentry (ziemianie or ziemiaństwo) was composed of any nobility that owned lands: thus of course the magnates, the middle nobility and that lesser nobility that had at least part of the village. As manorial lordships were also opened to burgesses of certain privileged royal cities, not all landed gentry had a hereditary title of nobility.

Who could compose the polish landed gentry?

any nobility that owned lands

whats is another name for polish landed gentry?

(ziemianie or ziemiaństwo

Did all hold title of nobility?

no


Coats of arms were very important to the Polish nobility. Its heraldic system evolved together with its neighbours in Central Europe, while differing in many ways from the heraldry of other European countries. Polish knighthood families had its counterparts, links or roots in Moravia (i.e. Poraj) and Germany (i.e. Junosza).

What was very important to the polish nobility?

Coats of arms

What kind of system was the coats of arms?

heraldic system

how did the polish nobility system compare to other heraldy countries?

differing in many ways

Where did polish knightshood originate?

Moravia (i.e. Poraj) and Germany


The most notable difference is that, contrary to other European heraldic systems, the Jews, Muslim Tatars or another minorities would be given the noble title. Also, most families sharing origin would also share a coat-of-arms. They would also share arms with families adopted into the clan (these would often have their arms officially altered upon ennoblement). Sometimes unrelated families would be falsely attributed to the clan on the basis of similarity of arms. Also often noble families claimed inaccurate clan membership. Logically, the number of coats of arms in this system was rather low and did not exceed 200 in late Middle Ages (40,000 in the late 18th century).

What is the most notable difference between countries?

minorities would be given the noble title

Coat of arms would be shared with who else?

most families sharing origin

How would unrelated families be attributed to the clan?

on the basis of similarity of arms

Did number of cat of arms in the late middle ages fall?

low and did not exceed 200


Also, the tradition of differentiating between the coat of arms proper and a lozenge granted to women did not develop in Poland. Usually men inherited the coat of arms from their fathers. Also, the brisure was rarely used.

What was rarely used?

brisure

Where did the  coat of arms proper and a lozenge granted to women not develoupe?

Poland

Where did men get their coat of arms usually?

their fathers


The szlachta's prevalent mentality and ideology were manifested in "Sarmatism", a name derived from a myth of the szlachta's origin in the powerful ancient nation of Sarmatians. This belief system became an important part of szlachta culture and affected all aspects of their lives. It was popularized by poets who exalted traditional village life, peace and pacifism. It was also manifested in oriental-style apparel (the żupan, kontusz, sukmana, pas kontuszowy, delia); and made the scimitar-like szabla, too, a near-obligatory item of everyday szlachta apparel. Sarmatism served to integrate the multi-ethnic nobility as it created an almost nationalistic sense of unity and pride in the szlachta's "Golden Liberty" (złota wolność). Knowledge of Latin was widespread, and most szlachta freely mixed Polish and Latin vocabulary (the latter, "macaronisms"—from "macaroni") in everyday conversation.

What was the prevalent mentality and ideology called?

Sarmatism

Where did the name sarmatism originate?

powerful ancient nation of Sarmatians

How did sarmatism effect szlachta culture?

served to integrate the multi-ethnic nobility

What was also pushed for by result of sarmatism?

peace and pacifism

What languages were freely mixed?

Polish and Latin


Prior to the Reformation, the Polish nobility were mostly either Roman Catholic or Orthodox with a small group of Muslims. Many families, however, soon adopted the Reformed faiths. After the Counter-Reformation, when the Roman Catholic Church regained power in Poland, the nobility became almost exclusively Catholic, despite the fact that Roman Catholicism was not the majority religion in Commonwealth (the Catholic and Orthodox churches each accounted for some 40% of all citizens population, with the remaining 20% being Jews or members of Protestant denominations). In the 18th century, many followers of Jacob Frank joined the ranks of Jewish-descended Polish gentry. Although Jewish religion wasn't usually a pretext to block or deprive of noble status, some laws favoured religious conversion from Judaism to Christianity (see: Neophyte) by rewarding it with ennoblement.

What two religions were most common?

Roman Catholic or Orthodox

What was the minority group in the polish nobility?

Muslims

What was rewarding for switching judiasm to christianity?

ennoblement

What happened after the roman catholic church regained power in Poland?

the nobility became almost exclusively Catholic

What was the smallest amount of religion in the noble?

Jews


Publius Vergilius Maro (Classical Latin: [ˈpuː.blɪ.ʊs wɛrˈɡɪ.lɪ.ʊs ˈma.roː]; October 15, 70 BC – September 21, 19 BC), usually called Virgil or Vergil /ˈvɜːrdʒᵻl/ in English, was an ancient Roman poet of the Augustan period. He is known for three major works of Latin literature, the Eclogues (or Bucolics), the Georgics, and the epic Aeneid. A number of minor poems, collected in the Appendix Vergiliana, are sometimes attributed to him.

During which period was Vigil a poet?

Augustan

How many major works of literature is Virgil known for?

three

Which major Latin epic is Virgil known for?

Aeneid

What is Virgil's full name?

Publius Vergilius Maro

Which collection of minor poems are sometimes attributed to Virgil?

Appendix Vergiliana

What work did Virgil write first?

I'm not sure.

What date did Virgil finish the Aeneid?

I'm not sure.

When did the Augustan period start?

I'm not sure.

How many poems by Virgil still exist today?

I'm not sure.

What is Virgil's most famous work?

I'm not sure.

How many chapters are in the Aeneid?

I'm not sure.

What is Virgil's least famous work?

I'm not sure.

When did Virgil publish his last poem?

I'm not sure.

What is Virgil's longest book?

I'm not sure.

What was the first language the Aeneid was translated into?

I'm not sure.


Virgil is traditionally ranked as one of Rome's greatest poets. His Aeneid has been considered the national epic of ancient Rome from the time of its composition to the present day. Modeled after Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, the Aeneid follows the Trojan refugee Aeneas as he struggles to fulfill his destiny and arrive on the shores of Italy—in Roman mythology the founding act of Rome. Virgil's work has had wide and deep influence on Western literature, most notably Dante's Divine Comedy, in which Virgil appears as Dante's guide through hell and purgatory.

Which of Virgil's works is considered the national epic of ancient Rome?

Aeneid

Which works did Virgil model the Aeneid after?

Iliad and Odyssey

Who is the main character in the Aeneid?

Aeneas

What was Aeneas trying to accomplish in the Aeneid?

fulfill his destiny and arrive on the shores of Italy

Who appears as Dante's guide through hell and purgatory in the Divine Comedy?

Virgil

Where was Dante born?

I'm not sure.

What is Dante's goal in the Divine Comedy?

I'm not sure.

What era did Dante write The Divine Comedy in?

I'm not sure.

What is the name of Homer's most famous epic?

I'm not sure.

Where was Virgil born?

I'm not sure.

Which of Homer's works is longer, the Iliad or Odyssey?

I'm not sure.

Where did Virgil write his works?

I'm not sure.

What was Dante's nationality?

I'm not sure.

What is the Iliad about?

I'm not sure.


Virgil's biographical tradition is thought to depend on a lost biography by Varius, Virgil's editor, which was incorporated into the biography by Suetonius and the commentaries of Servius and Donatus, the two great commentators on Virgil's poetry. Although the commentaries no doubt record much factual information about Virgil, some of their evidence can be shown to rely on inferences made from his poetry and allegorizing; thus, Virgil's biographical tradition remains problematic.

Who was Virgil's editor?

Varius

Whose two commentaries were incorporated into Virgil's biography by Suetonius?

Servius and Donatus

What do the comentaries rely on for some of their information about Virgil?

inferences made from his poetry and allegorizing

Is Virgil's biographical tradition easily researched or is it problematic?

problematic

Who edited Donatus' commentaries?

I'm not sure.

How many people did Virgil write biographies about?

I'm not sure.

What was Varius most famous for?

I'm not sure.

Who wrote a biography of Servius?

I'm not sure.

Who wrote the most about Virgil?

I'm not sure.


The tradition holds that Virgil was born in the village of Andes, near Mantua in Cisalpine Gaul. Analysis of his name has led to beliefs that he descended from earlier Roman colonists. Modern speculation ultimately is not supported by narrative evidence either from his own writings or his later biographers. Macrobius says that Virgil's father was of a humble background; however, scholars generally believe that Virgil was from an equestrian landowning family which could afford to give him an education. He attended schools in Cremona, Mediolanum, Rome and Naples. After considering briefly a career in rhetoric and law, the young Virgil turned his talents to poetry.

In which village does tradition believe Virgil was born?

Andes

In which cities did Virgil attend schools?

Cremona, Mediolanum, Rome and Naples

What other career did Virgil consider?

rhetoric and law

Which type of family do scholars generally believe Virgil belonged to?

equestrian landowning

Does Macrobius believe Virgil's father came from a distinguished or humble background?

humble

Where was Virgil's father born?

I'm not sure.

What kind of family did Macrobius have?

I'm not sure.

What city did Virgil live the longest in?

I'm not sure.

Where was Macrobius born?

I'm not sure.

What career did Virgil's father have?

I'm not sure.


According to the commentators, Virgil received his first education when he was five years old and he later went to Cremona, Milan, and finally Rome to study rhetoric, medicine, and astronomy, which he soon abandoned for philosophy. From Virgil's admiring references to the neoteric writers Pollio and Cinna, it has been inferred that he was, for a time, associated with Catullus' neoteric circle. However schoolmates considered Virgil extremely shy and reserved, according to Servius, and he was nicknamed "Parthenias" or "maiden" because of his social aloofness. Virgil seems to have suffered bad health throughout his life and in some ways lived the life of an invalid. According to the Catalepton, while in the Epicurean school of Siro the Epicurean at Naples, he began to write poetry. A group of small works attributed to the youthful Virgil by the commentators survive collected under the title Appendix Vergiliana, but are largely considered spurious by scholars. One, the Catalepton, consists of fourteen short poems, some of which may be Virgil's, and another, a short narrative poem titled the Culex ("The Gnat"), was attributed to Virgil as early as the 1st century AD.

Which three studies did Virgil abandon for philosophy?

rhetoric, medicine, and astronomy

How was Virgil regarded socially by his schoolmates?

extremely shy and reserved

What was Virgil's nickname?

Parthenias

How did Virgil earn his nickname "Parthenias" or "maiden"?

social aloofness

Which short narrative poem was attributed to Virgil as early as the 1st century AD?

the Culex

What did Cinna study?

I'm not sure.

What did his friends think Catullus was like?

I'm not sure.

What problem did Servius have?

I'm not sure.

How many stanzas are in the poem the Culex?

I'm not sure.

Where did Pollio live?

I'm not sure.


The biographical tradition asserts that Virgil began the hexameter Eclogues (or Bucolics) in 42 BC and it is thought that the collection was published around 39–38 BC, although this is controversial. The Eclogues (from the Greek for "selections") are a group of ten poems roughly modeled on the bucolic hexameter poetry ("pastoral poetry") of the Hellenistic poet Theocritus. After his victory in the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC, fought against the army led by the assassins of Julius Caesar, Octavian tried to pay off his veterans with land expropriated from towns in northern Italy, supposedly including, according to the tradition, an estate near Mantua belonging to Virgil. The loss of his family farm and the attempt through poetic petitions to regain his property have traditionally been seen as Virgil's motives in the composition of the Eclogues. This is now thought to be an unsupported inference from interpretations of the Eclogues. In Eclogues 1 and 9, Virgil indeed dramatizes the contrasting feelings caused by the brutality of the land expropriations through pastoral idiom, but offers no indisputable evidence of the supposed biographic incident. While some readers have identified the poet himself with various characters and their vicissitudes, whether gratitude by an old rustic to a new god (Ecl. 1), frustrated love by a rustic singer for a distant boy (his master's pet, Ecl. 2), or a master singer's claim to have composed several eclogues (Ecl. 5), modern scholars largely reject such efforts to garner biographical details from works of fiction, preferring to interpret an author's characters and themes as illustrations of contemporary life and thought. The ten Eclogues present traditional pastoral themes with a fresh perspective. Eclogues 1 and 9 address the land confiscations and their effects on the Italian countryside. 2 and 3 are pastoral and erotic, discussing both homosexual love (Ecl. 2) and attraction toward people of any gender (Ecl. 3). Eclogue 4, addressed to Asinius Pollio, the so-called "Messianic Eclogue" uses the imagery of the golden age in connection with the birth of a child (who the child was meant to be has been subject to debate). 5 and 8 describe the myth of Daphnis in a song contest, 6, the cosmic and mythological song of Silenus; 7, a heated poetic contest, and 10 the sufferings of the contemporary elegiac poet Cornelius Gallus. Virgil is credited[by whom?] in the Eclogues with establishing Arcadia as a poetic ideal that still resonates in Western literature and visual arts and setting the stage for the development of Latin pastoral by Calpurnius Siculus, Nemesianus, and later writers.

Which Hellenistic poet was known for bucolic hexameter poetry?

Theocritus

Who tried to pay off veterans with land, some of which possibly belonged to Virgil?

Octavian

Virgil's loss of his famiyl farm and the attempt to regain his property though poetry was the inferred motive for which work?

Eclogues

To whom was Eclogue 4 addressed to?

Asinius Pollio

Which Eclogues discusses homosexual love?

Ecl. 2

What language was Virgil's work written in?

I'm not sure.

When did Theocritus publish his last work?

I'm not sure.

What theme did Virgil write about the most often?

I'm not sure.

Where did Octavian live?

I'm not sure.

How many books of poetry did Cornelius Gallus write?

I'm not sure.


Sometime after the publication of the Eclogues (probably before 37 BC), Virgil became part of the circle of Maecenas, Octavian's capable agent d'affaires who sought to counter sympathy for Antony among the leading families by rallying Roman literary figures to Octavian's side. Virgil came to know many of the other leading literary figures of the time, including Horace, in whose poetry he is often mentioned, and Varius Rufus, who later helped finish the Aeneid.

Who helped finish the Aeneid?

Varius Rufus

When where the Eclogues likely published?

before 37 BC

What were Octavian' s agent d'affaires called?

Maecenas

Which leading literary figure often mentioned Virgin in his poetry?

Horace

Who invited Virgil to become part of the circle of Maecenas?

I'm not sure.

Which Roman figure of the time was the most prolific writer?

I'm not sure.

What was Octavian's favorite hobby?

I'm not sure.

What work was Virgil the most proud of?

I'm not sure.

How many poems did Horace write?

I'm not sure.


At Maecenas' insistence (according to the tradition) Virgil spent the ensuing years (perhaps 37–29 BC) on the long didactic hexameter poem called the Georgics (from Greek, "On Working the Earth") which he dedicated to Maecenas. The ostensible theme of the Georgics is instruction in the methods of running a farm. In handling this theme, Virgil follows in the didactic ("how to") tradition of the Greek poet Hesiod's Works and Days and several works of the later Hellenistic poets. The four books of the Georgics focus respectively on raising crops and trees (1 and 2), livestock and horses (3), and beekeeping and the qualities of bees (4). Well-known passages include the beloved Laus Italiae of Book 2, the prologue description of the temple in Book 3, and the description of the plague at the end of Book 3. Book 4 concludes with a long mythological narrative, in the form of an epyllion which describes vividly the discovery of beekeeping by Aristaeus and the story of Orpheus' journey to the underworld. Ancient scholars, such as Servius, conjectured that the Aristaeus episode replaced, at the emperor's request, a long section in praise of Virgil's friend, the poet Gallus, who was disgraced by Augustus, and who committed suicide in 26 BC.

Which long didactic hexameter poem did Virgil work on for several years?

Georgics

To whom was Georgics dedicated to?

Maecenas

The theme of Georgics is instruction in the methods of what?

running a farm

Which of Virgil's poet friends committed suicide in 26 BC?

Gallus

Who was Gallus disgraced by?

Augustus

Who discovered how to raise crops?

I'm not sure.

How many poems did Hesiod write?

I'm not sure.

What did the poet Gallus write about most?

I'm not sure.

What was Maecenas' profession?

I'm not sure.

What kind of poems did Hesiod write?

I'm not sure.


The Georgics' tone wavers between optimism and pessimism, sparking critical debate on the poet's intentions, but the work lays the foundations for later didactic poetry. Virgil and Maecenas are said to have taken turns reading the Georgics to Octavian upon his return from defeating Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC.

Octavian defeated Antony and Cleopatra at which battle?

Battle of Actium

When did Octavian return from the Battle of Actium?

31 BC

Who took turns with Virgil to read the Georgics to Octavian?

Maecenas

When were the Georgics published?

I'm not sure.

Who wrote the Georgics?

I'm not sure.

Where were the Georgics written?

I'm not sure.

What did most of Virgil's writing compose of?

I'm not sure.

Who funded the writing of the Georgics?

I'm not sure.


The Aeneid is widely considered Virgil's finest work and one of the most important poems in the history of western literature. Virgil worked on the Aeneid during the last eleven years of his life (29–19 BC), commissioned, according to Propertius, by Augustus. The epic poem consists of 12 books in dactylic hexameter verse which describe the journey of Aeneas, a warrior fleeing the sack of Troy, to Italy, his battle with the Italian prince Turnus, and the foundation of a city from which Rome would emerge. The Aeneid's first six books describe the journey of Aeneas from Troy to Rome. Virgil made use of several models in the composition of his epic; Homer, the preeminent author of classical epic, is everywhere present, but Virgil also makes special use of the Latin poet Ennius and the Hellenistic poet Apollonius of Rhodes among the various other writers to which he alludes. Although the Aeneid casts itself firmly into the epic mode, it often seeks to expand the genre by including elements of other genres such as tragedy and aetiological poetry. Ancient commentators noted that Virgil seems to divide the Aeneid into two sections based on the poetry of Homer; the first six books were viewed as employing the Odyssey as a model while the last six were connected to the Iliad.

Which of Virgil's works is widely considered his finest?

The Aeneid

Who commissioned the Aeneid according to Propertius?

Augustus

How many books are included in The Aeneid?

Which of Homer's works did the first six books of the Aeneid model after?

Odyssey

Which of Homer's works did the last six books of the Aeneid connect to?

Iliad

How old was Virgil when he died?

I'm not sure.

Which poet published the most work?

I'm not sure.

Who commissioned the Iliad?

I'm not sure.

Which of Homer's works was longer, the Iliad or the Odyssey?

I'm not sure.


Book 1 (at the head of the Odyssean section) opens with a storm which Juno, Aeneas' enemy throughout the poem, stirs up against the fleet. The storm drives the hero to the coast of Carthage, which historically was Rome's deadliest foe. The queen, Dido, welcomes the ancestor of the Romans, and under the influence of the gods falls deeply in love with him. At a banquet in Book 2, Aeneas tells the story of the sack of Troy, the death of his wife, and his escape, to the enthralled Carthaginians, while in Book 3 he recounts to them his wanderings over the Mediterranean in search of a suitable new home. Jupiter in Book 4 recalls the lingering Aeneas to his duty to found a new city, and he slips away from Carthage, leaving Dido to commit suicide, cursing Aeneas and calling down revenge in a symbolic anticipation of the fierce wars between Carthage and Rome. In Book 5, Aeneas' father Anchises dies and funeral games are celebrated for him. On reaching Cumae, in Italy in Book 6, Aeneas consults the Cumaean Sibyl, who conducts him through the Underworld where Aeneas meets the dead Anchises who reveals Rome's destiny to his son.

Who is Aeneas' enemy throughout the Aeneid?

Juno

Which queen committed suicide in Book 4 of the Aeneid?

Dido

In which book does Aeneas' father die?

Who reveals Rome's destiny to Aeneas?

Anchises

Who guides Aeneas through the Underworld?

Sibyl

Who is Jupiter's enemy in the Aeneid?

I'm not sure.

Where did Aeneas' father die?

I'm not sure.

How many days did Aeneas travel through the underworld?

I'm not sure.

How did Aeneas' wife die?

I'm not sure.

What did Anchises say Rome's destiny was?

I'm not sure.


Book 7 (beginning the Iliadic half) opens with an address to the muse and recounts Aeneas' arrival in Italy and betrothal to Lavinia, daughter of King Latinus. Lavinia had already been promised to Turnus, the king of the Rutulians, who is roused to war by the Fury Allecto, and Amata Lavinia's mother. In Book 8, Aeneas allies with King Evander, who occupies the future site of Rome, and is given new armor and a shield depicting Roman history. Book 9 records an assault by Nisus and Euryalus on the Rutulians, Book 10, the death of Evander's young son Pallas, and 11 the death of the Volscian warrior princess Camilla and the decision to settle the war with a duel between Aeneas and Turnus. The Aeneid ends in Book 12 with the taking of Latinus' city, the death of Amata, and Aeneas' defeat and killing of Turnus, whose pleas for mercy are spurned. The final book ends with the image of Turnus' soul lamenting as it flees to the underworld.

To whom is Aeneas betrothed?

Lavinia

Which King does Aeneas ally with in Book 8 of the Aeneid?

King Evander

Who had Lavinia already been promised to?

Turnus

Who is roused to war by the Fury Allecto and Amata Lavinia's mother?

Turnus

What is the muse's name?

I'm not sure.

How old was Pallas when he died?

I'm not sure.

How did Camilla die?

I'm not sure.

How many years did the war last?

I'm not sure.

Who promised Lavinia to Turnus?

I'm not sure.


Critics of the Aeneid focus on a variety of issues. The tone of the poem as a whole is a particular matter of debate; some see the poem as ultimately pessimistic and politically subversive to the Augustan regime, while others view it as a celebration of the new imperial dynasty. Virgil makes use of the symbolism of the Augustan regime, and some scholars see strong associations between Augustus and Aeneas, the one as founder and the other as re-founder of Rome. A strong teleology, or drive towards a climax, has been detected in the poem. The Aeneid is full of prophecies about the future of Rome, the deeds of Augustus, his ancestors, and famous Romans, and the Carthaginian Wars; the shield of Aeneas even depicts Augustus' victory at Actium against Mark Antony and Cleopatra VII in 31 BC. A further focus of study is the character of Aeneas. As the protagonist of the poem, Aeneas seems to waver constantly between his emotions and commitment to his prophetic duty to found Rome; critics note the breakdown of Aeneas' emotional control in the last sections of the poem where the "pious" and "righteous" Aeneas mercilessly slaughters Turnus.

When did Augustus' victory at Actium against Mark Antony and Ceopatra VII occur?

31 BC

Who is the protagonist of the Aeneid?

Aeneas

Who is mercilessly slaughtered by Aeneas?

Turnus

Who is the founder of Rome which some scholars see strong associations with Aeneas?

Augustus

When was the Aeneid published?

I'm not sure.

Where did Aeneas defeat Turnus?

I'm not sure.

Where did Augustus live?

I'm not sure.

How did Augustus fight at Actium?

I'm not sure.

What part of the Aeneid is the longest?

I'm not sure.


The Aeneid appears to have been a great success. Virgil is said to have recited Books 2, 4, and 6 to Augustus; and Book 6 apparently caused Augustus' sister Octavia to faint. Although the truth of this claim is subject to scholarly scepticism, it has served as a basis for later art, such as Jean-Baptiste Wicar's Virgil Reading the Aeneid.

Which book supposedly caused Augustus' sister to faint?

What was the title of Jean-Baptiste Wicar's artwork inspired by the Aeneid?

Virgil Reading the Aeneid

Who did Virgil recite Books 2, 4, and 6 of the Aeneid to?

Augustus

How many paintings did Jean-Baptiste Wicar base on Virgil's life?

I'm not sure.

Did critics call the painting "Virgil Reading the Aeneid" a great success or a failure?

I'm not sure.

How many poems did Augustus commission from Virgil?

I'm not sure.

What was the name of a scholar that doubted claims that Augustus' sister fainted when Virgil recited the Aeneid?

I'm not sure.

What book of the Aeneid is the longest?

I'm not sure.


According to the tradition, Virgil traveled to Greece in about 19 BC to revise the Aeneid. After meeting Augustus in Athens and deciding to return home, Virgil caught a fever while visiting a town near Megara. After crossing to Italy by ship, weakened with disease, Virgil died in Brundisium harbor on September 21, 19 BC. Augustus ordered Virgil's literary executors, Lucius Varius Rufus and Plotius Tucca, to disregard Virgil's own wish that the poem be burned, instead ordering it published with as few editorial changes as possible. As a result, the text of the Aeneid that exists may contain faults which Virgil was planning to correct before publication. However, the only obvious imperfections are a few lines of verse that are metrically unfinished (i.e. not a complete line of dactylic hexameter). Some scholars have argued that Virgil deliberately left these metrically incomplete lines for dramatic effect. Other alleged imperfections are subject to scholarly debate.

According to tradition, where did Virgil travel in 19 BC to revise the Aeneid?

Greece

Where did Virgil die?

Brundisium harbor

What date did Virgil die?

September 21, 19 BC

Who were Virgil's literary executors?

Lucius Varius Rufus and Plotius Tucca

What wish of Virgil's did Lucius Varius Rufus and Plotius Tucca disregard?

the poem be burned

Where did Augustus die?

I'm not sure.

What date was the Aeneid published?

I'm not sure.

What did Augustus die from?

I'm not sure.

Where was the Aeneid first published?

I'm not sure.

Exactly how many unfinished lines are in the Aeneid?

I'm not sure.


The works of Virgil almost from the moment of their publication revolutionized Latin poetry. The Eclogues, Georgics, and above all the Aeneid became standard texts in school curricula with which all educated Romans were familiar. Poets following Virgil often refer intertextually to his works to generate meaning in their own poetry. The Augustan poet Ovid parodies the opening lines of the Aeneid in Amores 1.1.1–2, and his summary of the Aeneas story in Book 14 of the Metamorphoses, the so-called "mini-Aeneid", has been viewed as a particularly important example of post-Virgilian response to the epic genre. Lucan's epic, the Bellum Civile has been considered an anti-Virgilian epic, disposing with the divine mechanism, treating historical events, and diverging drastically from Virgilian epic practice. The Flavian poet Statius in his 12-book epic Thebaid engages closely with the poetry of Virgil; in his epilogue he advises his poem not to "rival the divine Aeneid, but follow afar and ever venerate its footsteps." In Silius Italicus, Virgil finds one of his most ardent admirers. With almost every line of his epic Punica Silius references Virgil. Indeed, Silius is known to have bought Virgil's tomb and worshipped the poet. Partially as a result of his so-called "Messianic" Fourth Eclogue—widely interpreted later to have predicted the birth of Jesus Christ—Virgil was in later antiquity imputed to have the magical abilities of a seer; the Sortes Vergilianae, the process of using Virgil's poetry as a tool of divination, is found in the time of Hadrian, and continued into the Middle Ages. In a similar vein Macrobius in the Saturnalia credits the work of Virgil as the embodiment of human knowledge and experience, mirroring the Greek conception of Homer. Virgil also found commentators in antiquity. Servius, a commentator of the 4th century AD, based his work on the commentary of Donatus. Servius' commentary provides us with a great deal of information about Virgil's life, sources, and references; however, many modern scholars find the variable quality of his work and the often simplistic interpretations frustrating.

Who was one of Virgil's most ardent admirers who referenced Virgil in almost every line of his epic?

Silius Italicus

.What was the title of Silius Italicus' epic in which Virgil was referenced in almost every line?

Punica

Who bought Virgil's tomb?

Silius

Which of Virgil's works was later widely interpreted to have predicted the birth of Jesus Christ?

Fourth Eclogue

Which of Virgil's works was the least famous?

I'm not sure.

Who was the first poet to reference Virgil in his work?

I'm not sure.

What era did Statius live in?

I'm not sure.

Who did Silius Italicus buy Virgil's tomb from?

I'm not sure.

When was the 12 book epic Thebaid written?

I'm not sure.


Even as the Western Roman empire collapsed, literate men acknowledged that Virgil was a master poet. Gregory of Tours read Virgil, whom he quotes in several places, along with some other Latin poets, though he cautions that "we ought not to relate their lying fables, lest we fall under sentence of eternal death."

Who cautioned "we ought not to relate their lying fables, lest we fall under sentence of eternal death"?

Gregory of Tours

Literate men acknowledged Virgil as a master poet despite what empire collapsing?

Western Roman

Did literate men acknowledge Virgil as a master or novice poet?

master

What was Gregory of Tours profession?

I'm not sure.

Where did Gregory of Tours live?

I'm not sure.

Who related to the fables in Virgil's work?

I'm not sure.

What language did Gregory of Tours write in?

I'm not sure.


Dante made Virgil his guide in Hell and the greater part of Purgatory in The Divine Comedy. Dante also mentions Virgil in De vulgari eloquentia, along with Ovid, Lucan and Statius, as one of the four regulati poetae (ii, vi, 7).

In which of Dante's works was Virgil a guide through Hell and Purgatory?

Divine Comedy

Who was the author of the Divine Comedy?

Dante

Who was Dante's guide through Purgatory and Hell in the Divine Comedy?

Virgil

How many books did Dante write?

I'm not sure.

Who was Dante's favorite author?

I'm not sure.

What was Dante's longest book?

I'm not sure.

Which poet was more famous, Lucan or Statius?

I'm not sure.


In the Middle Ages, Virgil's reputation was such that it inspired legends associating him with magic and prophecy. From at least the 3rd century, Christian thinkers interpreted Eclogues 4, which describes the birth of a boy ushering in a golden age, as a prediction of Jesus' birth. As such, Virgil came to be seen on a similar level as the Hebrew prophets of the Bible as one who had heralded Christianity.

Which of Virgil's works was said by some to have predicted Jesus' birth?

Eclogues 4

Which religion did some consider Virgil to have heralded in?

Christianity

During which time period did Virgil's reputation inspire legends associating him with magic and prophecy?

Middle Ages

What did Virgil write about the most?

I'm not sure.

Who was the first to predict Jesus's birth?

I'm not sure.

What religion did Virgil follow?

I'm not sure.

When did Virgil predict Jesus would be born?

I'm not sure.


Possibly as early as the second century AD, Virgil's works were seen as having magical properties and were used for divination. In what became known as the Sortes Vergilianae (Virgilian Lots), passages would be selected at random and interpreted to answer questions. In the 12th century, starting around Naples but eventually spreading widely throughout Europe, a tradition developed in which Virgil was regarded as a great magician. Legends about Virgil and his magical powers remained popular for over two hundred years, arguably becoming as prominent as his writings themselves. Virgil's legacy in medieval Wales was such that the Welsh version of his name, Fferyllt or Pheryllt, became a generic term for magic-worker, and survives in the modern Welsh word for pharmacist, fferyllydd.

Where did the tradition start which regarded Virgil as a great magician?

Naples

How long did legends of Virgil's magical powers remain popular?

over two hundred years

What is the modern Welsh word for phramacist?

fferyllydd

Where did Virgil's name become a generic term for magic-worker?

medieval Wales

When did Virgil's reputation as a great magician begin?

12th century

Where did the tradition of seeing Virgil as a great magician last the longest?

I'm not sure.

How long did it take for the legends of Virgil's magic powers to spread through Europe?

I'm not sure.

Where did Virgil write his poetry?

I'm not sure.

What part of the world did Virgil write the most about?

I'm not sure.

When were Virgil's works the most popular?

I'm not sure.


The legend of Virgil in his Basket arose in the Middle Ages, and is often seen in art and mentioned in literature as part of the Power of Women literary topos, demonstrating the disruptive force of female attractiveness on men. In this story Virgil became enamoured of a beautiful woman, sometimes described as the emperor's daughter or mistress and called Lucretia. She played him along and agreed to an assignation at her house, which he was to sneak into at night by climbing into a large basket let down from a window. When he did so he was only hoisted halfway up the wall and then left him trapped there into the next day, exposed to public ridicule. The story paralleled that of Phyllis riding Aristotle. Among other artists depicting the scene, Lucas van Leyden made a woodcut and later an engraving.

During which time period did the legend of Virgil in his Basket arise?

Middle Ages

What is the name of the beautiful woman who Virgil enamoured?

Lucretia

Which story did Virgil being left halfway in basket parallel?

Phyllis riding Aristotle

Which artist made a woodcut and later an engraving of Virgil and his basket?

Lucas van Leyden

When did Lucas van Leyden live?

I'm not sure.

What was Phyllis known as?

I'm not sure.

Who was one of the writers who wrote about Virgil in his Basket?

I'm not sure.

What form of art did the most artists use to depict Virgil in his Basket?

I'm not sure.

When did Phyllis ride Aristotle?

I'm not sure.


The structure known as "Virgil's tomb" is found at the entrance of an ancient Roman tunnel (also known as "grotta vecchia") in Piedigrotta, a district two miles from the centre of Naples, near the Mergellina harbor, on the road heading north along the coast to Pozzuoli. While Virgil was already the object of literary admiration and veneration before his death, in the Middle Ages his name became associated with miraculous powers, and for a couple of centuries his tomb was the destination of pilgrimages and veneration.

During which time period did Virgil's name become associated with miraclous powers?

Middle Ages

In which district is "Virgil's tomb" located?

Piedigrotta

What is the entrance of the ancient Roman tunnel where "Virgil's tomb" is located also called?

grotta vecchia

Where did Virgil die?

I'm not sure.

Where did pilgrims pass through on the way to Virgil's tomb?

I'm not sure.

Where did most of the pilgrims come from?

I'm not sure.

When were Virgil's books the most widely read?

I'm not sure.


In the Late Empire and Middle Ages Vergilius was spelled Virgilius. Two explanations are commonly given for this alteration. One deduces a false etymology associated with the word virgo ("maiden" in Latin) due to Virgil's excessive, "maiden"-like modesty. Alternatively, some argue that Vergilius was altered to Virgilius by analogy with the Latin virga ("wand") due to the magical or prophetic powers attributed to Virgil in the Middle Ages (this explanation is found in only a handful of manuscripts, however, and was probably not widespread). In Norman schools (following the French practice), the habit was to anglicize Latin names by dropping their Latin endings, hence Virgil. In the 19th century, some German-trained classicists in the United States suggested modification to Vergil, as it is closer to his original name, and is also the traditional German spelling.[citation needed] Modern usage permits both, though the Oxford guide to style recommends Vergilius to avoid confusion with the 8th-century grammarian Virgilius Maro Grammaticus. Some post-Renaissance writers liked to affect the sobriquet "The Swan of Mantua".[citation needed]

Besides Virgilius, which other spelling is permitted in modern usage?

Vergilius

During which time period was Vergilius spelled Virgilius?

Late Empire and Middle Ages

In what century did some German-trained classicists in the US suggest modifying the common usage to Vergil?

Which style guide recommends using Vergilius to avoid confusion with Virgilius Maro Grammaticus?

Oxford

Why was Virgil called "The Swan of Mantua"?

I'm not sure.

Who attributed magical powers to Virgil in the middle ages?

I'm not sure.

When was the Oxford guide to style written?

I'm not sure.

What language was the Oxford guide to style originally written in?

I'm not sure.

What country was the Oxford guide to style written in?

I'm not sure.


The Alps (/ælps/; Italian: Alpi [ˈalpi]; French: Alpes [alp]; German: Alpen [ˈʔalpm̩]; Slovene: Alpe [ˈáːlpɛ]) are the highest and most extensive mountain range system that lies entirely in Europe, stretching approximately 1,200 kilometres (750 mi) across eight Alpine countries: Austria, France, Germany, Italy, Liechtenstein, Monaco, Slovenia, and Switzerland. The Caucasus Mountains are higher, and the Urals longer, but both lie partly in Asia. The mountains were formed over tens of millions of years as the African and Eurasian tectonic plates collided. Extreme shortening caused by the event resulted in marine sedimentary rocks rising by thrusting and folding into high mountain peaks such as Mont Blanc and the Matterhorn. Mont Blanc spans the French–Italian border, and at 4,810 m (15,781 ft) is the highest mountain in the Alps. The Alpine region area contains about a hundred peaks higher than 4,000 m (13,123 ft), known as the "four-thousanders".

What Country are the Alps located in?

Europe

How many kilometres do the Alps stretch?

1,200 kilometres

How long has it taken for the Alps to form?

over tens of millions of years

What is the highest mountain in the Alps?

Mont Blanc

The Alpine region is also known as what?

the "four-thousanders"


The altitude and size of the range affects the climate in Europe; in the mountains precipitation levels vary greatly and climatic conditions consist of distinct zones. Wildlife such as ibex live in the higher peaks to elevations of 3,400 m (11,155 ft), and plants such as Edelweiss grow in rocky areas in lower elevations as well as in higher elevations. Evidence of human habitation in the Alps goes back to the Paleolithic era.

What affects the climate in Europe?

The altitude and size of the range

What type of animal lives inn the higher peaks?

ibex

What plant grows in the rocky areas of the range?

Edelweiss

Evidence of human habitation in the Alps goes as far back to what era?

Paleolithic era


A mummified man, determined to be 5,000 years old, was discovered on a glacier at the Austrian–Italian border in 1991. By the 6th century BC, the Celtic La Tène culture was well established. Hannibal famously crossed the Alps with a herd of elephants, and the Romans had settlements in the region. In 1800 Napoleon crossed one of the mountain passes with an army of 40,000. The 18th and 19th centuries saw an influx of naturalists, writers, and artists, in particular the Romantics, followed by the golden age of alpinism as mountaineers began to ascend the peaks. In World War II, Adolf Hitler kept a base of operation in the Bavarian Alps throughout the war.

How old was the mummified man discovered at the Austrian-Italian bored?

5,000 years old

What culture was well established by the 6th Century BC?

the Celtic La Tène culture

Who famously crossed the Alps with a herd of elephants?

Hannibal

What person took an army of 40,000 across the mountain passes?

Napoleon

Where was Adolf Hitlers base of operation during World War 2?

Bavarian Alps


The Alpine region has a strong cultural identity. The traditional culture of farming, cheesemaking, and woodworking still exists in Alpine villages, although the tourist industry began to grow early in the 20th century and expanded greatly after World War II to become the dominant industry by the end of the century. The Winter Olympic Games have been hosted in the Swiss, French, Italian, Austrian and German Alps. At present the region is home to 14 million people and has 120 million annual visitors.

The alps is home to how many people?

14 million people

How many visitors go to the Alps annually?

120 million

What is the dominant industry in the Alpine region?

tourist industry


The English word Alps derives from the Latin Alpes (through French). Maurus Servius Honoratus, an ancient commentator of Virgil, says in his commentary (A. X 13) that all high mountains are called Alpes by Celts. The term may be common to Italo-Celtic, because the Celtic languages have terms for high mountains derived from alp.

The English word Alps derives from what Latin Word?

Alpes

Who says that all high mountains are called Alpes by Celts?

Maurus Servius Honoratus

What languages have terms for high mountains derived from alp?

Celtic languages


This may be consistent with the theory that in Greek Alpes is a name of non-Indo-European origin (which is common for prominent mountains and mountain ranges in the Mediterranean region). According to the Old English Dictionary, the Latin Alpes might possibly derive from a pre-Indo-European word *alb "hill"; "Albania" is a related derivation. Albania, a name not native to the region known as the country of Albania, has been used as a name for a number of mountainous areas across Europe. In Roman times, "Albania" was a name for the eastern Caucasus, while in the English language "Albania" (or "Albany") was occasionally used as a name for Scotland.

There is a theory that in Greek Alpes is a name of what origin?

Indo-European origin

What name has been used as a name for a number of mountainous areas across Europe?

Albania

Albania was a name for what during Roman Times?

the eastern Caucasus

Albania was occasionally used as a name for what in the English language?

Scotland


It's likely[weasel words] that alb ("white") and albus have common origins deriving from the association of the tops of tall mountains or steep hills with snow.

What words are likely to have common origins?

alb ("white") and albus

Where do Alb and Albus share their origin from?

the association of the tops of tall mountains or steep hills with snow.

Alb can also mean what?

white


In modern languages the term alp, alm, albe or alpe refers to a grazing pastures in the alpine regions below the glaciers, not the peaks. An alp refers to a high mountain pasture where cows are taken to be grazed during the summer months and where hay barns can be found, and the term "the Alps", referring to the mountains, is a misnomer. The term for the mountain peaks varies by nation and language: words such as horn, kogel, gipfel, spitz, and berg are used in German speaking regions: mont, pic, dent and aiguille in French speaking regions; and monte, picco or cima in Italian speaking regions.

The term alp, alm, albe or alpe refers to what in modern languages?

a grazing pastures in the alpine regions below the glaciers, not the peaks

What refers to a high mountain pasture where cows are taken to be grazed during the summer months?

An alp

Words such as horn, kogel, gipfel, spitz, and berd are used in what regions?

German speaking regions

Mont, pic, dent and aiguille are words used in what regions?

French speaking regions


The Alps are a crescent shaped geographic feature of central Europe that ranges in a 800 km (500 mi) arc from east to west and is 200 km (120 mi) in width. The mean height of the mountain peaks is 2.5 km (1.6 mi). The range stretches from the Mediterranean Sea north above the Po basin, extending through France from Grenoble, eastward through mid and southern Switzerland. The range continues toward Vienna in Austria, and east to the Adriatic Sea and into Slovenia. To the south it dips into northern Italy and to the north extends to the south border of Bavaria in Germany. In areas like Chiasso, Switzerland, and Neuschwanstein, Bavaria, the demarcation between the mountain range and the flatlands are clear; in other places such as Geneva, the demarcation is less clear. The countries with the greatest alpine territory are Switzerland, France, Austria and Italy.

What are the crescent shaped geographic feature of central Europe?

The Alps

What is the mean height of the Alp's peak?

2.5 km (1.6 mi)

How far does the Alps range stretch?

the Mediterranean Sea north above the Po basin, extending through France from Grenoble, eastward through mid and southern Switzerland

Switzerland, France, Austria and Italy have the greatest what?

alpine territory


The highest portion of the range is divided by the glacial trough of the Rhone valley, with the Pennine Alps from Mont Blanc to the Matterhorn and Monte Rosa on the southern side, and the Bernese Alps on the northern. The peaks in the easterly portion of the range, in Austria and Slovenia, are smaller than those in the central and western portions.

The highest portion of the Alp's range is divided by what?

the glacial trough of the Rhone valley

Where are the peaks smaller in the range?

the easterly portion

The Bernese Alps are located in what part of the range?

northern


The variances in nomenclature in the region spanned by the Alps makes classification of the mountains and subregions difficult, but a general classification is that of the Eastern Alps and Western Alps with the divide between the two occurring in eastern Switzerland according to geologist Stefan Schmid, near the Splügen Pass.

What makes the classification of the mountains and subregions difficult?

The variances in nomenclature

Who came up with the general classification?

geologist Stefan Schmid

Where is the divide between the Eastern Alps and Western Alps near?

Splügen Pass


The highest peaks of the Western Alps and Eastern Alps, respectively, are Mont Blanc, at 4,810 m (15,780 ft) and Piz Bernina at 4,049 metres (13,284 ft). The second-highest major peaks are Monte Rosa at 4,634 m (15,200 ft) and Ortler at 3,905 m (12,810 ft), respectively

The highest peak of the Western Alps is where?

Mont Blanc

How tall is the peak at Mont Blanc?

4,810 m

The highest peak of the Eastern Alps is where?

Piz Bernina

How tall is the peak of Piz Bernina

4,049 metres


Series of lower mountain ranges run parallel to the main chain of the Alps, including the French Prealps in France and the Jura Mountains in Switzerland and France. The secondary chain of the Alps follows the watershed from the Mediterranean Sea to the Wienerwald, passing over many of the highest and most well-known peaks in the Alps. From the Colle di Cadibona to Col de Tende it runs westwards, before turning to the northwest and then, near the Colle della Maddalena, to the north. Upon reaching the Swiss border, the line of the main chain heads approximately east-northeast, a heading it follows until its end near Vienna.

Where are the French Prealps located?

France

What mountains are located in Switzerland and France?

the Jura Mountains

What follows the watershed from the Mediterranean Sea to the Wienerwald?

The secondary chain of the Alps

What heads approximately east-northeast once at the Swiss bored?

the line of the main chain