A 2001 study by Nebel et al. showed that both Ashkenazi and Sephardic Jewish populations share the same overall paternal Near Eastern ancestries. In comparison with data available from other relevant populations in the region, Jews were found to be more closely related to groups in the north of the Fertile Crescent. The authors also report on Eu 19 (R1a) chromosomes, which are very frequent in Central and Eastern Europeans (54%–60%) at elevated frequency (12.7%) in Ashkenazi Jews. They hypothesized that the differences among Ashkenazim Jews could reflect low-level gene flow from surrounding European populations and/or genetic drift during isolation. A later 2005 study by Nebel et al., found a similar level of 11.5% of male Ashkenazim belonging to R1a1a (M17+), the dominant Y-chromosome haplogroup in Central and Eastern Europeans.

A 2001 study by Nebel et al. showed that which two populations share the same overall paternal Near Eastern ancestries?

Ashkenazi and Sephardic Jewish populations

Levels of the Eu 19 (R1a) chromosome are typically seen between what two percentages in Central and Eastern Europeans?

Levels of the Eu 19 (R1a) chromosome were seen in what percentage of the Ashkenazi Jewish population?

The difference in percentages of the levels of Eu 19 (R1a) chromosomes between Central and Eastern Europeans and the Ashkenazi population would indicate what?

low-level gene flow from surrounding European populations and/or genetic drift during isolation


They established communities throughout Central and Eastern Europe, which had been their primary region of concentration and residence until recent times, evolving their own distinctive characteristics and diasporic identities. In the late Middle Ages the center of gravity of the Ashkenazi population, and its traditional cultural life, shifted steadily eastward, out of the German lands into Poland and Lithuania (including present-day Belarus and Ukraine). In the course of the late 18th and 19th centuries, those Jews who remained in or returned to the German lands experienced a cultural reorientation; under the influence of the Haskalah and the struggle for emancipation, as well the intellectual and cultural ferment in urban centers, they gradually abandoned the use of Yiddish, while developing new forms of Jewish religious life and cultural identity.

In the late Middle Ages, the Ashkenazi population shifted in which direction?

shifted steadily eastward

In the late Middle Ages, as the Ashkenazi population shifted it moved from what location?

German lands

In the late Middle Ages, as the Ashkenazi population shifted it moved into which location?

Poland and Lithuania (including present-day Belarus and Ukraine)

In the late 18th and 19th centuries, Jews who returned to German lands experienced what?

a cultural reorientation


The name Ashkenazi derives from the biblical figure of Ashkenaz, the first son of Gomer, son of Khaphet, son of Noah, and a Japhetic patriarch in the Table of Nations (Genesis 10). The name of Gomer has often been linked to the ethnonym Cimmerians. Biblical Ashkenaz is usually derived from Assyrian Aškūza (cuneiform Aškuzai/Iškuzai), a people who expelled the Cimmerians from the Armenian area of the Upper Euphrates, whose name is usually associated with the name of the Scythians. The intrusive n in the Biblical name is likely due to a scribal error confusing a waw ו with a nun נ.

The name of Ashkenazi derives from which biblical figure?

Ashkenaz

Ashkenaz was the first son of whom?

Gomer

The name of Gomer has often been linked to what ethnonym?

Cimmerians

Assyrian Aškūza expelled which group from the Armenian area of the Upper Euphrates?

Cimmerians


The genome-wide genetic study carried out in 2010 by Behar et al. examined the genetic relationships among all major Jewish groups, including Ashkenazim, as well as the genetic relationship between these Jewish groups and non-Jewish ethnic populations. The study found that contemporary Jews (excluding Indian and Ethiopian Jews) have a close genetic relationship with people from the Levant. The authors explained that "the most parsimonious explanation for these observations is a common genetic origin, which is consistent with an historical formulation of the Jewish people as descending from ancient Hebrew and Israelite residents of the Levant".

Recent studies have found that contemporary Jews (excluding Indian and Ethiopian Jews) have a close genetic relationship to the people of what area?

the Levant

The genome-wide genetic study carried out in 2010 by Behar et al. examined the genetic relationships among which Jewish groups?

all major Jewish groups

The genome-wide genetic study carried out in 2010 by Behar et al. examined the genetic relationship between Jewish groups and what other population?

non-Jewish ethnic populations


The history of Jews in Greece goes back to at least the Archaic Era of Greece, when the classical culture of Greece was undergoing a process of formalization after the Greek Dark Age. The Greek historian Herodotus knew of the Jews, whom he called "Palestinian Syrians", and listed them among the levied naval forces in service of the invading Persians. While Jewish monotheism was not deeply affected by Greek Polytheism, the Greek way of living was attractive for many wealthier Jews. The Synagogue in the Agora of Athens is dated to the period between 267 and 396 CE. The Stobi Synagogue in Macedonia, was built on the ruins of a more ancient synagogue in the 4th century, while later in the 5th century, the synagogue was transformed into Christian basilica.

The history of Jews in Greece goes back to which era?

Archaic Era of Greece

Which Greek historian knew of the Jews?

Herodotus

What did the Greek historian Herodotus refer to the Jews as?

"Palestinian Syrians"

The Greek historian Herodotus listed the Jews as the levied naval forces in service to whom?

the invading Persians

The Synagogue in the Agora of Athens is dated to the period between which two dates?

267 and 396 CE


In an essay on Sephardi Jewry, Daniel Elazar at the Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs summarized the demographic history of Ashkenazi Jews in the last thousand years, noting that at the end of the 11th century, 97% of world Jewry was Sephardic and 3% Ashkenazi; by the end of XVI century, the: 'Treaty on the redemption of captives', by Gracian of the God's Mother, Mercy Priest, who was imprisoned by Turks, cites a Tunisian Hebrew, made captive when arriving to Gaeta, who aided others with money, named: 'Simon Escanasi', in the mid-17th century, "Sephardim still outnumbered Ashkenazim three to two", but by the end of the 18th century, "Ashkenazim outnumbered Sephardim three to two, the result of improved living conditions in Christian Europe versus the Ottoman Muslim world." By 1931, Ashkenazi Jews accounted for nearly 92% of world Jewry. These factors are sheer demography showing the migration patterns of Jews from Southern and Western Europe to Central and Eastern Europe.

According to Daniel Elazar at the Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs, at the end of the 11th century, what percentage of the world's Jewry was Sephardic?

According to Daniel Elazar at the Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs, at the end of the 11th century, what percentage of the world's Jewry was Ashkenazi?

By 1931, Ashkenazi Jews were what percentage of the world Jewry?


In Israel, the term Ashkenazi is now used in a manner unrelated to its original meaning, often applied to all Jews who settled in Europe and sometimes including those whose ethnic background is actually Sephardic. Jews of any non-Ashkenazi background, including Mizrahi, Yemenite, Kurdish and others who have no connection with the Iberian Peninsula, have similarly come to be lumped together as Sephardic. Jews of mixed background are increasingly common, partly because of intermarriage between Ashkenazi and non-Ashkenazi, and partly because many do not see such historic markers as relevant to their life experiences as Jews.

In Israel, the term Ashkenazi is now used in what manner?

in a manner unrelated to its original meaning

In Israel, the term Ashkenazi is now used to refer to whom?

all Jews who settled in Europe and sometimes including those whose ethnic background is actually Sephardic

Are Jews of mixed backgrounds more or less common today?

Jews of mixed background are increasingly common


In this respect, the counterpart of Ashkenazi is Sephardic, since most non-Ashkenazi Orthodox Jews follow Sephardic rabbinical authorities, whether or not they are ethnically Sephardic. By tradition, a Sephardic or Mizrahi woman who marries into an Orthodox or Haredi Ashkenazi Jewish family raises her children to be Ashkenazi Jews; conversely an Ashkenazi woman who marries a Sephardi or Mizrahi man is expected to take on Sephardic practice and the children inherit a Sephardic identity, though in practice many families compromise. A convert generally follows the practice of the beth din that converted him or her. With the integration of Jews from around the world in Israel, North America, and other places, the religious definition of an Ashkenazi Jew is blurring, especially outside Orthodox Judaism.

By tradition, when a Sephardic or Mizrahi woman marries into an Orthodox or Haredi Ashkenazi Jewish family she raises her children to be which type of Jew?

Ashkenazi Jews

When an Ashkenazi woman marries a Sephardi or Mizrahi man it is expected that her children will take on which kind of identity?

children inherit a Sephardic identity

A convert generally follows which practice?

the practice of the beth din that converted him or her


But after emancipation, a sense of a unified French Jewry emerged, especially when France was wracked by the Dreyfus affair in the 1890s. In the 1920s and 1930s, Ashkenazi Jews from Europe arrived in large numbers as refugees from antisemitism, the Russian revolution, and the economic turmoil of the Great Depression. By the 1930s, Paris had a vibrant Yiddish culture, and many Jews were involved in diverse political movements. After the Vichy years and the Holocaust, the French Jewish population was augmented once again, first by Ashkenazi refugees from Central Europe, and later by Sephardi immigrants and refugees from North Africa, many of them francophone.

When did the Dreyfus affair occur?

In what years did large numbers of Jews arrive in France?

the 1920s and 1930s

What three factors led to large numbers of Jews moving to France?

antisemitism, the Russian revolution, and the economic turmoil of the Great Depression

By the 1930s, Paris was noted for which two things related to Jews?

a vibrant Yiddish culture, and many Jews were involved in diverse political movements


The term Ashkenazi also refers to the nusach Ashkenaz (Hebrew, "liturgical tradition", or rite) used by Ashkenazi Jews in their Siddur (prayer book). A nusach is defined by a liturgical tradition's choice of prayers, order of prayers, text of prayers and melodies used in the singing of prayers. Two other major forms of nusach among Ashkenazic Jews are Nusach Sefard (not to be confused with the Sephardic ritual), which is the general Polish Hasidic nusach, and Nusach Ari, as used by Lubavitch Hasidim.

What is the Siddur?

prayer book

The term Ashkenazi also refers to what?

the nusach Ashkenaz

The nusach Ashkenaz refers to what in Hebrew?

"liturgical tradition", or rite

Two other major forms of nusach among Ashkenazic Jews are what?

Nusach Sefard (not to be confused with the Sephardic ritual), which is the general Polish Hasidic nusach, and Nusach Ari

Nusach Ari is used by whom?

Lubavitch Hasidim


Efforts to identify the origins of Ashkenazi Jews through DNA analysis began in the 1990s. Currently, there are three types of genetic origin testing, autosomal DNA (atDNA), mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), and Y-chromosomal DNA (Y-DNA). Autosomal DNA is a mixture from an individual's entire ancestry, Y-DNA shows a male's lineage only along his strict-paternal line, mtDNA shows any person's lineage only along the strict-maternal line. Genome-wide association studies have also been employed to yield findings relevant to genetic origins.

When did efforts begin to try and identify the origins of Ashkenazi Jews through DNA analysis?

the 1990s

How many types of genetic origin testing currently exist?

three types of genetic origin testing

What are the three types of origin testing?

autosomal DNA (atDNA), mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), and Y-chromosomal DNA (Y-DNA)

Autosomal DNA is what?

a mixture from an individual's entire ancestry

What does Y-DNA show?

a male's lineage only along his strict-paternal line


In 2006, a study by Behar et al., based on what was at that time high-resolution analysis of haplogroup K (mtDNA), suggested that about 40% of the current Ashkenazi population is descended matrilineally from just four women, or "founder lineages", that were "likely from a Hebrew/Levantine mtDNA pool" originating in the Middle East in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE. Additionally, Behar et al. suggested that the rest of Ashkenazi mtDNA is originated from ~150 women, and that most of those were also likely of Middle Eastern origin. In reference specifically to Haplogroup K, they suggested that although it is common throughout western Eurasia, "the observed global pattern of distribution renders very unlikely the possibility that the four aforementioned founder lineages entered the Ashkenazi mtDNA pool via gene flow from a European host population".

A 2006 study by Behar et al, suggested that what percentage of the current Ashkenazi population was descended from "founder lineages"?

A 2006 study by Behar et al, suggested that a large percentage of the current Ashkenazi population is descended matrilineally from how many women?

from just four women

The women that a large percentage of the current Ashkenazi population is descended from are also known as what?

founder lineages

The founder lineages were likely from what type of mtDNA pool?

Hebrew/Levantine


Speculation that the Ashkenazi arose from Khazar stock surfaced in the later 19th century and has met with mixed fortunes in the scholarly literature. In late 2012 Eran Elhaik, a research associate studying genetics at the Johns Hopkins University School of Public Health, argued for Khazar descent in his paper The Missing Link of Jewish European Ancestry: Contrasting the Rhineland and the Khazarian Hypotheses. A 2013 study of Ashkenazi mitochondrial DNA found no significant evidence of Khazar contribution to the Ashkenazi Jewish DNA, as would be predicted by the Khazar hypothesis.

When did the idea that the Ashkenazi may have come from Khazar stock come about?

in the later 19th century

Did Eran Elhaik, from Johns Hopkins University School of Public Health argue for or against Khazar descent?

argued for Khazar descent

What did a 2013 study of Ashkenazi mitochondrial DNA find in regards to the Khazar descent idea?

no significant evidence of Khazar contribution to the Ashkenazi Jewish DNA


Sporadic epigraphic evidence in grave site excavations, particularly in Brigetio (Szőny), Aquincum (Óbuda), Intercisa (Dunaújváros), Triccinae (Sárvár), Savaria (Szombathely), Sopianae (Pécs), and Osijek in Croatia, attest to the presence of Jews after the 2nd and 3rd centuries where Roman garrisons were established, There was a sufficient number of Jews in Pannonia to form communities and build a synagogue. Jewish troops were among the Syrian soldiers transferred there, and replenished from the Middle East, after 175 C.E. Jews and especially Syrians came from Antioch, Tarsus and Cappadocia. Others came from Italy and the Hellenized parts of the Roman empire. The excavations suggest they first lived in isolated enclaves attached to Roman legion camps, and intermarried among other similar oriental families within the military orders of the region.Raphael Patai states that later Roman writers remarked that they differed little in either customs, manner of writing, or names from the people among whom they dwelt; and it was especially difficult to differentiate Jews from the Syrians. After Pannonia was ceded to the Huns in 433, the garrison populations were withdrawn to Italy, and only a few, enigmatic traces remain of a possible Jewish presence in the area some centuries later.

Grave site excavations near where Roman garrisons were established attest to the presence of Jews after what centuries?

the 2nd and 3rd centuries

The large number of Jews in Pannonia formed communities and built what?

a synagogue

In what year were the Roman garrison populations withdrawn to Italy?


With the onset of the Crusades in 1095, and the expulsions from England (1290), France (1394), and parts of Germany (15th century), Jewish migration pushed eastward into Poland (10th century), Lithuania (10th century), and Russia (12th century). Over this period of several hundred years, some have suggested, Jewish economic activity was focused on trade, business management, and financial services, due to several presumed factors: Christian European prohibitions restricting certain activities by Jews, preventing certain financial activities (such as "usurious" loans) between Christians, high rates of literacy, near universal male education, and ability of merchants to rely upon and trust family members living in different regions and countries.

What year marked the onset of the Crusades?

What year were the expulsions from England?

What year were the expulsions from France?

After expulsions from England and France, Jewish migration headed in which direction?

Jewish migration pushed eastward

As Jews were expelled from England, France, and parts of Germany they head into which three countries?

Poland (10th century), Lithuania (10th century), and Russia (12th century)


In the Midrash compilation, Genesis Rabbah, Rabbi Berechiah mentions Ashkenaz, Riphath, and Togarmah as German tribes or as German lands. It may correspond to a Greek word that may have existed in the Greek dialect of the Palestinian Jews, or the text is corrupted from "Germanica." This view of Berechiah is based on the Talmud (Yoma 10a; Jerusalem Talmud Megillah 71b), where Gomer, the father of Ashkenaz, is translated by Germamia, which evidently stands for Germany, and which was suggested by the similarity of the sound.

What is the name of the Midrash compilation?

Genesis Rabbah

What is the name of the Rabbi mentioned in relation to the Genesis Rabbah?

Rabbi Berechiah

What are the three German tribes or German lands talked about by Rabbi Berechiah?

Ashkenaz, Riphath, and Togarmah

Rabbi Berechiah's view is based on what?

the Talmud


In the generations after emigration from the west, Jewish communities in places like Poland, Russia, and Belarus enjoyed a comparatively stable socio-political environment. A thriving publishing industry and the printing of hundreds of biblical commentaries precipitated the development of the Hasidic movement as well as major Jewish academic centers. After two centuries of comparative tolerance in the new nations, massive westward emigration occurred in the 19th and 20th centuries in response to pogroms in the east and the economic opportunities offered in other parts of the world. Ashkenazi Jews have made up the majority of the American Jewish community since 1750.

After emigration from the west, did Jewish communities in places like Poland have a stable or unstable sociopolitical environment?

a comparatively stable socio-political environment

What precipitated the development of the Hasidic movement?

A thriving publishing industry and the printing of hundreds of biblical commentaries

Massive western emigration occurred around what time?

in the 19th and 20th centuries

Ashkenazi Jews have made up the majority of the American Jewish community since when?


Religious Ashkenazi Jews living in Israel are obliged to follow the authority of the chief Ashkenazi rabbi in halakhic matters. In this respect, a religiously Ashkenazi Jew is an Israeli who is more likely to support certain religious interests in Israel, including certain political parties. These political parties result from the fact that a portion of the Israeli electorate votes for Jewish religious parties; although the electoral map changes from one election to another, there are generally several small parties associated with the interests of religious Ashkenazi Jews. The role of religious parties, including small religious parties that play important roles as coalition members, results in turn from Israel's composition as a complex society in which competing social, economic, and religious interests stand for election to the Knesset, a unicameral legislature with 120 seats.

Religious Ashkenazi Jews living in Israel follow the authority of whom in certain matters?

the chief Ashkenazi rabbi

What is the Knesset?

a unicameral legislature with 120 seats

Religious Ashkenazi Jews look to the authority of the chief Ashkenazi rabbi in which matters?

halakhic matters


New developments in Judaism often transcend differences in religious practice between Ashkenazi and Sephardic Jews. In North American cities, social trends such as the chavurah movement, and the emergence of "post-denominational Judaism" often bring together younger Jews of diverse ethnic backgrounds. In recent years, there has been increased interest in Kabbalah, which many Ashkenazi Jews study outside of the Yeshiva framework. Another trend is the new popularity of ecstatic worship in the Jewish Renewal movement and the Carlebach style minyan, both of which are nominally of Ashkenazi origin.

What two things were mentioned as contributing to bringing younger Jews together in North American cities?

social trends such as the chavurah movement, and the emergence of "post-denominational Judaism"

What do many Ashkenazi Jews study outside of the Yeshiva framework?

Kabbalah

Which new trend has been associated with the Jewish Renewal movement?

ecstatic worship


Several famous people have Ashkenazi as a surname, such as Vladimir Ashkenazy. However, most people with this surname hail from within Sephardic communities, particularly from the Syrian Jewish community. The Sephardic carriers of the surname would have some Ashkenazi ancestors since the surname was adopted by families who were initially of Ashkenazic origins who moved to Sephardi countries and joined those communities. Ashkenazi would be formally adopted as the family surname having started off as a nickname imposed by their adopted communities. Some have shortened the name to Ash.

Most people with the surname Ashkenazi, hail from which particular community?

Syrian Jewish community

Some people with the surname shorten it to what?

Ash

What famous person is mentioned as having the surname Ashkenazi?

Vladimir Ashkenazy


A study of haplotypes of the Y-chromosome, published in 2000, addressed the paternal origins of Ashkenazi Jews. Hammer et al. found that the Y-chromosome of Ashkenazi and Sephardic Jews contained mutations that are also common among Middle Eastern peoples, but uncommon in the general European population. This suggested that the male ancestors of the Ashkenazi Jews could be traced mostly to the Middle East. The proportion of male genetic admixture in Ashkenazi Jews amounts to less than 0.5% per generation over an estimated 80 generations, with "relatively minor contribution of European Y chromosomes to the Ashkenazim," and a total admixture estimate "very similar to Motulsky's average estimate of 12.5%." This supported the finding that "Diaspora Jews from Europe, Northwest Africa, and the Near East resemble each other more closely than they resemble their non-Jewish neighbors." "Past research found that 50–80 percent of DNA from the Ashkenazi Y chromosome, which is used to trace the male lineage, originated in the Near East," Richards said.

It was found that the Y-chromosome of Ashkenazi and Sephardic Jews contained mutations that are also common with what other people?

Middle Eastern peoples

It was found that the Y-chromosome of Ashkenazi and Sephardic Jews contained mutations that are uncommon with what other people?

uncommon in the general European population

The findings related to the Y-chromosomes suggest that males ancestors of Ashkenazi Jews could be traced mostly to where?

the Middle East


In 2013, however, a study of Ashkenazi mitochondrial DNA by a team led by Martin B. Richards of the University of Huddersfield in England reached different conclusions, again corroborating the pre-2006 origin hypothesis. Testing was performed on the full 16,600 DNA units composing mitochondrial DNA (the 2006 Behar study had only tested 1,000 units) in all their subjects, and the study found that the four main female Ashkenazi founders had descent lines that were established in Europe 10,000 to 20,000 years in the past while most of the remaining minor founders also have a deep European ancestry. The study states that the great majority of Ashkenazi maternal lineages were not brought from the Near East (i.e., they were non-Israelite), nor were they recruited in the Caucasus (i.e., they were non-Khazar), but instead they were assimilated within Europe, primarily of Italian and Old French origins. Richards summarized the findings on the female line as such: "[N]one [of the mtDNA] came from the North Caucasus, located along the border between Europe and Asia between the Black and Caspian seas. All of our presently available studies including my own, should thoroughly debunk one of the most questionable, but still tenacious, hypotheses: that most Ashkenazi Jews can trace their roots to the mysterious Khazar Kingdom that flourished during the ninth century in the region between the Byzantine Empire and the Persian Empire." The 2013 study estimated that 80 percent of Ashkenazi maternal ancestry comes from women indigenous to Europe, and only 8 percent from the Near East, while the origin of the remainder is undetermined. According to the study these findings "point to a significant role for the conversion of women in the formation of Ashkenazi communities."

A 2013 study estimates that what percentage of Ashkenazi maternal ancestry comes from women indigenous to Europe?

80 percent

A 2013 study estimates that what percentage of Ashkenazi maternal ancestry comes from women from the Near East?

8 percent

A 2013 study estimates that what percentage of Ashkenazi maternal ancestry comes from women of undetermined origins?

while the origin of the remainder is undetermined


A 2010 study on Jewish ancestry by Atzmon-Ostrer et al. stated "Two major groups were identified by principal component, phylogenetic, and identity by descent (IBD) analysis: Middle Eastern Jews and European/Syrian Jews. The IBD segment sharing and the proximity of European Jews to each other and to southern European populations suggested similar origins for European Jewry and refuted large-scale genetic contributions of Central and Eastern European and Slavic populations to the formation of Ashkenazi Jewry", as both groups – the Middle Eastern Jews and European/Syrian Jews – shared common ancestors in the Middle East about 2500 years ago. The study examines genetic markers spread across the entire genome and shows that the Jewish groups (Ashkenazi and non Ashkenazi) share large swaths of DNA, indicating close relationships and that each of the Jewish groups in the study (Iranian, Iraqi, Syrian, Italian, Turkish, Greek and Ashkenazi) has its own genetic signature but is more closely related to the other Jewish groups than to their fellow non-Jewish countrymen. Atzmon's team found that the SNP markers in genetic segments of 3 million DNA letters or longer were 10 times more likely to be identical among Jews than non-Jews. Results of the analysis also tally with biblical accounts of the fate of the Jews. The study also found that with respect to non-Jewish European groups, the population most closely related to Ashkenazi Jews are modern-day Italians. The study speculated that the genetic-similarity between Ashkenazi Jews and Italians may be due to inter-marriage and conversions in the time of the Roman Empire. It was also found that any two Ashkenazi Jewish participants in the study shared about as much DNA as fourth or fifth cousins.

In a 2010 study, which two groups were identified by principal component, phylogenetic, and identity by descent analysis?

Middle Eastern Jews and European/Syrian Jews

The 2010 study found that what modern population is most closely related to Ashkenazi Jews?

modern-day Italians

Ashkenazi Jews and Italians may be genetically similar due to what two factors?

inter-marriage and conversions in the time of the Roman Empire


A 2013 trans-genome study carried out by 30 geneticists, from 13 universities and academies, from 9 countries, assembling the largest data set available to date, for assessment of Ashkenazi Jewish genetic origins found no evidence of Khazar origin among Ashkenazi Jews. "Thus, analysis of Ashkenazi Jews together with a large sample from the region of the Khazar Khaganate corroborates the earlier results that Ashkenazi Jews derive their ancestry primarily from populations of the Middle East and Europe, that they possess considerable shared ancestry with other Jewish populations, and that there is no indication of a significant genetic contribution either from within or from north of the Caucasus region", the authors concluded.

How many geneticists carried out the 2013 trans-genome study?

30 geneticists

How many universities and academies participated in the 2013 trans-genome study?

13 universities and academies

What did the 2013 trans-genome study find in regards to Ashkenazi Jews and Khazar origins?

found no evidence of Khazar origin among Ashkenazi Jews


The origins of the Ashkenazim are obscure, and many theories have arisen speculating about their ultimate provenance. The most well supported theory is the one that details a Jewish migration through what is now Italy and other parts of southern Europe. The historical record attests to Jewish communities in southern Europe since pre-Christian times. Many Jews were denied full Roman citizenship until 212 CE, when Emperor Caracalla granted all free peoples this privilege. Jews were required to pay a poll tax until the reign of Emperor Julian in 363. In the late Roman Empire, Jews were free to form networks of cultural and religious ties and enter into various local occupations. But, after Christianity became the official religion of Rome and Constantinople in 380, Jews were increasingly marginalized.

The most well supported theory on the origins of the Ashkenazim is one that details a Jewish migration through which modern day country?

through what is now Italy

The historical record attests to Jewish communities in southern Europe since what time?

pre-Christian times

Many Jews were denied full Roman citizenship until what year?

212 CE

Who gave Jews the right to full Roman citizenship?

Emperor Caracalla


Historical records show evidence of Jewish communities north of the Alps and Pyrenees as early as the 8th and 9th century. By the 11th century Jewish settlers, moving from southern European and Middle Eastern centers, appear to have begun to settle in the north, especially along the Rhine, often in response to new economic opportunities and at the invitation of local Christian rulers. Thus Baldwin V, Count of Flanders, invited Jacob ben Yekutiel and his fellow Jews to settle in his lands; and soon after the Norman Conquest of England, William the Conqueror likewise extended a welcome to continental Jews to take up residence there. Bishop Rüdiger Huzmann called on the Jews of Mainz to relocate to Speyer. In all of these decisions, the idea that Jews had the know-how and capacity to jump-start the economy, improve revenues, and enlarge trade seems to have played a prominent role. Typically Jews relocated close to the markets and churches in town centres, where, though they came under the authority of both royal and ecclesiastical powers, they were accorded administrative autonomy.

Jewish communities were seen north of the Alps and Pyrenees as early as which centuries?

8th and 9th century

Jewish settlers appear along the Rhine by what century?

11th century

What two factors contributed the increase in Jewish settlers along the Rhine and other similar areas?

often in response to new economic opportunities and at the invitation of local Christian rulers


In the first half of the 11th century, Hai Gaon refers to questions that had been addressed to him from Ashkenaz, by which he undoubtedly means Germany. Rashi in the latter half of the 11th century refers to both the language of Ashkenaz and the country of Ashkenaz. During the 12th century, the word appears quite frequently. In the Mahzor Vitry, the kingdom of Ashkenaz is referred to chiefly in regard to the ritual of the synagogue there, but occasionally also with regard to certain other observances.

When did Hai Gaon refer to questions that had been addressed to him from Ashkenaz?

the first half of the 11th century

Who is Hai Gaon thought to be referring to when he says Ashkenaz?

Germany

In the latter half of the 11th century, Rashi refers to what two things?

both the language of Ashkenaz and the country of Ashkenaz


France's blended Jewish community is typical of the cultural recombination that is going on among Jews throughout the world. Although France expelled its original Jewish population in the Middle Ages, by the time of the French Revolution, there were two distinct Jewish populations. One consisted of Sephardic Jews, originally refugees from the Inquisition and concentrated in the southwest, while the other community was Ashkenazi, concentrated in formerly German Alsace, and speaking mainly Yiddish. The two communities were so separate and different that the National Assembly emancipated them separately in 1790 and 1791.

When did France expel its original Jewish population?

the Middle Ages

By the time of the French Revolution there were how many distinct Jewish populations?

two distinct Jewish populations


Various studies have arrived at diverging conclusions regarding both the degree and the sources of the non-Levantine admixture in Ashkenazim, particularly in respect to the extent of the non-Levantine genetic origin observed in Ashkenazi maternal lineages, which is in contrast to the predominant Levantine genetic origin observed in Ashkenazi paternal lineages. All studies nevertheless agree that genetic overlap with the Fertile Crescent exists in both lineages, albeit at differing rates. Collectively, Ashkenazi Jews are less genetically diverse than other Jewish ethnic divisions.

All studies agree that genetic overlap with what location exists in both lineages?

Fertile Crescent


Before 2006, geneticists had largely attributed the ethnogenesis of most of the world's Jewish populations, including Ashkenazi Jews, to Israelite Jewish male migrants from the Middle East and "the women from each local population whom they took as wives and converted to Judaism." Thus, in 2002, in line with this model of origin, David Goldstein, now of Duke University, reported that unlike male Ashkenazi lineages, the female lineages in Ashkenazi Jewish communities "did not seem to be Middle Eastern", and that each community had its own genetic pattern and even that "in some cases the mitochondrial DNA was closely related to that of the host community." In his view this suggested "that Jewish men had arrived from the Middle East, taken wives from the host population and converted them to Judaism, after which there was no further intermarriage with non-Jews."

What year did David Goldstein report that unlike male Ashkenazi lineages, the female lineages in Ashkenazi Jewish communities did not seem to be Middle Eastern?


A 2006 study by Seldin et al. used over five thousand autosomal SNPs to demonstrate European genetic substructure. The results showed "a consistent and reproducible distinction between 'northern' and 'southern' European population groups". Most northern, central, and eastern Europeans (Finns, Swedes, English, Irish, Germans, and Ukrainians) showed >90% in the "northern" population group, while most individual participants with southern European ancestry (Italians, Greeks, Portuguese, Spaniards) showed >85% in the "southern" group. Both Ashkenazi Jews as well as Sephardic Jews showed >85% membership in the "southern" group. Referring to the Jews clustering with southern Europeans, the authors state the results were "consistent with a later Mediterranean origin of these ethnic groups".

In a 2006 study, how many autosomal SNPs were used?

five thousand


By the 1890s the profound effect of adrenal extracts on many different tissue types had been discovered, setting off a search both for the mechanism of chemical signalling and efforts to exploit these observations for the development of new drugs. The blood pressure raising and vasoconstrictive effects of adrenal extracts were of particular interest to surgeons as hemostatic agents and as treatment for shock, and a number of companies developed products based on adrenal extracts containing varying purities of the active substance. In 1897 John Abel of Johns Hopkins University identified the active principle as epinephrine, which he isolated in an impure state as the sulfate salt. Industrial chemist Jokichi Takamine later developed a method for obtaining epinephrine in a pure state, and licensed the technology to Parke Davis. Parke Davis marketed epinephrine under the trade name Adrenalin. Injected epinephrine proved to be especially efficacious for the acute treatment of asthma attacks, and an inhaled version was sold in the United States until 2011 (Primatene Mist). By 1929 epinephrine had been formulated into an inhaler for use in the treatment of nasal congestion.

Who identified the active substance?

John Abel

Who marketed epinephrine?

Parke Davis

As an inhaler, what was epinephrine used to treat?

nasal congestion

Who developed the method to obtain epinephrine in a pure state?

Jokichi Takamine

What could epinephrine treat?

nasal congestion

When did epinephrine stop being available in the United States?

What trade name was epinephrine marketed under?

Adrenalin

Who developed the method to get epinephrine in it's pure form?

Jokichi Takamine

In what year was epinephrine discovered?

What was the trade name of epinephrine?

Adrenalin

Who first discovered epinephrine?

John Abel

What is epinephrine used to treat?

asthma attacks

In what year was Primatene Mist no longer sold in the United States?

Who identified the inactive substance?

I'm not sure.

Who marketed Primatene?

I'm not sure.

What trade name was Primatene marketed under?

I'm not sure.

As an inhaler, what was Primatene used to treat?

I'm not sure.

Who developed the method to obtain Primatene in a pure state?

I'm not sure.


While highly effective, the requirement for injection limited the use of norepinephrine[clarification needed] and orally active derivatives were sought. A structurally similar compound, ephedrine, was identified by Japanese chemists in the Ma Huang plant and marketed by Eli Lilly as an oral treatment for asthma. Following the work of Henry Dale and George Barger at Burroughs-Wellcome, academic chemist Gordon Alles synthesized amphetamine and tested it in asthma patients in 1929. The drug proved to have only modest anti-asthma effects, but produced sensations of exhilaration and palpitations. Amphetamine was developed by Smith, Kline and French as a nasal decongestant under the trade name Benzedrine Inhaler. Amphetamine was eventually developed for the treatment of narcolepsy, post-encepheletic parkinsonism, and mood elevation in depression and other psychiatric indications. It received approval as a New and Nonofficial Remedy from the American Medical Association for these uses in 1937 and remained in common use for depression until the development of tricyclic antidepressants in the 1960s.

Who developed Amphetamine?

Smith, Kline and French

What are common side effects of Amphetamine?

sensations of exhilaration and palpitations

When were tricyclic antidepressants developed?

What were some uses for Amphetamine?

narcolepsy, post-encepheletic parkinsonism, and mood elevation in depression and other psychiatric indications

Who synthesized Amphetamine for asthma?

Gordon Alles

Ephedrine was used as an oral medicine for what illness?

asthma

In what year was amphetamine first tested on asthma patients?

What was the trade name of amphetamine as a nasal decongestant?

Benzedrine Inhaler

In what year did the American Medical Association approve amphetamine for medical use?

In what decade were tricyclic antidepressants created?

Who developed tricyclics?

I'm not sure.

What are common side effects of tricyclics?

I'm not sure.

When was the American Medical Association developed?

I'm not sure.

What were some uses for the American Medical Association?

I'm not sure.

Who synthesized the American Medical Association for asthma?

I'm not sure.


A series of experiments performed from the late 1800s to the early 1900s revealed that diabetes is caused by the absence of a substance normally produced by the pancreas. In 1869, Oskar Minkowski and Joseph von Mering found that diabetes could be induced in dogs by surgical removal of the pancreas. In 1921, Canadian professor Frederick Banting and his student Charles Best repeated this study, and found that injections of pancreatic extract reversed the symptoms produced by pancreas removal. Soon, the extract was demonstrated to work in people, but development of insulin therapy as a routine medical procedure was delayed by difficulties in producing the material in sufficient quantity and with reproducible purity. The researchers sought assistance from industrial collaborators at Eli Lilly and Co. based on the company's experience with large scale purification of biological materials. Chemist George Walden of Eli Lilly and Company found that careful adjustment of the pH of the extract allowed a relatively pure grade of insulin to be produced. Under pressure from Toronto University and a potential patent challenge by academic scientists who had independently developed a similar purification method, an agreement was reached for non-exclusive production of insulin by multiple companies. Prior to the discovery and widespread availability of insulin therapy the life expectancy of diabetics was only a few months.

What is diabetes caused from?

absence of a substance normally produced by the pancreas

Before insulin, what was the life expectancy of diabetics?

only a few months

How can diabetes be induced in dogs?

surgical removal of the pancreas

Who discovered that pancreatic extract reversed symptoms of pancreas removal?

Frederick Banting and his student Charles Best

Why was insulin therapy delayed?

difficulties in producing the material in sufficient quantity and with reproducible purity

Diabetes is caused by the removal of what organ?

pancreas

Left untreated, how long were diabetic patients were expected to live?

a few months

What could be adjusted in a sample of pancreatic extract to produce purer insulin?

pH

To purify insulin, Banting and Best sought the assistance of what company?

Eli Lilly and Co.

Minkowski and von Mering did surgical tests on what animal?

dogs

What is purification caused from?

I'm not sure.

Before insulin, what was the life expectancy of purification?

I'm not sure.

How can purification be induced in dogs?

I'm not sure.

Who discovered that pancreatic extract reversed symptoms of purification removal?

I'm not sure.

Why was purification therapy delayed?

I'm not sure.


In 1903 Hermann Emil Fischer and Joseph von Mering disclosed their discovery that diethylbarbituric acid, formed from the reaction of diethylmalonic acid, phosphorus oxychloride and urea, induces sleep in dogs. The discovery was patented and licensed to Bayer pharmaceuticals, which marketed the compound under the trade name Veronal as a sleep aid beginning in 1904. Systematic investigations of the effect of structural changes on potency and duration of action led to the discovery of phenobarbital at Bayer in 1911 and the discovery of its potent anti-epileptic activity in 1912. Phenobarbital was among the most widely used drugs for the treatment of epilepsy through the 1970s, and as of 2014, remains on the World Health Organizations list of essential medications. The 1950s and 1960s saw increased awareness of the addictive properties and abuse potential of barbiturates and amphetamines and led to increasing restrictions on their use and growing government oversight of prescribers. Today, amphetamine is largely restricted to use in the treatment of attention deficit disorder and phenobarbital in the treatment of epilepsy.

What is phenobarbital used for?

epilepsy

What sleep aid was marketed in 1904?

Veronal

What is amphetamine used for today?

attention deficit disorder

Why was barbiturates and amphetamines restricted?

addictive properties and abuse potential

Who discovered a reaction that induced sleep in dogs?

Hermann Emil Fischer and Joseph von Mering

What compound was discovered to induce sleep?

diethylbarbituric acid

What was the first trade name of diethylbarbituric acid?

Veronal

What is phenobarbital mainly used to treat today?

epilepsy

In what year was phenobarbital discovered?

What was Veronal used for when Bayer put it on the market?

sleep aid

What is increased awareness used for?

I'm not sure.

What acid was marketed in 1904?

I'm not sure.

What is acid used for today?

I'm not sure.

Why were acids restricted?

I'm not sure.

Who discovered an acid reaction?

I'm not sure.


In 1911 arsphenamine, the first synthetic anti-infective drug, was developed by Paul Ehrlich and chemist Alfred Bertheim of the Institute of Experimental Therapy in Berlin. The drug was given the commercial name Salvarsan. Ehrlich, noting both the general toxicity of arsenic and the selective absorption of certain dyes by bacteria, hypothesized that an arsenic-containing dye with similar selective absorption properties could be used to treat bacterial infections. Arsphenamine was prepared as part of a campaign to synthesize a series of such compounds, and found to exhibit partially selective toxicity. Arsphenamine proved to be the first effective treatment for syphilis, a disease which prior to that time was incurable and led inexorably to severe skin ulceration, neurological damage, and death.[citation needed]

Who developed Arsphenamine?

Paul Ehrlich and chemist Alfred Bertheim

What was the first effective treatment for Syphilis?

Arsphenamine

What complications are associated with Syphilis?

severe skin ulceration, neurological damage, and death

What is Amphetamine's market name?

Institute of Experimental Therapy

Where is the Institute of Experimental Therapy located?

Berlin

What was the name of the first synthetic bacterial drug?

arsphenamine

Bacterial infections could be treated with medicines containing what kind of dye?

arsenic

Arsphenamine became the first treatment for what previously incurable disease?

syphilis

In what year was arsphenamine discovered?

What was the commercial name of arsphenamine?

Salvarsan

Who developed commercial ulceration?

I'm not sure.

What was the first effective treatment for Bertheim?

I'm not sure.

What complications are associated with Bertheim?

I'm not sure.

What is Bertheim's market name?

I'm not sure.

Where is the Institute of Bertheim located?

I'm not sure.


The modern pharmaceutical industry traces its roots to two sources. The first of these were local apothecaries that expanded from their traditional role distributing botanical drugs such as morphine and quinine to wholesale manufacture in the mid 1800s. Rational drug discovery from plants started particularly with the isolation of morphine, analgesic and sleep-inducing agent from opium, by the German apothecary assistant Friedrich Sertürner, who named the compound after the Greek god of dreams, Morpheus. Multinational corporations including Merck, Hoffman-La Roche, Burroughs-Wellcome (now part of Glaxo Smith Kline), Abbott Laboratories, Eli Lilly and Upjohn (now part of Pfizer) began as local apothecary shops in the mid-1800s. By the late 1880s, German dye manufacturers had perfected the purification of individual organic compounds from coal tar and other mineral sources and had also established rudimentary methods in organic chemical synthesis. The development of synthetic chemical methods allowed scientists to systematically vary the structure of chemical substances, and growth in the emerging science of pharmacology expanded their ability to evaluate the biological effects of these structural changes.

When was Morphine and Quinine first available?

mid 1800s

Who was the compound named after?

Morpheus

Where were was Morphine extracted from?

opium

Who is responsible for purification of compounds found in mineral sources?

German dye manufacturers

Who came up with the name Morphine?

Friedrich Sertürner

Morphine was named after what Greek god?

Morpheus

Burroughs-Wellcome is now part of what medical company?

Glaxo Smith Kline

Who discovered morphine?

Friedrich Sertürner

What is the name of the plant that produces morphine?

opium

When was Glaxo first available?

I'm not sure.

Who was Glaxo named after?

I'm not sure.

Where was Glaxo extracted from?

I'm not sure.

Who is responsible for purification of Glaxo found in mineral sources?

I'm not sure.

Who came up with the name Glaxo?

I'm not sure.


Ehrlich’s approach of systematically varying the chemical structure of synthetic compounds and measuring the effects of these changes on biological activity was pursued broadly by industrial scientists, including Bayer scientists Josef Klarer, Fritz Mietzsch, and Gerhard Domagk. This work, also based in the testing of compounds available from the German dye industry, led to the development of Prontosil, the first representative of the sulfonamide class of antibiotics. Compared to arsphenamine, the sulfonamides had a broader spectrum of activity and were far less toxic, rendering them useful for infections caused by pathogens such as streptococci. In 1939, Domagk received the Nobel Prize in Medicine for this discovery. Nonetheless, the dramatic decrease in deaths from infectious diseases that occurred prior to World War II was primarily the result of improved public health measures such as clean water and less crowded housing, and the impact of anti-infective drugs and vaccines was significant mainly after World War II.

Who received the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1939?

Gerhard Domagk

Who is responsible for creating Prontosil?

Josef Klarer, Fritz Mietzsch, and Gerhard Domagk

What causes Streptococci?

pathogens

Many deaths occurred before World War II due to what?

infectious diseases

Prontosil is in what drug class?

antibiotics

What was the name of the first sulfonamine antibiotic?

Prontosil

What award did Domagk receive in 1939?

Nobel Prize in Medicine

Anti-infective drugs became more prominent after what war?

World War II

Were sulfonamides more or less toxic than arsphenamine?

less

Streptococci and other pathogens could be treated by what type of antibiotics?

sulfonamides

Who received the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1938?

I'm not sure.

Who is responsible for creating German dye?

I'm not sure.

What causes Gerhard?

I'm not sure.

Many deaths occurred after World War II due to what?

I'm not sure.

Gerhard is in what drug class?

I'm not sure.


Early progress toward the development of vaccines occurred throughout this period, primarily in the form of academic and government-funded basic research directed toward the identification of the pathogens responsible for common communicable diseases. In 1885 Louis Pasteur and Pierre Paul Émile Roux created the first rabies vaccine. The first diphtheria vaccines were produced in 1914 from a mixture of diphtheria toxin and antitoxin (produced from the serum of an inoculated animal), but the safety of the inoculation was marginal and it was not widely used. The United States recorded 206,000 cases of diphtheria in 1921 resulting in 15,520 deaths. In 1923 parallel efforts by Gaston Ramon at the Pasteur Institute and Alexander Glenny at the Wellcome Research Laboratories (later part of GlaxoSmithKline) led to the discovery that a safer vaccine could be produced by treating diphtheria toxin with formaldehyde. In 1944, Maurice Hilleman of Squibb Pharmaceuticals developed the first vaccine against Japanese encephelitis. Hilleman would later move to Merck where he would play a key role in the development of vaccines against measles, mumps, chickenpox, rubella, hepatitis A, hepatitis B, and meningitis.

Who created the first rabies vaccine?

Louis Pasteur and Pierre Paul Émile Roux

How many cases of Diphtheria were there in 1921?

In 1923, what was discovered to be safer to treat Diphtheria Toxin?

formaldehyde

Who created a vaccine to treat Japanese Encephalitis?

Maurice Hilleman

How many deaths occurred due to Diphtheria?

The rabies vaccine was created in what year?

In what year was the diphtheria vaccine made?

What compound made the diphtheria vaccine safer to use?

formaldehyde

Who developed the first encephalitis vaccine?

Maurice Hilleman

What company did Hilleman later work for?

Merck

Who created the first encephelitis vaccine?

I'm not sure.

How many cases of encephelitis where there in 1921?

I'm not sure.

In 1923, what was discovered to be safer to treat encephelitis?

I'm not sure.

Who created a vaccine to treat United States Encephalitis?

I'm not sure.

How many deaths occurred due to encephelitis?

I'm not sure.


In 1937 over 100 people died after ingesting "Elixir Sulfanilamide" manufactured by S.E. Massengill Company of Tennessee. The product was formulated in diethylene glycol, a highly toxic solvent that is now widely used as antifreeze. Under the laws extant at that time, prosecution of the manufacturer was possible only under the technicality that the product had been called an "elixir", which literally implied a solution in ethanol. In response to this episode, the U.S. Congress passed the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938, which for the first time required pre-market demonstration of safety before a drug could be sold, and explicitly prohibited false therapeutic claims.

What drug killed 100 people in 1937?

Elixir Sulfanilamide

Who manufactured "Elixir Sulfanilamide"?

S.E. Massengill Company

What year did Congress pass the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act?

What is Diethylene Glycol commonly used for now?

antifreeze

What was one of the things the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act do?

explicitly prohibited false therapeutic claims

What drug killed over 100 people in 1937?

Elixir Sulfanilamide

What company manufactured Elixir Sulfanilamide?

S.E. Massengill Company of Tennessee

Diethylene glycol is mainly used today as what liquid?

antifreeze

What law did Congress pass following the Elixir Sulfanilamide incident?

Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938

The name "elixir" implied a solution in what liquid?

ethanol

What drug killed 1900 people in 1937?

I'm not sure.

Who manufactured "Cosmetic Elixir"?

I'm not sure.

What year did Elixir pass the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act?

I'm not sure.

What is Elixir Glycol commonly used for now?

I'm not sure.

What was one of the things the Federal Food, Drug and Elixir Act did?

I'm not sure.


The aftermath of World War II saw an explosion in the discovery of new classes of antibacterial drugs including the cephalosporins (developed by Eli Lilly based on the seminal work of Giuseppe Brotzu and Edward Abraham), streptomycin (discovered during a Merck-funded research program in Selman Waksman's laboratory), the tetracyclines (discovered at Lederle Laboratories, now a part of Pfizer), erythromycin (discovered at Eli Lilly and Co.) and their extension to an increasingly wide range of bacterial pathogens. Streptomycin, discovered during a Merck-funded research program in Selman Waksman's laboratory at Rutgers in 1943, became the first effective treatment for tuberculosis. At the time of its discovery, sanitoriums for the isolation of tuberculosis-infected people were an ubiquitous feature of cities in developed countries, with 50% dying within 5 years of admission.

When was the first effective treatment for Tuberculosis discovered?

What drug effectively treated Tuberculosis?

Streptomycin

Who was Eli Lilly's work based off of?

Giuseppe Brotzu and Edward Abraham

Where was Tetracyclines discovered?

Lederle Laboratories

50% of tuberculosis-infected people died within 5 years where?

cities in developed countries

What was the first treatment for tuberculosis?

Streptomycin

What percentage of patients infected with tuberculosis died within 5 years?

In what year was streptomycin discovered?

Many more antibiotics were made following the end of what war?

World War II

What company funded the research that led to the discovery of streptomycin?

Merck

When was the first effective treatment for Streptomycin discovered?

I'm not sure.

What drug effectively treated drugs?

I'm not sure.

Who was Eli Smith's work based off of?

I'm not sure.

50% of tuberculosis-infected people died within 3 years where?

I'm not sure.

What was the first treatment of drugs?

I'm not sure.


During the years 1940-1955, the rate of decline in the U.S. death rate accelerated from 2% per year to 8% per year, then returned to the historical rate of 2% per year. The dramatic decline in the immediate post-war years has been attributed to the rapid development of new treatments and vaccines for infectious disease that occurred during these years. Vaccine development continued to accelerate, with the most notable achievement of the period being Jonas Salk's 1954 development of the polio vaccine under the funding of the non-profit National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis. The vaccine process was never patented, but was instead given to pharmaceutical companies to manufacture as a low-cost generic. In 1960 Maurice Hilleman of Merck Sharp & Dohme identified the SV40 virus, which was later shown to cause tumors in many mammalian species. It was later determined that SV40 was present as a contaminant in polio vaccine lots that had been administered to 90% of the children in the United States. The contamination appears to have originated both in the original cell stock and in monkey tissue used for production. In 2004 the United States Cancer Institute announced that it had concluded that SV40 is not associated with cancer in people.

When was the Polio vaccine created?

Who identified the SV40 virus?

Maurice Hilleman

What was a complication of the SV40 virus?

cause tumors

Who funded the Polio vaccine?

National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis

Who announced that SV40 was not associated with cancer?

United States Cancer Institute

In what year was the polio vaccine created?

Who created the polio vaccine?

Jonas Salk

What virus caused tumors in most mammals?

Who identified the SV40 virus?

Maurice Hilleman

SV40 was present in what vaccine?

polio

When was the Paralysis vaccine created?

I'm not sure.

Who identified the SV50 virus?

I'm not sure.

What was a complication of the SV50 virus?

I'm not sure.

Who funded the Paralysis vaccine?

I'm not sure.

Who announced that SV50 was not associated with cancer?

I'm not sure.


On 2 July 2012, GlaxoSmithKline pleaded guilty to criminal charges and agreed to a $3 billion settlement of the largest health-care fraud case in the U.S. and the largest payment by a drug company. The settlement is related to the company's illegal promotion of prescription drugs, its failure to report safety data, bribing doctors, and promoting medicines for uses for which they were not licensed. The drugs involved were Paxil, Wellbutrin, Advair, Lamictal, and Zofran for off-label, non-covered uses. Those and the drugs Imitrex, Lotronex, Flovent, and Valtrex were involved in the kickback scheme.

How much was the settlement GlaxoSmithKline agree to?

$3 billion

What was one of the causes of the health-care fraud case?

illegal promotion of prescription drugs

When did GlaxoSmithKline plead guilty?

2 July 2012

What drugs were related to a kickback scheme?

Imitrex, Lotronex, Flovent, and Valtrex

What drugs were used for off-label uses?

Paxil, Wellbutrin, Advair, Lamictal, and Zofran

In what year did GlaxoSmithKline pay a $3 billion dollar settlement?

How much was the largest healthcare fraud case in the US settled for?

$3 billion

What company was sued for promoting medicines for unlicensed uses and bribing doctors?

GlaxoSmithKline

How much was the settlement Wellbutrin agreed to?

I'm not sure.

What was one of the causes of the Wellbutrin case?

I'm not sure.

When did Wellbutrin plead guilty?

I'm not sure.

What drugs were related to Advair's scheme?

I'm not sure.

What drugs were used for label uses?

I'm not sure.


In the US, starting in 2013, under the Physician Financial Transparency Reports (part of the Sunshine Act), the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services has to collect information from applicable manufacturers and group purchasing organizations in order to report information about their financial relationships with physicians and hospitals. Data are made public in the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services website. The expectation is that relationship between doctors and Pharmaceutical industry will become fully transparent.

What is the speculation of the relationship between doctors and the drug industry?

become fully transparent.

What is the Physician Financial Transparency Report part of?

Sunshine Act

Where can you obtain information about the Sunshine Act?

Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services website

What information is collected by Centers for Medicine & Medicaid Services?

financial relationships with physicians and hospitals.

When did Centers for Medicine & Medicaid Services have to start collecting information?

starting in 2013

The Physician Financial Transparency Reports was part of what other act?

Sunshine Act

In what year were Medicaid and Medicare required to disclose information about their relationships with doctors and hospitals?

Where can financial relationships between Medicaid, Medicare and pharmaceutical companies be found?

Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services website

What is expected when the relationships are made public?

relationship between doctors and Pharmaceutical industry will become fully transparent

What is the speculation of the relationship between organizations and the drug industry?

I'm not sure.

What are doctors part of?

I'm not sure.

Where can you obtain information about organizations?

I'm not sure.

What information is collected by doctors?

I'm not sure.

When did doctors have to start collecting information?

I'm not sure.


A Federal Trade Commission report issued in 1958 attempted to quantify the effect of antibiotic development on American public health. The report found that over the period 1946-1955, there was a 42% drop in the incidence of diseases for which antibiotics were effective and only a 20% drop in those for which antibiotics were not effective. The report concluded that "it appears that the use of antibiotics, early diagnosis, and other factors have limited the epidemic spread and thus the number of these diseases which have occurred". The study further examined mortality rates for eight common diseases for which antibiotics offered effective therapy (syphilis, tuberculosis, dysentery, scarlet fever, whooping cough, meningococcal infections, and pneumonia), and found a 56% decline over the same period. Notable among these was a 75% decline in deaths due to tuberculosis.

What disease had the biggest decline of deaths?

tuberculosis

What period was the report issued in 1958 cover?

Who issued the report in 1958?

Federal Trade Commission

What were eight diseases examined for?

mortality rates

What was responsible for the decline in spreading diseases?

use of antibiotics, early diagnosis, and other factors

How much did the mortality rate of common bacterial infections decline between 1946-1955?

How much did the mortality rate of tuberculosis drop between 1946-1955?

Who issued a report describing the effects of antibiotic developments?

Federal Trade Commission

In what year was the FTC's report issued?

What disease had the biggest decline of diagnosis?

I'm not sure.

What period did the report issued in 1964 cover?

I'm not sure.

Who issued the report in 1964?

I'm not sure.

What were nine diseases examined for?

I'm not sure.

What was responsible for the decline in spreading commissions?

I'm not sure.


In March 2001, 40 multi-national pharmaceutical companies brought litigation against South Africa for its Medicines Act, which allowed the generic production of antiretroviral drugs (ARVs) for treating HIV, despite the fact that these drugs were on-patent. HIV was and is an epidemic in South Africa, and ARVs at the time cost between 10,000 and 15,000 USD per patient per year. This was unaffordable for most South African citizens, and so the South African government committed to providing ARVs at prices closer to what people could afford. To do so, they would need to ignore the patents on drugs and produce generics within the country (using a compulsory license), or import them from abroad. After international protest in favour of public health rights (including the collection of 250,000 signatures by MSF), the governments of several developed countries (including The Netherlands, Germany, France, and later the US) backed the South African government, and the case was dropped in April of that year.

How much did treatment for each patient in Africa cost?

10,000 and 15,000 USD per patient per year

Who brought litigation to South Africa?

40 multi-national pharmaceutical companies

How many signatures were collected by MSF?

250,000 signatures

When was litigation brought to South Africa?

March 2001

Who backed the South African government which caused the case to be dropped?

The Netherlands, Germany, France, and later the US

How many companies sued South Africa for its Medicines Act?

South Africa's Medicines Act allowed for the generic production of what kind of drugs?

antiretroviral

How much did ARV drugs cost patients yearly?

between 10,000 and 15,000 USD

How many signatures were collected supporting public health rights?

How much did treatment for each patient in ARV cost?

I'm not sure.

Who brought litigation to the ARV?

I'm not sure.

How many signatures were collected by ARV?

I'm not sure.

When was litigation brought to ARV?

I'm not sure.

Who backed the ARV government which caused the case to be dropped?

I'm not sure.


Prior to the 20th century drugs were generally produced by small scale manufacturers with little regulatory control over manufacturing or claims of safety and efficacy. To the extent that such laws did exist, enforcement was lax. In the United States, increased regulation of vaccines and other biological drugs was spurred by tetanus outbreaks and deaths caused by the distribution of contaminated smallpox vaccine and diphtheria antitoxin. The Biologics Control Act of 1902 required that federal government grant premarket approval for every biological drug and for the process and facility producing such drugs. This was followed in 1906 by the Pure Food and Drugs Act, which forbade the interstate distribution of adulterated or misbranded foods and drugs. A drug was considered misbranded if it contained alcohol, morphine, opium, cocaine, or any of several other potentially dangerous or addictive drugs, and if its label failed to indicate the quantity or proportion of such drugs. The government's attempts to use the law to prosecute manufacturers for making unsupported claims of efficacy were undercut by a Supreme Court ruling restricting the federal government's enforcement powers to cases of incorrect specification of the drug's ingredients.

What Act forbade misbranded drugs?

Pure Food and Drugs Act

What caused a Tetanus outbreak?

contaminated smallpox vaccine and diphtheria antitoxin

What act allowed premarket approval for drugs?

The Biologics Control Act of 1902

When did the Pure Food and Drugs Act get implemented?

Who restricted the federal government's enforcement powers?

Supreme Court

What was the name of the law that required premarket approval for producing drugs?

Biologics Control Act of 1902

What law banned the interstate distribution of mislabeled food and drugs?

Pure Food and Drugs Act

In what year was the Pure Food and Drugs Act passed?

What Act forbade misbranded laws?

I'm not sure.

What caused a law outbreak?

I'm not sure.

What act allowed premarket approval for laws?

I'm not sure.

When did the Pure Food And Laws Act get implemented?

I'm not sure.

Who restricted the federal drug powers?

I'm not sure.


Patents have been criticized in the developing world, as they are thought to reduce access to existing medicines. Reconciling patents and universal access to medicine would require an efficient international policy of price discrimination. Moreover, under the TRIPS agreement of the World Trade Organization, countries must allow pharmaceutical products to be patented. In 2001, the WTO adopted the Doha Declaration, which indicates that the TRIPS agreement should be read with the goals of public health in mind, and allows some methods for circumventing pharmaceutical monopolies: via compulsory licensing or parallel imports, even before patent expiration.

Who adopted the Doha Declaration?

World Trade Organization

What did the TRIPS agreement accomplish?

countries must allow pharmaceutical products to be patented

Why are patents criticized?

thought to reduce access to existing medicines

What did the Doha Declaration do?

indicates that the TRIPS agreement should be read with the goals of public health in mind, and allows some methods for circumventing pharmaceutical monopolies

When was the Doha Declaration adopted?

What has been accused of reducing access to medicines in developing countries?

Patents

When did the World Trade Organization adopt the Doha Declaration?

The Doha Declaration allows for what ways for monopolies to be bypassed?

compulsory licensing or parallel imports

Who adopted the TRIPS Declaration?

I'm not sure.

What did the WTO agreement accomplish?

I'm not sure.

Why is the WTO criticized?

I'm not sure.

What did the WTO Declaration do?

I'm not sure.

When was the TRIPS Declaration adopted?

I'm not sure.


Pharmaceutical fraud involves deceptions which bring financial gain to a pharmaceutical company. It affects individuals and public and private insurers. There are several different schemes used to defraud the health care system which are particular to the pharmaceutical industry. These include: Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) Violations, Off Label Marketing, Best Price Fraud, CME Fraud, Medicaid Price Reporting, and Manufactured Compound Drugs. Of this amount $2.5 billion was recovered through False Claims Act cases in FY 2010. Examples of fraud cases include the GlaxoSmithKline $3 billion settlement, Pfizer $2.3 billion settlement and Merck & Co. $650 million settlement. Damages from fraud can be recovered by use of the False Claims Act, most commonly under the qui tam provisions which rewards an individual for being a "whistleblower", or relator (law).

How much money was recovered through the False Claims?

$2.5 billion

What are some of the schemes used to defraud the health care system?

Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) Violations, Off Label Marketing, Best Price Fraud, CME Fraud, Medicaid Price Reporting, and Manufactured Compound Drugs.

What is pharmaceutical fraud?

deceptions which bring financial gain to a pharmaceutical company

Who had the biggest fraud case settlement?

GlaxoSmithKline

What provision rewards "whistle-blowers"?

qui tam

What kind of fraud financially benefits a drug company?

Pharmaceutical fraud

Who is affected by pharmaceutical fraud?

individuals and public and private insurers

How much money lost to pharmaceutical fraud was recovered in 2010?

$2.5 billion

Which act allows whistleblowers to recover money lost from pharmaceutical fraud?

False Claims Act

How much money was recovered through CME Fraud?

I'm not sure.

What are some of the schemes used to defraud companies?

I'm not sure.

What is relator fraud?

I'm not sure.

Who had the biggest relator case settlement?

I'm not sure.


A 2009 Cochrane review concluded that thiazide antihypertensive drugs reduce the risk of death (RR 0.89), stroke (RR 0.63), coronary heart disease (RR 0.84), and cardiovascular events (RR 0.70) in people with high blood pressure. In the ensuring years other classes of antihypertensive drug were developed and found wide acceptance in combination therapy, including loop diuretics (Lasix/furosemide, Hoechst Pharmaceuticals, 1963), beta blockers (ICI Pharmaceuticals, 1964) ACE inhibitors, and angiotensin receptor blockers. ACE inhibitors reduce the risk of new onset kidney disease [RR 0.71] and death [RR 0.84] in diabetic patients, irrespective of whether they have hypertension.

What do ACE inhibitors do?

reduce the risk of new onset kidney disease [RR 0.71] and death [RR 0.84] in diabetic patients

What drugs reduce the risk of death and other events in people with high blood pressure?

thiazide antihypertensive drugs

Who conducted the review on Thiazide Antihypertensive drugs?

Cochrane

What were Thiazide Antihypertensive drugs used with?

combination therapy

In what year did Cochrane release the report?

What reduces the risk of new onset kidney diseases and death?

ACE inhibitors

What type of drugs reduced the risk of strokes and heart disease for people with high blood pressure?

thiazide antihypertensive drugs

In what year was thiazide antihypertensive drugs shown to help those with heart problems?

What do RRE inhibitors do?

I'm not sure.

What drugs reduce the risk of death and other events in people with ACE?

I'm not sure.

Who conducted the review on RRE drugs?

I'm not sure.

What were RRE drugs used with?

I'm not sure.

In what year did ACE release the report?

I'm not sure.


Others have argued that excessive regulation suppresses therapeutic innovation, and that the current cost of regulator-required clinical trials prevents the full exploitation of new genetic and biological knowledge for the treatment of human disease. A 2012 report by the President's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology made several key recommendations to reduce regulatory burdens to new drug development, including 1) expanding the FDA's use of accelerated approval processes, 2) creating an expedited approval pathway for drugs intended for use in narrowly defined populations, and 3) undertaking pilot projects designed to evaluate the feasibility of a new, adaptive drug approval process.

Who put out a report in 2012?

President's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology

What has been argued restricted innovation?

excessive regulation

What was a recommendations brought about from the report?

expanding the FDA's use of accelerated approval processes

What is one thing excessive regulations causes?

therapeutic innovation

What can be used to evaluate new approval processes?

pilot projects

What is excessive drug regulation said to suppress?

therapeutic innovation

In what year was a report made to reduce the burdens of drug development?

What was argued to be holding back new knowledge for treating diseases?

current cost of regulator-required clinical trials

Who put out a report in 2011?

I'm not sure.

What has been argued restricted population?

I'm not sure.

What was a recommendation brought about from human disease?

I'm not sure.

What is one thing excessive development causes?

I'm not sure.

What can be used to evaluate new human diseases?

I'm not sure.


In 1952 researchers at Ciba discovered the first orally available vasodilator, hydralazine. A major shortcoming of hydralazine monotherapy was that it lost its effectiveness over time (tachyphylaxis). In the mid-1950s Karl H. Beyer, James M. Sprague, John E. Baer, and Frederick C. Novello of Merck and Co. discovered and developed chlorothiazide, which remains the most widely used antihypertensive drug today. This development was associated with a substantial decline in the mortality rate among people with hypertension. The inventors were recognized by a Public Health Lasker Award in 1975 for "the saving of untold thousands of lives and the alleviation of the suffering of millions of victims of hypertension".

Who discovered Hydralazine?

researchers at Ciba

Why were the researchers recognized in 1975?

the saving of untold thousands of lives and the alleviation of the suffering of millions of victims of hypertension

Who developed Chlorothiazide?

Karl H. Beyer, James M. Sprague, John E. Baer, and Frederick C. Novello of Merck and Co

What is  Chlorothiazide used to treat?

hypertension

What was the main shortcoming in the drug Hydralazine?

lost its effectiveness over time

What was the name of the first oral vasodilator?

hydralazine

What is the most used antihypertensive drug today?

chlorothiazide

Beyer, Sprague, Baer, and Novello received what award in 1975?

Public Health Lasker Award

In what year was hydralazine discovered?

Chlorothiazide helped reduce the mortality rate among those with what disease?

hypertension

Who discovered Lasker?

I'm not sure.

Why were the researchers recognized in 1952?

I'm not sure.

who developed Ciba?

I'm not sure.

What is Ciba used to treat?

I'm not sure.

What was the main shortcoming in the drug Ciba?

I'm not sure.


In the U.S., a push for revisions of the FD&C Act emerged from Congressional hearings led by Senator Estes Kefauver of Tennessee in 1959. The hearings covered a wide range of policy issues, including advertising abuses, questionable efficacy of drugs, and the need for greater regulation of the industry. While momentum for new legislation temporarily flagged under extended debate, a new tragedy emerged that underscored the need for more comprehensive regulation and provided the driving force for the passage of new laws.

Who led the congressional hearings?

Senator Estes Kefauver

What act needed provisions?

FD&C

What were the major issues that needed to be addressed?

advertising abuses, questionable efficacy of drugs, and the need for greater regulation of the industry

What caused a need for more regulation?

a new tragedy emerged

When did this push occur?

Congressional hearings emerged addressing revisions to what act?

FD&C

Who led the Congressional hearings in 1959?

Senator Estes Kefauver

Did the US Congress call for more or less regulation of pharmaceuticals?

greater

Who led the congressional passages?

I'm not sure.

What congress needed provisions?

I'm not sure.

What were the major issues that needed to be revised?

I'm not sure.

What caused a need for more industry?

I'm not sure.

When did questionable efficacy occur?

I'm not sure.


Other notable new vaccines of the period include those for measles (1962, John Franklin Enders of Children's Medical Center Boston, later refined by Maurice Hilleman at Merck), Rubella (1969, Hilleman, Merck) and mumps (1967, Hilleman, Merck) The United States incidences of rubella, congenital rubella syndrome, measles, and mumps all fell by >95% in the immediate aftermath of widespread vaccination. The first 20 years of licensed measles vaccination in the U.S. prevented an estimated 52 million cases of the disease, 17,400 cases of mental retardation, and 5,200 deaths.

What did the first measles prevent in it's first 20 years?

an estimated 52 million cases of the disease, 17,400 cases of mental retardation, and 5,200 deaths

Who originally created the measles vaccine?

John Franklin Enders

How much did the occurrence of serious diseases shortly after the release of the measles vaccine?

When did the Rubella vaccine come out?

Who recreated the measles vaccine?

Maurice Hilleman

In what year was the measles vaccine made?

Who helped refine the measles vaccine?

Maurice Hilleman

In what year was the mumps vaccine made?

How much did rubella, measles, and mumps infections drop after vaccination?

Measles vaccinations helped prevent how many estimated cases of the illness?

52 million

What did the first measles prevent in its first 10 years?

I'm not sure.

Who originally created rubella?

I'm not sure.

How much did the occurrence of serious diseases shortly after the release of rubella?

I'm not sure.

When did measles come out?

I'm not sure.

Who recreated measles?

I'm not sure.


The thalidomide tragedy resurrected Kefauver's bill to enhance drug regulation that had stalled in Congress, and the Kefauver-Harris Amendment became law on 10 October 1962. Manufacturers henceforth had to prove to FDA that their drugs were effective as well as safe before they could go on the US market. The FDA received authority to regulate advertising of prescription drugs and to establish good manufacturing practices. The law required that all drugs introduced between 1938 and 1962 had to be effective. An FDA - National Academy of Sciences collaborative study showed that nearly 40 percent of these products were not effective. A similarly comprehensive study of over-the-counter products began ten years later.

When did the Kefauver-Harris Amendment become a law?

10 October 1962

What did this new law require?

all drugs introduced between 1938 and 1962 had to be effective

What did the National Academy of Science's study discover?

nearly 40 percent of these products were not effective

How long after the National Academy of Science's study did a study on over the counter drugs occur?

ten years later

What brought up enhancement of drug regulations?

The thalidomide tragedy

When did the Kefauver-Harris Amendment became law?

10 October 1962

What federal agency regulated the advertising of prescription drugs?

FDA

Drugs made between which years had to be tested before going to market?

1938 and 1962

What percentage of drugs were shown to be ineffective after an FDA study?

40 percent

When did the FDA Amendment become a law?

I'm not sure.

What did this new law prohibit?

I'm not sure.

What did the FDA study discover?

I'm not sure.

How long after the FDA's study did a study on over the counter drugs occur?

I'm not sure.

What brought up enhancement of Congress regulations?

I'm not sure.


The firm continued to pressure Kelsey and the agency to approve the application—until November 1961, when the drug was pulled off the German market because of its association with grave congenital abnormalities. Several thousand newborns in Europe and elsewhere suffered the teratogenic effects of thalidomide. Though the drug was never approved in the USA, the firm distributed Kevadon to over 1,000 physicians there under the guise of investigational use. Over 20,000 Americans received thalidomide in this "study," including 624 pregnant patients, and about 17 known newborns suffered the effects of the drug.[citation needed]

How many Americans were given the drug Kevadon?

Over 20,000

When was the drug taken off shelves in Germany?

November 1961

How many newborns were born with issues due to Kevadon?

about 17

How was Kevadon distributed to doctors?

under the guise of investigational use

Why was this drug pulled off shelves?

association with grave congenital abnormalities

In what year was thalidomide banned in Germany?

What adverse effect was thalidomide associated with?

congenital abnormalities

Thalidomide was distributed in the USA by what name?

Kevadon

About how many Americans received thalidomide in a supposed study?

Over 20,000

How many newborn American babies were affected by thalidomide?

How many Americans were given the drug thalidomide?

I'm not sure.

When was the drug taken off shelves in the USA?

I'm not sure.

How many newborns were born with issues due to Germany?

I'm not sure.

How was Kevadon distributed to the USA?

I'm not sure.

Why was this drug put on shelves?

I'm not sure.


Prior to the second world war, birth control was prohibited in many countries, and in the United States even the discussion of contraceptive methods sometimes led to prosecution under Comstock laws. The history of the development of oral contraceptives is thus closely tied to the birth control movement and the efforts of activists Margaret Sanger, Mary Dennett, and Emma Goldman. Based on fundamental research performed by Gregory Pincus and synthetic methods for progesterone developed by Carl Djerassi at Syntex and by Frank Colton at G.D. Searle & Co., the first oral contraceptive, Enovid, was developed by E.D. Searle and Co. and approved by the FDA in 1960. The original formulation incorporated vastly excessive doses of hormones, and caused severe side effects. Nonetheless, by 1962, 1.2 million American women were on the pill, and by 1965 the number had increased to 6.5 million. The availability of a convenient form of temporary contraceptive led to dramatic changes in social mores including expanding the range of lifestyle options available to women, reducing the reliance of women on men for contraceptive practice, encouraging the delay of marriage, and increasing pre-marital co-habitation.

What law prohibited birth control?

Comstock laws

When was Enovid first approved?

What increased due to the availability of birth control?

pre-marital co-habitation

In 1965, how many women were on the birth control pill?

6.5 million

Who created the first oral birth control?

E.D. Searle and Co

Discussing contraception sometimes led to prosecution under what laws?

Comstock laws

What was the name of the first oral contraceptive?

Enovid

When did the FDA approve Enovid?

By 1965, about how many American women were taking Enovid?

6.5 million

Birth control was prohibited in most countries before what war?

second world war

What law prohibited severe pills?

I'm not sure.

When was Colton first approved?

I'm not sure.

What increased due to the availability of severe pills?

I'm not sure.

In 1965, how many women were on the severe pill?

I'm not sure.

Who created the first marriage control?

I'm not sure.


In April 1994, the results of a Merck-sponsored study, the Scandinavian Simvastatin Survival Study, were announced. Researchers tested simvastatin, later sold by Merck as Zocor, on 4,444 patients with high cholesterol and heart disease. After five years, the study concluded the patients saw a 35% reduction in their cholesterol, and their chances of dying of a heart attack were reduced by 42%. In 1995, Zocor and Mevacor both made Merck over US$1 billion. Endo was awarded the 2006 Japan Prize, and the Lasker-DeBakey Clinical Medical Research Award in 2008. For his "pioneering research into a new class of molecules" for "lowering cholesterol,"[sentence fragment]

Who received the Laser-Debakey Clinical Medical Research Aware?

Endo

How much money did Merk make in 1995?

over US$1 billion

How many patients received Zocor?

What study did Merk sponsor in 1994?

Scandinavian Simvastatin Survival Study

What did the study reveal after 5 years?

a 35% reduction in their cholesterol, and their chances of dying of a heart attack were reduced by 42%

What was the brand name of simvastatin?

Zocor

Patients treated with Zocor had their cholesterol reduced by how much?

How much did Zocor reduce the chance of dying from a heart attack?

How much money did Merck make from sales of Zocor and Mevacor?

over US$1 billion

Endo received what award in 2008?

Lasker-DeBakey Clinical Medical Research Award

Who received the Zocor Research Reward?

I'm not sure.

How much money did Simvastatin make in 1995?

I'm not sure.

How many patients received Simvastatin?

I'm not sure.

What study did Merk sponsor in 2008?

I'm not sure.

What did the study reveal after 2 years?

I'm not sure.


Drug discovery is the process by which potential drugs are discovered or designed. In the past most drugs have been discovered either by isolating the active ingredient from traditional remedies or by serendipitous discovery. Modern biotechnology often focuses on understanding the metabolic pathways related to a disease state or pathogen, and manipulating these pathways using molecular biology or biochemistry. A great deal of early-stage drug discovery has traditionally been carried out by universities and research institutions.

What is a drug discovery?

the process by which potential drugs are discovered or designed

Who is usually responsible for early stages of drug discovery?

universities and research institutions

What is used to manipulate pathways?

molecular biology or biochemistry

What is involved in drug discovery?

isolating the active ingredient from traditional remedies or by serendipitous discovery

What focuses on metabolic pathways?

biotechnology

What is the name of the process in which possible drugs are discovered?

Drug discovery

What groups carry out most early drug discoveries?

research institutions

What kind of technology studies the understanding and manipulation of disease states and pathogens?

biotechnology

Most drugs have been found by isolating what from traditional remedies?

active ingredient

What is a remedy discovery?

I'm not sure.

Who is usually responsible for early stages of remedy discovery?

I'm not sure.

What is used to manipulate institutions?

I'm not sure.

What is involved in remedy discovery?

I'm not sure.

What focuses on early-stage pathways?

I'm not sure.


Drug discovery and development is very expensive; of all compounds investigated for use in humans only a small fraction are eventually approved in most nations by government appointed medical institutions or boards, who have to approve new drugs before they can be marketed in those countries. In 2010 18 NMEs (New Molecular Entities) were approved and three biologics by the FDA, or 21 in total, which is down from 26 in 2009 and 24 in 2008. On the other hand, there were only 18 approvals in total in 2007 and 22 back in 2006. Since 2001, the Center for Drug Evaluation and Research has averaged 22.9 approvals a year. This approval comes only after heavy investment in pre-clinical development and clinical trials, as well as a commitment to ongoing safety monitoring. Drugs which fail part-way through this process often incur large costs, while generating no revenue in return. If the cost of these failed drugs is taken into account, the cost of developing a successful new drug (new chemical entity, or NCE), has been estimated at about 1.3 billion USD(not including marketing expenses). Professors Light and Lexchin reported in 2012, however, that the rate of approval for new drugs has been a relatively stable average rate of 15 to 25 for decades.

How much does it cost to develop a new drug?

about 1.3 billion

How many approvals of new drugs happen every year?

averaged 22.9 approvals

Who is responsible for approval or rejection of new drugs?

Center for Drug Evaluation and Research

How many drugs were approved in 2007?

18 approvals

Who reported the stable average rate in 2012?

Professors Light and Lexchin

What does NMEs stand for?

New Molecular Entities

How many pharmaceutical drugs were approved on average since 2001?

What is the approximate cost of developing a new drug, including the costs of failure?

1.3 billion USD

What has been the stable approval rate of new drugs?

15 to 25

How much does it cost to develop approvals?

I'm not sure.

How many approvals of new centers happen every year?

I'm not sure.

Who is responsible for approval or rejection of centers?

I'm not sure.

How many drugs were approved in 2012?

I'm not sure.

Who reported the stable average rate in 2007?

I'm not sure.


Some of these estimates also take into account the opportunity cost of investing capital many years before revenues are realized (see Time-value of money). Because of the very long time needed for discovery, development, and approval of pharmaceuticals, these costs can accumulate to nearly half the total expense. A direct consequence within the pharmaceutical industry value chain is that major pharmaceutical multinationals tend to increasingly outsource risks related to fundamental research, which somewhat reshapes the industry ecosystem with biotechnology companies playing an increasingly important role, and overall strategies being redefined accordingly. Some approved drugs, such as those based on re-formulation of an existing active ingredient (also referred to as Line-extensions) are much less expensive to develop.

What drugs are the least expensive to develop?

those based on re-formulation of an existing active ingredient

What accounts for nearly half of the costs to develop drugs?

opportunity cost of investing capital

What is the consequence in the value chain?

increasingly outsource risks related to fundamental research

What happens when companies outsource?

somewhat reshapes the industry ecosystem with biotechnology companies

What is re-formulations of active ingredients referred to?

Line-extensions

Investing capital can increase drug development costs by how much?

nearly half the total expense

What kind of companies have had a more important role in drug development?

biotechnology

What firms tend to outsource drug development?

major pharmaceutical multinationals

What drugs are the least fundamental to develop?

I'm not sure.

What accounts for nearly half of the costs to develop companies?

I'm not sure.

What is the consequence in the research chain?

I'm not sure.

What happens when companies approve drugs?

I'm not sure.

What is re-formulations of approved drugs referred to?

I'm not sure.


In 1971, Akira Endo, a Japanese biochemist working for the pharmaceutical company Sankyo, identified mevastatin (ML-236B), a molecule produced by the fungus Penicillium citrinum, as an inhibitor of HMG-CoA reductase, a critical enzyme used by the body to produce cholesterol. Animal trials showed very good inhibitory effect as in clinical trials, however a long term study in dogs found toxic effects at higher doses and as a result mevastatin was believed to be too toxic for human use. Mevastatin was never marketed, because of its adverse effects of tumors, muscle deterioration, and sometimes death in laboratory dogs.

Why was Mevastatin never marketed?

adverse effects of tumors, muscle deterioration, and sometimes death

Who discovered Mevastatin?

Akira Endo

What is HMG-CoA responsible for producing?

cholesterol

Where did Endo discover ML-236B?

Penicillium citrinum

What was discovered in long term studies?

too toxic for human use

In what year was mevastatin discovered?

Who discovered mevastatin?

Akira Endo

What organism produces mevastatin?

Penicillium citrinum

What enzyme helps produce cholesterol?

HMG-CoA reductase

Why was Penicillium never marketed?

I'm not sure.

Who discovered Penicillium?

I'm not sure.

What is Penicillium responsible for producing?

I'm not sure.

What was discovered in short term studies?

I'm not sure.

In what year was Penicillium discovered?

I'm not sure.


Every major company selling the antipsychotics — Bristol-Myers Squibb, Eli Lilly, Pfizer, AstraZeneca and Johnson & Johnson — has either settled recent government cases, under the False Claims Act, for hundreds of millions of dollars or is currently under investigation for possible health care fraud. Following charges of illegal marketing, two of the settlements set records last year for the largest criminal fines ever imposed on corporations. One involved Eli Lilly's antipsychotic Zyprexa, and the other involved Bextra. In the Bextra case, the government also charged Pfizer with illegally marketing another antipsychotic, Geodon; Pfizer settled that part of the claim for $301 million, without admitting any wrongdoing.

How much did Pfizer settle the illegal marketing suit for?

$301 million

What drugs were involved in cases of the largest criminal fines?

Zyprexa, and the other involved Bextra

What was Pfizer accused of illegally marketing?

Geodon

What companies have been involved with health care fraud cases?

Bristol-Myers Squibb, Eli Lilly, Pfizer, AstraZeneca and Johnson & Johnson

What do illegal marketing cases fall under?

False Claims Act

Firms such as Eli Lilly, Pfizer, and AstraZeneca have settled claims under what act?

False Claims Act

Zyprexa was owned by what company?

Eli Lilly

Pfizer was charged with illegally marketing what antipsychotic drug?

Geodon

Pfizer settled the Geodon lawsuit for how much money?

$301 million

How much did Eli Lilly settle the illegal marketing suit for?

I'm not sure.

What drugs were involved in cases of the largest Johnson & Johnson fines?

I'm not sure.

What was Johnson & Johnson accused of illegally marketing?

I'm not sure.

What companies have been involved with wrongdoing?

I'm not sure.

What do Johnson & Johnson marketing cases fall under?

I'm not sure.