Tuberculosis is the second-most common cause of death from infectious disease (after those due to HIV/AIDS). The total number of tuberculosis cases has been decreasing since 2005, while new cases have decreased since 2002. China has achieved particularly dramatic progress, with about an 80% reduction in its TB mortality rate between 1990 and 2010. The number of new cases has declined by 17% between 2004–2014. Tuberculosis is more common in developing countries; about 80% of the population in many Asian and African countries test positive in tuberculin tests, while only 5–10% of the US population test positive. Hopes of totally controlling the disease have been dramatically dampened because of a number of factors, including the difficulty of developing an effective vaccine, the expensive and time-consuming diagnostic process, the necessity of many months of treatment, the increase in HIV-associated tuberculosis, and the emergence of drug-resistant cases in the 1980s.

What infectious disease causes more deaths than tuberculosis?

HIV/AIDS

When did new cases of TB infection start going down?

What country has had the most success reducing the TB mortality rate?

China

In what decade did some strains of drug-resistant TB start showing up?

How much did China reduce its rate of death from TB in the 20 years leading up to 2010?

What infections disease causes more deaths than HIV?

I'm not sure.

How much has the US reduced its TB mortality rate by?

I'm not sure.

What country has reduced its HIV mortality rate the most?

I'm not sure.

When did HIV-associated tuberculosis become more common?

I'm not sure.

Which named country tests positive for TB in about 80% of its population?

I'm not sure.


In 2007, the country with the highest estimated incidence rate of TB was Swaziland, with 1,200 cases per 100,000 people. India had the largest total incidence, with an estimated 2.0 million new cases. In developed countries, tuberculosis is less common and is found mainly in urban areas. Rates per 100,000 people in different areas of the world were: globally 178, Africa 332, the Americas 36, Eastern Mediterranean 173, Europe 63, Southeast Asia 278, and Western Pacific 139 in 2010. In Canada and Australia, tuberculosis is many times more common among the aboriginal peoples, especially in remote areas. In the United States Native Americans have a fivefold greater mortality from TB, and racial and ethnic minorities accounted for 84% of all reported TB cases.

Out of every 100,000 people in Swaziland in 2007, how many were infected with tuberculosis?

What country had a record-setting 2 million new cases of TB in 2007?

India

What people in Australia and Canada have a much higher risk of TB infection than other residents?

aboriginal

What indigenous people in the U.S. are five times more likely to die from TB?

Native Americans

What percentage of TB cases in America are diagnosed in minority groups?

What percentage of TB cases worldwide are minorities?

I'm not sure.

How many new cases in millions did Swaziland have in 2007?

I'm not sure.

What is mostly found in remote areas in developed countries?

I'm not sure.

What was the rate of TB cases per 100,000 people in Swaziland in 2010?

I'm not sure.

How much greater is the mortality rate from TB for racial and ethnic minorities?

I'm not sure.


Tuberculosis has been present in humans since antiquity. The earliest unambiguous detection of M. tuberculosis involves evidence of the disease in the remains of bison in Wyoming dated to around 17,000 years ago. However, whether tuberculosis originated in bovines, then was transferred to humans, or whether it diverged from a common ancestor, is currently unclear. A comparison of the genes of M. tuberculosis complex (MTBC) in humans to MTBC in animals suggests humans did not acquire MTBC from animals during animal domestication, as was previously believed. Both strains of the tuberculosis bacteria share a common ancestor, which could have infected humans as early as the Neolithic Revolution.

What animal was found with 17,000-year-old damage from tuberculosis?

bison

What does MTBC stand for?

M. tuberculosis complex

During what time period do some scientist believe the first human could have contracted TB from an ancestor they shared with animals?

Neolithic Revolution

In which U.S. state was the oldest definitive evidence of TB found?

Wyoming

When was Wyoming discovered?

I'm not sure.

Which gene was concluded to come from animals?

I'm not sure.

What period did the bison live in?

I'm not sure.

What did animals get TB from?

I'm not sure.

What species have we definitively traced the origin of TB to?

I'm not sure.


The bacillus causing tuberculosis, M. tuberculosis, was identified and described on 24 March 1882 by Robert Koch. He received the Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine in 1905 for this discovery. Koch did not believe the bovine (cattle) and human tuberculosis diseases were similar, which delayed the recognition of infected milk as a source of infection. Later, the risk of transmission from this source was dramatically reduced by the invention of the pasteurization process. Koch announced a glycerine extract of the tubercle bacilli as a "remedy" for tuberculosis in 1890, calling it "tuberculin". While it was not effective, it was later successfully adapted as a screening test for the presence of pre-symptomatic tuberculosis. The World Tuberculosis Day was established on 24 March for this reason.

Who discovered M. tuberculosis?

Robert Koch

What year was Koch awarded a Nobel Prize?

Koch's conviction that human and bovine strains of TB were unrelated meant more people were exposed by drinking what?

milk

What did Koch call the ineffective treatment for TB he came up with in 1890?

tuberculin

What event is celebrated on March 24th to recognize the test for latent TB?

World Tuberculosis Day

Who started World Tuberculosis Day?

I'm not sure.

What did Koch believe was similar to bovine tuberculosis?

I'm not sure.

What year did World Tuberculosis Day start?

I'm not sure.

What remedy did Koch win a Nobel prize for?

I'm not sure.

When did Koch describe the connection between TB and infected milk?

I'm not sure.


Tuberculosis caused the most widespread public concern in the 19th and early 20th centuries as an endemic disease of the urban poor. In 1815, one in four deaths in England was due to "consumption". By 1918, one in six deaths in France was still caused by TB. After TB was determined to be contagious, in the 1880s, it was put on a notifiable disease list in Britain; campaigns were started to stop people from spitting in public places, and the infected poor were "encouraged" to enter sanatoria that resembled prisons (the sanatoria for the middle and upper classes offered excellent care and constant medical attention). Whatever the (purported) benefits of the "fresh air" and labor in the sanatoria, even under the best conditions, 50% of those who entered died within five years (circa 1916).

What was tuberculosis called in 19th-century England?

consumption

How many deaths out of every six in France during 1918 were attributed to tuberculosis?

one

In what decade was TB's communicability finally realized?

What did Britain try to get people to stop doing to reduce the spread of TB in public?

spitting

What were the "treatment" facilities for poor people with TB in the early 1900s called?

sanatoria

How many deaths in France were caused by TB in 1815?

I'm not sure.

When were deaths from TB in England reduced to one in six?

I'm not sure.

When did France put TB on the notifiable disease list?

I'm not sure.

What percent of people who contracted TB died?

I'm not sure.

Where did poor people get excellent healthcare?

I'm not sure.


In Europe, rates of tuberculosis began to rise in the early 1600s to a peak level in the 1800s, when it caused nearly 25% of all deaths. By the 1950s, mortality had decreased nearly 90%. Improvements in public health began significantly reducing rates of tuberculosis even before the arrival of streptomycin and other antibiotics, although the disease remained a significant threat to public health such that when the Medical Research Council was formed in Britain in 1913, its initial focus was tuberculosis research.

When did the incidence of TB in Europe reach its highest point?

When tuberculosis was at its worst in Europe, what percentage of deaths was TB-related?

What British health organization made tuberculosis its top priority at its start?

Medical Research Council

What year was the Medical Research Council created?

About how much had the death rate from TB been reduced in Europe by the midpoint of the 20th century?

What percentage of deaths were caused by TB in the 1950s?

I'm not sure.

What reduced rates of mortality in the 1950s?

I'm not sure.

What organization brought antibiotics to Britain?

I'm not sure.

What year did streptomycin arrive?

I'm not sure.


Slow progress has led to frustration, expressed by executive director of the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria – Mark Dybul: "we have the tools to end TB as a pandemic and public health threat on the planet, but we are not doing it." Several international organizations are pushing for more transparency in treatment, and more countries are implementing mandatory reporting of cases to the government, although adherence is often sketchy. Commercial treatment-providers may at times overprescribe second-line drugs as well as supplementary treatment, promoting demands for further regulations. The government of Brazil provides universal TB-care, which reduces this problem. Conversely, falling rates of TB-infection may not relate to the number of programs directed at reducing infection rates, but may be tied to increased level of education, income and health of the population. Costs of the disease, as calculated by the World Bank in 2009 may exceed 150 billion USD per year in "high burden" countries. Lack of progress eradicating the disease may also be due to lack of patient follow-up – as among the 250M rural migrants in China.

What member of leadership at the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria called TB a "pandemic"?

Mark Dybul

What country covers treatment for tuberculosis for its citizens?

Brazil

What organization said some countries might be spending as much as $150 billion each year on TB?

World Bank

What population segment in China struggles to get follow-up care for TB infection?

rural migrants

What do some people think we need more of to prevent for-profit providers of TB treatment from over-prescribing?

regulations


One way to decrease stigma may be through the promotion of "TB clubs", where those infected may share experiences and offer support, or through counseling. Some studies have shown TB education programs to be effective in decreasing stigma, and may thus be effective in increasing treatment adherence. Despite this, studies on relationship between reduced stigma and mortality are lacking as of 2010, and similar efforts to decrease stigma surrounding AIDS have been minimally effective. Some have claimed the stigma to be worse than the disease, and healthcare providers may unintentionally reinforce stigma, as those with TB are often perceived as difficult or otherwise undesirable. A greater understanding of the social and cultural dimensions of tuberculosis may also help with stigma reduction.

What groups might help tuberculosis patients share with and support each other?

TB clubs

Education about TB seems to decrease the stigma of the disease and lead to what other positive effect?

increasing treatment adherence

What do some people say is even worse than the effects of tuberculosis itself?

the stigma

What group of people can add to the TB stigma by treating patients as troublesome or unwanted?

healthcare providers

As recently as what year were there no studies on how TB mortality is connected to stigma?

When did studies begin linking mortality to stigma?

I'm not sure.

What have studies claimed are worse than the stigma?

I'm not sure.

How are people with AIDS perceived?

I'm not sure.

What will stigma reduction result in in regards to understanding?

I'm not sure.

Who have been performing studies on the relationship between stigma and mortality?

I'm not sure.


The BCG vaccine has limitations, and research to develop new TB vaccines is ongoing. A number of potential candidates are currently in phase I and II clinical trials. Two main approaches are being used to attempt to improve the efficacy of available vaccines. One approach involves adding a subunit vaccine to BCG, while the other strategy is attempting to create new and better live vaccines. MVA85A, an example of a subunit vaccine, currently in trials in South Africa, is based on a genetically modified vaccinia virus. Vaccines are hoped to play a significant role in treatment of both latent and active disease.

What vaccine are researchers trying to improve on?

BCG

What phase of clinical trials have some new vaccine options reached?

I and II

What does one option propose adding to the existing BCG vaccine?

subunit vaccine

What's the name of the subunit vaccine being studied in South Africa?

What genetically modified virus was used to develop MVA85A?

vaccinia

What candidate is in phase I and II?

I'm not sure.

What is added to a subunit vaccine?

I'm not sure.

Where is BCG in trials?

I'm not sure.

How many main limitations does the BCG vaccine have?

I'm not sure.

What virus is BCG based on?

I'm not sure.


To encourage further discovery, researchers and policymakers are promoting new economic models of vaccine development, including prizes, tax incentives, and advance market commitments. A number of groups, including the Stop TB Partnership, the South African Tuberculosis Vaccine Initiative, and the Aeras Global TB Vaccine Foundation, are involved with research. Among these, the Aeras Global TB Vaccine Foundation received a gift of more than $280 million (US) from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation to develop and license an improved vaccine against tuberculosis for use in high burden countries.

What organization did the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation donate $280 million to?

Aeras Global TB Vaccine Foundation

Policymakers believe tax incentives, market commitments, and what third incentive will speed up vaccine development?

prizes

What group with the initials SATVI is researching TB vaccines?

South African Tuberculosis Vaccine Initiative

What nonprofit tuberculosis research foundation has a verb in its name?

Stop TB Partnership

Who gave the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation $280 mil?

I'm not sure.

What is the prize for vaccine development set at?

I'm not sure.

Who gifted Stop TB Partnership a large amount of money for improving vaccinations?

I'm not sure.

Where is Stop TB Partnership working?

I'm not sure.


A number of medications are being studied for multi drug resistant tuberculosis including: bedaquiline and delamanid. Bedaquiline received U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval in late 2012. The safety and effectiveness of these new agents are still uncertain, because they are based on the results of a relatively small studies. However, existing data suggest that patients taking bedaquiline in addition to standard TB therapy are five times more likely to die than those without the new drug, which has resulted in medical journal articles raising health policy questions about why the FDA approved the drug and whether financial ties to the company making bedaquiline influenced physicians' support for its use

What drug in the running to treat multi drug resistant TB has already gotten FDA approval?

Bedaquiline

What year did the U.S. Food and Drug Administration approve bedaquiline?

Despite FDA approval, how much more likely to die are patients who take bedaquiline in addition to the standard TB regimen?

five times

Opposition to the use of bedaquiline think what providers were influenced by a connection with the drug company?

physicians

What type of publication has put out articles questioning bedaquiline's safety?

medical journal

What are the names of the multi-drug resistant strains of tuberculosis?

I'm not sure.

When did delamind receive FDA approval?

I'm not sure.

What happens to the death rate for people taking delamind?

I'm not sure.

What is delamind taken alongside of?

I'm not sure.

Who approved the drug delamanid?

I'm not sure.


Affirmative action in the United States tends to focus on issues such as education and employment, specifically granting special consideration to racial minorities, Native Americans, and women who have been historically excluded groups in America. Reports have shown that minorities and women have faced discrimination in schools and businesses for many years and this discrimination produced unfair advantages for whites and males in education and employment. The impetus toward affirmative action is redressing the disadvantages associated with past and present discrimination. Further impetus is a desire to ensure public institutions, such as universities, hospitals, and police forces, are more representative of the populations they serve.

Outside of employment, what is the other main issue that affirmative action focuses on?

education

Affirmative action attempts to ask institutions to grant extra consideration to what group of people outside of Native Americans and women?

racial minorities

Studies showed that discrimination in both business sectors and education resulted in advantages for what group of people?

whites and males

Affirmative action does not only attempt to remove disadvantages, but also to ensure what about the number of people in a field?

are more representative of the populations they serve

Outside of employment, what is the other lesser issue that affirmative action focuses on?

I'm not sure.

Affirmative action attempts to ask institutions to grant extra consideration to what group of people outside of Native Americans and men?

I'm not sure.

Studies showed that discrimination in both business sectors and education resulted in disadvantages for what group of people?

I'm not sure.

Affirmative action does attempts to remove disadvantages, but also to ensure what about the number of people in a field?

I'm not sure.


Affirmative action is a subject of controversy. Some policies adopted as affirmative action, such as racial quotas or gender quotas for collegiate admission, have been criticized as a form of reverse discrimination, and such implementation of affirmative action has been ruled unconstitutional by the majority opinion of Gratz v. Bollinger. Affirmative action as a practice was upheld by the Supreme Court's decision in Grutter v. Bollinger in 2003. Affirmative action policies were developed in order to correct decades of discrimination stemming from the Reconstruction Era by granting disadvantaged minorities opportunities. Many believe that the diversity of current American society suggests that affirmative action policies succeeded and are no longer required. Opponents of affirmative action argue that these policies are outdated and lead to reverse discrimination which entails favoring one group over another based upon racial preference rather than achievement.

What is another example aside from racial quotes of affirmative action for collegiate admissions?

gender quotas

Having quotas regarding admissions or employment has been criticized and said to be what kind of discrimination?

reverse

What case determined that some implementation of affirmative action was unconstitutional?

Gratz v. Bollinger

In which time period did discrimination policies originate from?

Reconstruction Era

What do critics of affirmative action believe should be the main factor in hiring?

achievement

What is another example aside from racial quotes of non-affirmative action for collegiate admissions?

I'm not sure.

Not having quotas regarding admissions or employment has been criticized and said to be what kind of discrimination?

I'm not sure.

What case determined that some implementation of affirmative action was constitutional?

I'm not sure.

In which time period did discrimination policies not originate from?

I'm not sure.

What do critics of affirmative action believe should not be the main factor in hiring?

I'm not sure.


Ideas for affirmative action came as early as the Reconstruction Era (1865-1877) in which a former slave population lacked the skills and resources for sustainable living. In 1865, General William Tecumseh Sherman proposed to divide the land and goods from Georgia and grant it to families of color which became the "Forty acres and a mule" policy. The proposal was never widely adopted due to strong political opposition. Nearly a century later (1950s-1960s), policies to assist classes of individuals reemerged during the Civil Rights Movement. The civil rights guarantees came through the interpretation of the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment. The decisions came to be known as affirmative action in which mandatory, as well as voluntary programs, affirmed the civil rights of people of color. Furthermore, these affirmative action programs protected people of color from the present effects stemming from past discrimination. In 1961, President John F. Kennedy became the first to utilize the term "affirmative action" in Executive Order 10925 to ensure that government contractors "take affirmative action to ensure that applicants are employed, and employees are treated during employment, without regard to their race, creed, color, or national origin." This executive order realized the government's intent to create equal opportunities for all qualified people. This executive order was eventually amended and superseded by Lyndon B. Johnson's Executive Order 11246 which prevented discrimination based on race, color, religion, and national origin by organizations which received federal contracts and subcontracts. In 1967, the order was amended to include sex as well. The Reagan administration was opposed to the affirmative action requirements of Executive Order 11246, but these contemplated changes[which?] faced bi-partisan opposition in Congress.

When did the Reconstruction Era end?

Who proposed that land be divided and split up among families of color?

General William Tecumseh Sherman

What was the policy of dividing land among families of color referred to as?

Forty acres and a mule

Which part of the constitution was the basis for policies that were developed during the Civil Rights Movement?

Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment

Who was the first person to utilize the term "affirmative action"?

President John F. Kennedy

When did the Deconstruction Era end?

I'm not sure.

When did the Deconstruction Era start?

I'm not sure.

Who proposed that land be divided and split up among white families?

I'm not sure.

Who was the last person to utilize the term "affirmative action"?

I'm not sure.


The first appearance of the term 'affirmative action' was in the National Labor Relations Act, better known as the Wagner Act, of 1935.:15 Proposed and championed by U.S. Senator Robert F. Wagner of New York, the Wagner Act was in line with President Roosevelt's goal of providing economic security to workers and other low-income groups. During this time period it was not uncommon for employers to blacklist or fire employees associated with unions. The Wagner Act allowed workers to unionize without fear of being discriminated against, and empowered a National Labor Relations Board to review potential cases of worker discrimination. In the event of discrimination, employees were to be restored to an appropriate status in the company through 'affirmative action'. While the Wagner Act protected workers and unions it did not protect minorities, who, exempting the Congress of Industrial Organizations, were often barred from union ranks.:11 This original coining of the term therefore has little to do with affirmative action policy as it is seen today, but helped set the stage for all policy meant to compensate or address an individual's unjust treatment.[citation needed]

In which document did the term "affirmative action" first appear?

National Labor Relations Act

Who was the author of the National Labor Relations Act?

Senator Robert F. Wagner

Who did employers routinely blacklist of fire?

employees associated with unions

Who was able to review complaints about possible worker discrimination?

National Labor Relations Board

Which group of people did the Wagner Act fail to protect?

minorities

In which document did the term "non-affirmative action" first appear?

I'm not sure.

Who was the author of the National Non-Labor Relations Act?

I'm not sure.

Who did employers routinely hire?

I'm not sure.

Who wasn't able to review complaints about possible worker discrimination?

I'm not sure.

Which group of people did the Wagner Act protect?

I'm not sure.


FDR's New Deal programs often contained equal opportunity clauses stating "no discrimination shall be made on account of race, color or creed",:11 but the true forerunner to affirmative action was the Interior Secretary of the time, Harold L. Ickes. Ickes prohibited discrimination in hiring for Public Works Administration funded projects and oversaw not only the institution of a quota system, where contractors were required to employ a fixed percentage of Black workers, by Robert C. Weaver and Clark Foreman,:12 but also the equal pay of women proposed by Harry Hopkins.:14FDR's largest contribution to affirmative action, however, lay in his Executive Order 8802 which prohibited discrimination in the defense industry or government.:22 The executive order promoted the idea that if taxpayer funds were accepted through a government contract, then all taxpayers should have an equal opportunity to work through the contractor.:23–4 To enforce this idea, Roosevelt created the Fair Employment Practices Committee (FEPC) with the power to investigate hiring practices by government contractors.:22

Who was the true backer of the cause of affirmative action?

Harold L. Ickes

What position of power did Harold L. Ickes hold?

Interior Secretary

The first introduction of a quota system mandated that contractors had to do what?

employ a fixed percentage of Black workers

Which piece of legislation prevented any discrimination in the defense industry and government?

Executive Order 8802

What does the FEPC stand for?

Fair Employment Practices Committee

Who was the true backer of the cause of non-affirmative action?

I'm not sure.

What position of power did Clark L. Ickes hold?

I'm not sure.

The first introduction of a quota system mandated that contractors can't do what?

I'm not sure.

Which piece of legislation didn't prevent any discrimination in the defense industry and government?

I'm not sure.

What does the FPPC stand for?

I'm not sure.


Following the Sergeant Isaac Woodard incident, President Harry S. Truman, himself a combat veteran of World War I, issued Executive Order 9808 establishing the President's Committee on Civil Rights to examine the violence and recommend appropriate federal legislation. Hearing of the incident, Truman turned to NAACP leader Walter Francis White and declared, "My God! I had no idea it was as terrible as that. We've got to do something." In 1947 the committee published its findings, To Secure These Rights. The book was widely read, influential, and considered utopian for the times: "In our land men are equal, but they are free to be different. From these very differences among our people has come the great human and national strength of America." The report discussed and demonstrated racial discrimination in basic freedoms, education, public facilities, personal safety, and employment opportunities. The committee was disturbed by the state of race relations, and included the evacuation of Americans of Japanese descent during the war "made without a trial or any sort of hearing…Fundamental to our whole system of law is the belief that guilt is personal and not a matter of heredity or association." The recommendations were radical, calling for federal policies and laws to end racial discrimination and bring about equality: "We can tolerate no restrictions upon the individual which depend upon irrelevant factors such as his race, his color, his religion, or the social position to which he is born." To Secure These Rights set the liberal legislative agenda for the next generation that eventually would be signed into law by Lyndon B. Johnson.:35–36

What group was established in response to Executive Order 9808?

President's Committee on Civil Rights

What was the Executive Order 9808 issued in response to?

Sergeant Isaac Woodard incident

In which year were the "To Secure These Rights" findings published?

What was the committee especially disturbed by as indicated in their report?

the state of race relations

Who in the generation following the "To Secure These Rights" findings sign legislation for affirmative action into law?

Lyndon B. Johnson

What group was established in response to Executive Order 9108?

I'm not sure.

What was the Executive Order 988 issued in response to?

I'm not sure.

In which year were the "Don't Secure These Rights" findings published?

I'm not sure.

What was the committee not at all disturbed by as indicated in their report?

I'm not sure.


To Secure These Rights also called for desegregation of the Armed Forces. "Prejudice in any area is an ugly, undemocratic phenomenon, but in the armed services, where all men run the risk of death, it is especially repugnant." The rationale was fairness: "When an individual enters the service of the country, he necessarily surrenders some of the rights and privileges which are inherent in American citizenship." In return, the government "undertakes to protect his integrity as an individual." Yet that was not possible in the segregated Army, since "any discrimination which…prevents members of the minority groups from rendering full military service in defense of their country is for them a humiliating badge of inferiority." The report called for an end to "all discrimination and segregation based on race, color, creed, or national origins in…all branches of the Armed Services.":38–39

The "To Secure These Rights" findings wanted desegregation of which institution?

Armed Forces

Which risk associated with serving was specifically highlighted by the findings?

death

What did the findings say occurred to an individual when he enters the armed services?

surrenders some of the rights and privileges

Discrimination that prevented minorities from serving their country to the best of their abilities was seen as what?

a humiliating badge of inferiority

The "To Secure These Rights" findings did not want desegregation of which institution?

I'm not sure.

Which risk associated with serving wasn't specifically highlighted by the findings?

I'm not sure.

What did the findings say occurred to an individual when he leaves the armed services?

I'm not sure.

Discrimination that prevented minorities from serving their country to the best of their abilities wasn't seen as what?

I'm not sure.


In June, Truman became the first president to address the NAACP. His speech was a significant departure from traditional race relations in the United States. In front of 10,000 people at the Lincoln Memorial, the president left no doubt where he stood on civil rights. According to his speech, America had "reached a turning point in the long history of our country's efforts to guarantee freedom and equality to all our citizens…Each man must be guaranteed equality of opportunity." He proposed what black citizens had been calling for - an enhanced role of federal authority through the states. "We must make the Federal government a friendly, vigilant defender of the rights and equalities of all Americans. And again I mean all Americans.":40

Who was the first President to address the NAACP?

Truman

How many people were present at the speech that Truman made?

Where did Truman's historic speech take place?

Lincoln Memorial

During the speech, Truman made the statement that each man should be guaranteed what?

equality of opportunity

Who's authority did Truman want to increase throughout the states?

federal

Who was the first President to address the NICP?

I'm not sure.

How many people left the speech that Truman made?

I'm not sure.

Where did Truman's historic speech end?

I'm not sure.

During the speech, Truman made the statement that each man shouldn't be guaranteed what?

I'm not sure.

Who's authority did Truman want to decrease throughout the states?

I'm not sure.


On July 26, Truman mandated the end of hiring and employment discrimination in the federal government, reaffirming FDR's order of 1941.:40 He issued two executive orders on July 26, 1948: Executive Order 9980 and Executive Order 9981. Executive Order 9980, named Regulations Governing for Employment Practices within the Federal Establishment, instituted fair employment practices in the civilian agencies of the federal government. The order created the position of Fair Employment Officer. The order "established in the Civil Service Commission a Fair Employment Board of not less than seven persons." Executive Order 9981, named Establishing the President's Committee on Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed Services, called for the integration of the Armed Forces and the creation of the National Military Establishment to carry out the executive order.

What day did Truman mandate the end of discrimination in the federal government?

July 26

How many executive orders were issued to help prevent discrimination?

two

What was the name given to Executive Order 9980?

Regulations Governing for Employment Practices within the Federal Establishment

Which position was formulated as a result of Executive Order 9980?

Fair Employment Officer

What name was given to Executive Order 9981?

Establishing the President's Committee on Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed Services

What day did Truman mandate the beginning of discrimination in the federal government?

I'm not sure.

How many executive orders were issued to help provide discrimination?

I'm not sure.

What was the name given to Executive Order 9180?

I'm not sure.

Which position was formulated as a result of Executive Order 9?

I'm not sure.

What name was given to Executive Order 9181?

I'm not sure.


When Eisenhower was elected President in 1952, he believed hiring practices and anti-discrimination laws should be decided by the states, although the administration gradually continued to desegregate the Armed Forces and the federal government.:50 The President also established the Government Contract Committee in 1953, which "conducted surveys of the racial composition of federal employees and tax-supported contractors".:50–51 The committee, chaired by Vice President Richard Nixon, had minimal outcomes in that they imposed the contractors with the primary responsibility of desegregation within their own companies and corporations.:51

Which year was Eisenhower elected President?

Who did Eisenhower believe should be allowed to decide the nature of discrimination laws?

the states

What was established in 1953?

Government Contract Committee

What was the main purpose of the Government Contract Committee?

conducted surveys of the racial composition of federal employees and tax-supported contractors

Who was the chairman of the newly established committee?

Vice President Richard Nixon

Which year was Eisenhower elected vice-President?

I'm not sure.

Who did Eisenhower believe should be disallowed to decide the nature of discrimination laws?

I'm not sure.

What was established in 1913?

I'm not sure.

What was the last purpose of the Government Contract Committee?

I'm not sure.

Who was the chairman of the old committee?

I'm not sure.


In the 1960 presidential election, Democratic candidate and future President John F. Kennedy "criticized President Eisenhower for not ending discrimination in federally supported housing" and "advocated a permanent Fair Employment Practices Commission".:59 Shortly after taking office, Kennedy issued Executive Order 10925 in March 1961, requiring government contractors to "consider and recommend additional affirmative steps which should be taken by executive departments and agencies to realize more fully the national policy of nondiscrimination…. The contractor will take affirmative action to ensure that applicants are employed, and that employees are treated during employment, without regard to their race, creed, color, or national origin".:60 The order also established the President's Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity (PCEEO), chaired by Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson. Federal contractors who failed to comply or violated the executive order were punished by contract cancellation and the possible debarment from future government contracts. The administration was "not demanding any special preference or treatment or quotas for minorities" but was rather "advocating racially neutral hiring to end job discrimination".:61 Turning to issues of women's rights, Kennedy initiated a Commission on the Status of Women in December 1961. The commission was charged with "examining employment policies and practices of the government and of contractors" with regard to sex.:66

Who criticized President Eisenhower during the 1960 presidential election?

John F. Kennedy

What was John F. Kennedy's criticism of the President based on?

not ending discrimination in federally supported housing

Which order was issued soon after Kennedy took office?

Executive Order 10925

What does PCEEO stand for?

President's Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity

What was the immediate penalty for a federal contractor for not obeying the executive order?

contract cancellation

Who criticized President Eisenhower during the 1930 presidential election?

I'm not sure.

What was John F. Kennedy's support of the President based on?

I'm not sure.

Which order was issued soon after Kennedy lost office?

I'm not sure.

What does PELCO stand for?

I'm not sure.

What was the immediate penalty for a federal contractor for obeying the executive order?

I'm not sure.


In June 1963, President Kennedy continued his policy of affirmative action by issuing another mandate, Executive Order 11114. The order supplemented to his previous 1961 executive order declaring it was the "policy of the United States to encourage by affirmative action the elimination of discrimination in employment".:72 Through this order, all federal funds, such as "grants, loans, unions and employers who accepted taxpayer funds, and other forms of financial assistance to state and local governments," were forced to comply to the government's policies on affirmative action in employment practices.:72

When did President Kennedy issue Executive Order 11114?

June 1963

What was the main aim of Executive Order 11114?

elimination of discrimination in employment

What was anyone who received federal funding of any sort required to do under the Executive Order?

comply to the government's policies on affirmative action

When did President Kennedy issue Executive Order 13?

I'm not sure.

What was the main aim of Executive Order 14?

I'm not sure.

What was anyone who received federal funding of any sort required to do without the Executive Order?

I'm not sure.


The first time "affirmative action" is used by the federal government concerning race is in President John F. Kennedy's Executive Order 10925, which was chaired by Vice President Johnson. At Johnson's inaugural ball in Texas, he met with a young black lawyer, Hobart Taylor Jr., and gave him the task to co-author the executive order. He wanted a phrase that "gave a sense of positivity to performance under the order." He was torn between the words "positive action" and "affirmative action," and selected the later due to its alliterative quality. The term "active recruitment" started to be used as well. This order, albeit heavily worked up as a significant piece of legislation, in reality carried little actual power. The scope was limited to a couple hundred defense contractors, leaving nearly $7.5 billion in federal grants and loans unsupervised.:60

Which Executive Order first contained the phrase "affirmative action"?

Executive Order 10925

Who chaired the committee created by Executive Order 10925?

Vice President Johnson

Who co - authored the executive order?

Hobart Taylor Jr.

What was the alternative phrase to "affirmative action" that was being considered?

positive action

What was the main reason that "affirmative action" was chosen over "positive action"?

alliterative quality

Which Executive Order didn't contain the phrase "affirmative action"?

I'm not sure.

Who chaired the committee destroyed by Executive Order 10925?

I'm not sure.

Who co - authored the non-executive order?

I'm not sure.

What was the alternative phrase to "non-affirmative action" that was being considered?

I'm not sure.

What was the main reason that "non-affirmative action" was chosen over "positive action"?

I'm not sure.


NAACP had many problem's with JFK's "token" proposal. They wanted jobs. One day after the order took effect, NAACP labor secretary Herbert Hill filed complaints against the hiring and promoting practices of Lockheed Aircraft Corporation. Lockheed was doing business with the Defense Department on the first billion-dollar contract. Due to taxpayer-funding being 90% of Lockheed's business, along with disproportionate hiring practices, black workers charged Lockheed with "overt discrimination." Lockheed signed an agreement with Vice President Johnson that pledged an "aggressive seeking out for more qualified minority candidates for technical and skill positions.:63–64 This agreement was the administration's model for a "plan of progress." Johnson and his assistants soon pressured other defense contractors, including Boeing and General Electric, to sign similar voluntary agreements indicating plans for progress. However, these plans were just that, voluntary. Many corporations in the South, still afflicted with Jim Crow laws, largely ignored the federal recommendations.:63–64

Who had issues with JFK's proposal?

NAACP

Who filed complaints quickly after the Executive Order was implemented?

NAACP labor secretary Herbert Hill

Which company was targeted by the NAACP for not having fair practices?

Lockheed Aircraft Corporation

Who did Lockheed sign an agreement with to seek out more minority workers?

Vice President Johnson

Which laws did the corporations in the South associate with in order to ignore the federal recommendations?

Jim Crow

Who had issues with JFK's rejection?

I'm not sure.

Who filed complaints quickly before the Executive Order was implemented?

I'm not sure.

Which company was targeted by the NAACP for having fair practices?

I'm not sure.

Who did Lockheed sign an agreement with to seek out more minority workers?

I'm not sure.

Which laws did the corporations in the North associate with in order to ignore the federal recommendations?

I'm not sure.


This eventually led to LBJ's Civil Rights Act, which came shortly after President Kennedy's assassination. This document was more holistic than any President Kennedy had offered, and therefore more controversial. It aimed not only to integrate public facilities, but also private businesses that sold to the public, such as motels, restaurants, theaters, and gas stations. Public schools, hospitals, libraries, parks, among other things, were included in the bill as well. It also worked with JFK's executive order 11114 by prohibiting discrimination in the awarding of federal contracts and holding the authority of the government to deny contracts to businesses who discriminate. Maybe most significant of all, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act aimed to end discrimination in all firms with 25 or more employees. Another provision established the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission as the agency charged with ending discrimination in the nation's workplace.:74

Which piece of legislation quickly followed President Kennedy's assassination?

Civil Rights Act

Outside of the private business regulations, what was the other aim of the Civil Rights Act?

integrate public facilities

Which other Executive Order did the Civil Right's Act work closely with?

What was the purpose of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act?

to end discrimination in all firms with 25 or more employees

What was the goal of the Equal Employment Opportunity C omission?

ending discrimination in the nation's workplace

Which piece of legislation quickly followed Vice-President Kennedy's assassination?

I'm not sure.

Outside of the private business regulations, what was the other aim of the Non-Civil Rights Act?

I'm not sure.

Which other Executive Order did the Civil Right's Act not work closely with?

I'm not sure.

What was the purpose of Title VII of the Non-Civil Rights Act?

I'm not sure.


Title VII was perhaps the most controversial of the entire bill. Many conservatives accused it of advocating a de facto quota system, and claimed unconstitutionality as it attempts to regulate the workplace. Minnesota Senator Hubert Humphrey corrected this notion: "there is nothing in [Title VII] that will give power to the Commission to require hiring, firing, and promotion to meet a racial 'quota.' [. . .] Title VII is designed to encourage the hiring on basis of ability and qualifications, not race or religion." Title VII prohibits discrimination. Humphrey was the silent hero of the bill's passing through Congress. He pledged that the bill required no quotas, just nondiscrimination. Doing so, he convinced many pro-business Republicans, including Senate Minority Leader Everett Dirksen (IL) to support Title VII.:78–80

Which section of the legislation was considered the most controversial?

Title VII

What did critics claim that Title VII advocate?

a de facto quota system

Which Senator fought back against the criticism of Title VII?

Hubert Humphrey

Who was one of the key members that Humphrey managed to convince to support the bill?

Everett Dirksen

What position of importance other than Senator did Everett Dirksen hold?

Senate Minority Leader

Which section of the legislation was considered the least controversial?

I'm not sure.

What did supporters claim that Title VII advocate?

I'm not sure.

Which Mayor fought back against the criticism of Title VII?

I'm not sure.

Who was one of the key members that Humphrey managed to convince to reject the bill?

I'm not sure.

What position of importance other than Mayor did Everett Dirksen hold?

I'm not sure.


The strides that the Johnson presidency made in ensuring equal opportunity in the workforce were further picked up by his successor Nixon. In 1969 the Nixon administration initiated the "Philadelphia Order". It was regarded as the most forceful plan thus far to guarantee fair hiring practices in construction jobs. Philadelphia was selected as the test case because, as Assistant Secretary of Labor Arthur Fletcher explained, "The craft unions and the construction industry are among the most egregious offenders against equal opportunity laws . . . openly hostile toward letting blacks into their closed circle." The order included definite "goals and timetables." As President Nixon asserted, "We would not impose quotas, but would require federal contractors to show 'affirmative action' to meet the goals of increasing minority employment."

Who followed in Johnson's footsteps in terms of ensuring equal opportunity?

his successor Nixon

Which piece of legislation was begun in 1969?

Philadelphia Order

Which industry of jobs did the legislation target?

construction

Aside from the construction industry, which other group was one of the main offenders against equal opportunity laws?

craft unions

Who held the position of Assistant Secretary of Labor?

Arthur Fletcher

Who followed in Johnson's footsteps in terms of ensuring unequal opportunity?

I'm not sure.

Which piece of legislation was ended in 1969?

I'm not sure.

Which industry of jobs did the legislation not target?

I'm not sure.

Aside from the construction industry, which other group was one of the main offenders against unequal opportunity laws?

I'm not sure.

Who held the position of Secretary of Labor?

I'm not sure.


After the Nixon administration, advancements in affirmative action became less prevalent. "During the brief Ford administration, affirmative action took a back seat, while enforcement stumbled along.":145 Equal rights was still an important subject to many Americans, yet the world was changing and new issues were being raised. People began to look at affirmative action as a glorified issue of the past and now there were other areas that needed focus. "Of all the triumphs that have marked this as America's Century –...none is more inspiring, if incomplete, than our pursuit of racial justice."

In terms of advancement, what happened to the progression of affirmative action after the Nixon administration?

became less prevalent

What was one of the primary reasons that the issue of affirmative action lost its momentum?

there were other areas that needed focus

Which administration allowed affirmative action to take a backseat to other issues?

Ford

In terms of advancement, what happened to the progression of non-affirmative action after the Nixon administration?

I'm not sure.

What was one of the primary reasons that the issue of non-affirmative action lost its momentum?

I'm not sure.

Which administration allowed affirmative action to take a frontseat to other issues?

I'm not sure.


In the beginning, racial classifications that identified race were inherently suspect and subject to strict scrutiny. These classifications would only be upheld if necessary to promote a compelling governmental interest. Later the U.S. Supreme Court decided that racial classifications that benefited underrepresented minorities were to only be upheld if necessary and promoted a compelling governmental purpose. (See Richmond v. J.A. Croson Co.) There is no clear guidance about when government action is not "compelling", and such rulings are rare.

What kind of classification was subject to strict scrutiny?

racial

What was the only situation in which a racial classification could be considered acceptable?

necessary to promote a compelling governmental interest

Who later confirmed that racial classifications were only to be upheld if they were necessary?

U.S. Supreme Court

What is an example case that can help display where upholding a racial classification is beneficial?

Richmond v. J.A. Croson Co.

What kind of classification was not subject to strict scrutiny?

I'm not sure.

What was the only situation in which a racial classification could be considered unacceptable?

I'm not sure.

Who later confirmed that racial classifications were only to be upheld if they were unnecessary?

I'm not sure.

What is an example case that can help display where upholding a racial classification is not beneficial?

I'm not sure.


Ricci v. DeStefano was heard by the United States Supreme Court in 2009. The case concerns White and Hispanic firefighters in New Haven, Connecticut, who upon passing their test for promotions to management were denied the promotions, allegedly because of a discriminatory or at least questionable test. The test gave 17 whites and two Hispanics the possibility of immediate promotion. Although 23% of those taking the test were African American, none scored high enough to qualify. Because of the possibility the tests were biased in violation of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act, no candidates were promoted pending outcome of the controversy. In a split 5-4 vote, the Supreme Court ruled that New Haven had engaged in impermissible racial discrimination against the White and Hispanic majority.

Which case concerning White and Hispanic firefighters was heard by the Supreme Court in 2009?

Ricci v. DeStefano

Where was the issue of White and Hispanic firefighters heard in the case based out of?

New Haven, Connecticut

How many whites were given the possibility of immediate promotion as a result of taking the controversial test?

What percentage of those people taking the test were African American?

What was the final vote count for the Supreme Court over the issue?

Which case concerning White and Hispanic firefighters was heard by the Supreme Court in 2019?

I'm not sure.

Where was the issue of White and Black firefighters heard in the case based out of?

I'm not sure.

How many whites were given the possibility of immediate firing as a result of taking the controversial test?

I'm not sure.

What percentage of those people taking the test were Asian American?

I'm not sure.


President Kennedy stated in Executive Order 10925 that "discrimination because of race, creed, color, or national origin is contrary to the Constitutional principles and policies of the United States"; that "it is the plain and positive obligation of the United States Government to promote and ensure equal opportunity for all qualified persons, without regard to race, creed, color, or national origin, employed or seeking employment with the Federal Government and on government contracts"; that "it is the policy of the executive branch of the Government to encourage by positive measures equal opportunity for all qualified persons within the Government"; and that "it is in the general interest and welfare of the United States to promote its economy, security, and national defense through the most efficient and effective utilization of all available manpower".

Which President declared that discrimination is contrary to the Constitutional principles of the United States?

Kennedy

Which piece of legislation did President Kennedy use to claim that discrimination was a violation of the Constitution?

Executive Order 10925

What were the affected industries in terms of regulation as a result of Executive Order 10925?

Federal Government and on government contracts

Which President declared that discrimination is contrary to the Constitutional principles of the UK?

I'm not sure.

Which piece of legislation did President Kennedy use to claim that discrimination was not a violation of the Constitution?

I'm not sure.

What were the affected industries in terms of deregulation as a result of Executive Order 10925?

I'm not sure.


Proponents of affirmative action argue that by nature the system is not only race based, but also class and gender based. To eliminate two of its key components would undermine the purpose of the entire system. The African American Policy Forum believes that the class based argument is based on the idea that non-poor minorities do not experience racial and gender based discrimination. The AAPF believes that "Race-conscious affirmative action remains necessary to address race-based obstacles that block the path to success of countless people of color of all classes". The groups goes on to say that affirmative action is responsible for creating the African American middle class, so it does not make sense to say that the system only benefits the middle and upper classes.

Other than being race and gender based, what did believers in affirmative action also feel that the system discriminated against?

class

Which organization believed in the class based argument?

African American Policy Forum

What group of people did the AAPF claim affirmative action created?

African American middle class

What does the AAPF believe the foundation for the class based argument is?

non-poor minorities do not experience racial and gender based discrimination

What does the AAPF believe the goal of affirmative action should be?

to address race-based obstacles that block the path to success

Other than being race and gender based, what did believers in affirmative action also feel that the system did not discriminate against

I'm not sure.

Which organization believed in the non-class based argument?

I'm not sure.

What group of people did the AAPF claim affirmative action did not create?

I'm not sure.

What does the AAPF believe the foundation for the class based agreement is?

I'm not sure.

What does the AAPF believe the goal of non-affirmative action should be?

I'm not sure.


Following the end of World War II the educational gap between White and Black Americans was widened by Dwight D. Eisenhower's GI Bill. This piece of legislation paved the way for white GIs to attend college. Despite their veteran status returning black servicemen were not afforded loans at the same rate as whites. Furthermore, at the time of its introduction, segregation was still the law of the land barring blacks from the best institutions. Overall, "Nearly 8 million servicemen and servicewomen were educated under the provisions of the GI Bill after World War II. But for blacks, higher educational opportunities were so few that the promise of the GI Bill went largely unfulfilled."

What major event preceded the growth of the divide in education between White and Black Americans?

end of World War II

What was considered to be a major cause of the increase in educational gap?

Dwight D. Eisenhower's GI Bill

What did returning black veterans not receive?

loans at the same rate as whites

How many servicemen and women were educated as a result of the GI Bill?

Nearly 8 million

What opportunities were few for black veterans?

higher educational

What major event preceded the growth of the divide in education between White and Asian Americans?

I'm not sure.

What was not considered to be a major cause of the increase in educational gap?

I'm not sure.

What did returning white veterans not receive?

I'm not sure.

How many servicemen and women weren't educated as a result of the GI Bill?

I'm not sure.

What opportunities were few for hispanic veterans?

I'm not sure.


According to a study by Dr. Paul Brest, Hispanics or "Latinos" include immigrants who are descendants of immigrants from the countries comprising Central and South America. In 1991, Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans, and Cuban Americans made up 80% of the Latino population in the United States. Latinos are disadvantaged compared to White Americans and are more likely to live in poverty. They are the least well educated major ethnic group and suffered a 3% drop in high school completion rate while African Americans experienced a 12% increase between 1975-1990. In 1990, they constituted 9% of the population, but only received 3.1% of the bachelors's degrees awarded. At times when it is favorable to lawmakers, Latinos were considered "white" by the Jim Crow laws during the Reconstruction. In other cases, according to Paul Brest, Latinos have been classified as an inferior race and a threat to white purity. Latinos have encountered considerable discrimination in areas such as employment, housing, and education. Brest finds that stereotypes continue to be largely negative and many perceive Latinos as "lazy, unproductive, and on the dole." Furthermore, native-born Latino-Americans and recent immigrants are seen as identical since outsiders tend not to differentiate between Latino groups.

Who conducted a study about the origins of "Latinos"?

Dr. Paul Brest

How much of the Latino population did Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans and Cuban Americans make up in 1991?

In relation to other major ethnic groups, what is the education level of Latinos?

least well educated

What was the percentage increase of the high school completion rate for African Americans between 1975 and 1990?

How many of the total bachelor degrees awarded in 1990 went to Latinos?

Who conducted a study about the origins of "Blacks"?

I'm not sure.

How much of the Latino population did Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans and Cuban Americans make up in 1911?

I'm not sure.

In relation to other major ethnic groups, what is the education level of Blacks?

I'm not sure.

How many of the total bachelor degrees awarded in 1992 went to Latinos?

I'm not sure.


The category of Native American applies to the diverse group of people who lived in North America before European settlement. During the U.S. government's westward expansion, Native Americans were displaced from their land which had been their home for centuries. Instead, they were forced onto reservations which were far smaller and less productive. According to Brest, land belonging to Native Americans was reduced from 138 million acres in 1887 to 52 million acres in 1934. In 1990, the poverty rate for Native Americans was more than triple that of the whites and only 9.4% of Native Americans have completed a bachelor's degree as opposed to 25.2% of whites and 12.2% of African Americans.

Which groups can be categorized as Native Americans?

people who lived in North America before European settlement

When did the Native Americans lose their land?

During the U.S. government's westward expansion

Where were Native Americans forced to live after they lost their land?

reservations

How much land did the Native Americans own in 1934?

52 million acres

In relation to whites, what was the poverty rate for Native Americans in 1990?

more than triple

Which groups can be categorized as Non-Native Americans?

I'm not sure.

When did the Native Americans win their land?

I'm not sure.

Where were Native Americans forced to live after they won their land?

I'm not sure.

How much land did the Native Americans own in 1914?

I'm not sure.


Early Asian immigrants experienced prejudice and discrimination in the forms of not having the ability to become naturalized citizens. They also struggled with many of the same school segregation laws that African Americans faced. Particularly, during World War II, Japanese Americans were interned in camps and lost their property, homes, and businesses. Discrimination against Asians began with the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 and then continued with the Scott Act of 1888 and the Geary Act of 1892. At the beginning of the 20th century, the United States passed the Immigration Act of 1924 to prevent Asian immigration out of fear that Asians were stealing white jobs and lowering the standard for wages. In addition, whites and non-Asians do not differentiate among the different Asian groups and perpetuate the "model minority" stereotype. According to a 2010 article by Professor Qin Zhang of Fairfield University, Asians are characterized as one dimensional in having great work ethic and valuing education, but lacking in communication skills and personality. A negative outcome of this stereotype is that Asians have been portrayed as having poor leadership and interpersonal skills. This has contributing to the "glass ceiling" phenomenon in which although there are many qualified Asian Americans, they occupy a disproportionately small number of executive positions in businesses. Furthermore, the model minority stereotype has led to resentment of Asian success and several universities and colleges have limited or have been accused of limiting Asian matriculation.

What form of discrimination did early Asian immigrants experience?

not having the ability to become naturalized citizens

What law type did Asian immigrants struggle with?

school segregation

Which piece of legislature marked the start of discrimination against Asians?

Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882

Which bill was passed in an attempt to limit or prevent Asian immigration?

Immigration Act of 1924

According to studies, what are Asians perceived to be lacking?

communication skills and personality

m of discrimination did early African immigrants experience?

I'm not sure.

What law type did African immigrants struggle with?

I'm not sure.

Which bill was passed in an attempt to provide for Asian immigration?

I'm not sure.


Proponents of affirmative action recognize that the policy is inherently unequal; however, minding the inescapable fact that historic inequalities exist in America, they believe the policy is much more fair than one in which these circumstances are not taken into account. Furthermore, those in favor of affirmative action see it as an effort towards inclusion rather than a discriminatory practice. "Job discrimination is grounded in prejudice and exclusion, whereas affirmative action is an effort to overcome prejudicial treatment through inclusion. The most effective way to cure society of exclusionary practices is to make special efforts at inclusion, which is exactly what affirmative action does."

What is one of the issues with affirmative action?

inherently unequal

How do people who are in favor of affirmative action view it?

an effort towards inclusion rather than a discriminatory practice

What does affirmative action supposedly aim to do?

overcome prejudicial treatment through inclusion

What do proponents of affirmative action believe is the best way to combat exclusionary practices?

make special efforts at inclusion

What is one of the issues with non-affirmative action?

I'm not sure.

How do people who aren't in favor of affirmative action view it?

I'm not sure.

What does affirmative action supposedly not aim to do?

I'm not sure.

What do proponents of affirmative action believe is the worst way to combat exclusionary practices?

I'm not sure.


There are a multitude of supporters as well as opponents to the policy of affirmative action. Many presidents throughout the last century have failed to take a very firm stance on the policy, and the public has had to discern the president's opinion for themselves. Bill Clinton, however, made his stance on affirmative action very clear in a speech on July 19, 1995, nearly two and a half years after his inauguration. In his speech, he discussed the history in the United States that brought the policy into fruition: slavery, Jim Crow, and segregation. Clinton also mentioned a point similar to President Lyndon B. Johnson's "Freedom is not Enough" speech, and declared that just outlawing discrimination in the country would not be enough to give everyone in America equality. He addressed the arguments that affirmative action hurt the white middle class and said that the policy was not the source of their problems. Clinton plainly outlined his stance on affirmative action, saying:

Which President made their stance on affirmative action clear in 1995?

Bill Clinton

How long after his inauguration was Bill Clinton's speech?

two and a half years

Which speech did Bill Clinton's speech draw parallels to?

President Lyndon B. Johnson's "Freedom is not Enough"

What did President Clinton claim would not be enough to give everyone in American equality?

just outlawing discrimination

What was President Clinton's response to the claim that affirmative action was hurting the white middle class.

the policy was not the source of their problems

Which President made their stance on non-affirmative action clear in 1995?

I'm not sure.

How soon after his inauguration was Bill Clinton's speech?

I'm not sure.

Which speech did Bill Clinton's speech draw differences from?

I'm not sure.

What did President Clinton claim would be enough to give everyone in American equality?

I'm not sure.

What was President Clinton's response to the claim that affirmative action was not hurting the white middle class.?

I'm not sure.


The National Conference of State Legislatures held in Washington D.C. stated in a 2014 overview that many supporters for affirmative action argue that policies stemming from affirmative action help to open doors for historically excluded groups in workplace settings and higher education. Workplace diversity has become a business management concept in which employers actively seek to promote an inclusive workplace. By valuing diversity, employers have the capacity to create an environment in which there is a culture of respect for individual differences as well as the ability to draw in talent and ideas from all segments of the population. By creating this diverse workforce, these employers and companies gain a competitive advantage in an increasingly global economy. According to the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, many private sector employers have concluded that a diverse workforce makes a "company stronger, more profitable, and a better place to work." Therefore, these diversity promoting policies are implemented for competitive reasons rather than as a response to discrimination, but have shown the value in having diversity.

Where was the National Conference of State Legislatures held in 2014?

Washington D.C.

What did proponents of affirmative action claim some of the effects of policies that support affirmative action had done?

help to open doors for historically excluded groups in workplace settings and higher education

What has the concept of workplace diversity caused employers to do?

actively seek to promote an inclusive workplace

Having a diverse workplace allows for employers to do what?

draw in talent and ideas from all segments of the population

Which organization claims that private sector employers believe having a diverse workplace is beneficial?

U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission

Where was the National Conference of State Legislatures held in 2024?

I'm not sure.

What did proponents of affirmative action claim some of the effects of policies that reject affirmative action had done?

I'm not sure.

What has the concept of workplace diversity caused employers not to do?

I'm not sure.

Having a diverse workplace allows for employers to not do what?

I'm not sure.


In the year 2000, according to a study by American Association of University Professors (AAUP), affirmative action promoted diversity within colleges and universities. This has been shown to have positive effects on the educational outcomes and experiences of college students as well as the teaching of faculty members. According to a study by Geoffrey Maruyama and José F. Moreno, the results showed that faculty members believed diversity helps students to reach the essential goals of a college education, Caucasian students suffer no detrimental effects from classroom diversity, and that attention to multicultural learning improves the ability of colleges and universities to accomplish their missions. Furthermore, a diverse population of students offers unique perspectives in order to challenge preconceived notions through exposure to the experiences and ideas of others. According to Professor Gurin of the University of Michigan, skills such as "perspective-taking, acceptance of differences, a willingness and capacity to find commonalities among differences, acceptance of conflict as normal, conflict resolution, participation in democracy, and interest in the wider social world" can potentially be developed in college while being exposed to heterogeneous group of students. In addition, broadening perspectives helps students confront personal and substantive stereotypes and fosters discussion about racial and ethnic issues in a classroom setting. Furthermore, the 2000 AAUP study states that having a diversity of views leads to a better discussion and greater understanding among the students on issues of race, tolerance, fairness, etc.

What does AAUP stand for?

American Association of University Professors

What were the effects of affirmative action on universities according to the study done by the AAUP?

positive effects on the educational outcomes and experiences of college students

What did a study claim about the beliefs of faculty members on increased diversity?

helps students to reach the essential goals of a college education

Who supposedly suffers no detrimental effects from classroom diversity?

Caucasian students

In which year did the AAUP release their study?

What does ADUP stand for?

I'm not sure.

What were the effects of affirmative action on universities according to the study done by the AALP?

I'm not sure.

What did a study claim about the beliefs of faculty members on decreased diversity?

I'm not sure.

Who supposedly suffers a lot of detrimental effects from classroom diversity?

I'm not sure.

In which year did the ALUP release their study?

I'm not sure.


Richard Sander claims that by artificially elevating minority students into schools they otherwise would not be capable of attending, this discourages them and tends to engender failure and high dropout rates for these students. For example, about half of black college students rank in the bottom 20 percent of their classes, black law school graduates are four times as likely to fail bar exams as are whites, and interracial friendships are more likely to form among students with relatively similar levels of academic preparation; thus, blacks and Hispanics are more socially integrated on campuses where they are less academically mismatched. He claims that the supposed "beneficiaries" of affirmative action – minorities – do not actually benefit and rather are harmed by the policy. Sander's claims have been disputed, and his empirical analyses have been subject to substantial criticism. A group including some of the country's lead statistical methodologists told the Supreme Court that Sander's analyses were sufficiently flawed that the Court would be wise to ignore them entirely. At the same time many scholars have found that minorities gain substantially from affirmative action.

Who claims that artificially raising minority students into schools has a negative effect on them?

Richard Sander

What was a negative effect of affirmative action according to Richard Sander?

high dropout rates

Where do half of the black college students rank in terms of their performance relative to the rest of their class?

bottom 20 percent

What is the failure rate for black law school graduates compared to whites for the bar exam?

four times

Who claims that artificially raising minority students into schools has a positive effect on them?

I'm not sure.

What was a postive effect of affirmative action according to Richard Sander?

I'm not sure.

Where do half of the white college students rank in terms of their performance relative to the rest of their class?

I'm not sure.

What is the failure rate for black law school graduates compared to asians for the bar exam?

I'm not sure.


The controversy surrounding affirmative action's effectiveness is based on the idea of class inequality. Opponents of racial affirmative action argue that the program actually benefits middle- and upper-class African Americans and Hispanic Americans at the expense of lower-class European Americans and Asian Americans. This argument supports the idea of class-based affirmative action. America's poor is disproportionately made up of people of color, so class-based affirmative action would disproportionately help people of color. This would eliminate the need for race-based affirmative action as well as reducing any disproportionate benefits for middle- and upper-class people of color.

Which idea is the controversy of affirmative action primarily based upon?

class inequality

Other than African Americans, who do detractors of affirmative action claim benefit most from affirmative action?

Hispanic Americans

At who's expense other than Asian Americans are upper-class African Americans and Hispanic Americans supposedly benefiting?

lower-class European Americans

What do some people believe should be the basis for affirmative action instead of race based legislation?

class-based affirmative action

Who primarily makes up America's poor group?

people of color

Which idea is the controversy of non-affirmative action primarily based upon?

I'm not sure.

Other than Asian Americans, who do detractors of affirmative action claim benefit most from affirmative action?

I'm not sure.

At whose expense other than African Americans are upper-class African Americans and Hispanic Americans supposedly benefiting?

I'm not sure.

What do some people believe should be the basis for affirmative action instead of religion based legislation?

I'm not sure.

Who primarily makes up America's rich group?

I'm not sure.


In 1976, a group of Italian American professors at City University of New York asked to be added as an affirmative action category for promotion and hiring. Italian Americans are usually considered white in the US and would not be covered under affirmative action policies, but the professors believed they were underrepresented. Libertarian economist Thomas Sowell wrote in his book, Affirmative Action Around the World: An Empirical Study, that affirmative action policies encourage non-preferred groups to designate themselves as members of preferred groups [i.e., primary beneficiaries of affirmative action] to take advantage of group preference policies.

Where were the Italian American professors employed that asked to be added as an affirmative action category?

City University of New York

Which year did the Italian American Professors make their request?

What category of race do Italian Americans normally fall under?

white

What was the title of the book written by Thomas Sowell?

Affirmative Action Around the World: An Empirical Study

Why would Italian Americans want to get themselves designated as members of a preferred group?

to take advantage of group preference policies

Where were the Irish American professors employed that asked to be added as an affirmative action category?

I'm not sure.

Which year did the Irish American Professors make their request?

I'm not sure.

What category of race do Irish Americans normally fall under?

I'm not sure.

What was the title of the song written by Thomas Sowell?

I'm not sure.

Why would Italian Americans want to get themselves designated as members of a non-preferred group?

I'm not sure.


Frederick Lynch, the author of Invisible Victims: White Males and the Crisis of Affirmative Action, did a study on white males that said they were victims of reverse discrimination. Lynch explains that these white men felt frustrated and unfairly victimized by affirmative action. Shelby Steele, another author against affirmative action, wanted to see affirmative action go back to its original meaning of enforcing equal opportunity. He argued that blacks had to take full responsibility in their education and in maintaining a job. Steele believes that there is still a long way to go in America to reach our goals of eradicating discrimination.

What book did Frederick Lynch author?

Invisible Victims: White Males and the Crisis of Affirmative Action

What did white males feel was happening to them as a result of affirmative action?

reverse discrimination

What moral position does Shelby Steele hold?

against affirmative action

What does Shelby Steele believe that the true concept of affirmative action is?

enforcing equal opportunity

What book did Frederick Lynch burn?

I'm not sure.

What did black males feel was happening to them as a result of affirmative action?

I'm not sure.

What moral position does Shelby Steele disagree with?

I'm not sure.

What does Shelby Steele believe that the false concept of affirmative action is?

I'm not sure.


Terry Eastland, the author who wrote From Ending Affirmative Action: The Case for Colorblind Justice states, "Most arguments for affirmative action fall into two categories: remedying past discrimination and promoting diversity". Eastland believes that the founders of affirmative action did not anticipate how the benefits of affirmative action would go to those who did not need it, mostly middle class minorities. Additionally, she argues that affirmative action carries with it a stigma that can create feelings of self-doubt and entitlement in minorities. Eastland believes that affirmative action is a great risk that only sometimes pays off, and that without it we would be able to compete more freely with one another. Libertarian economist Thomas Sowell identified what he says are negative results of affirmative action in his book, Affirmative Action Around the World: An Empirical Study. Sowell writes that affirmative action policies encourage non-preferred groups to designate themselves as members of preferred groups [i.e., primary beneficiaries of affirmative action] to take advantage of group preference policies; that they tend to benefit primarily the most fortunate among the preferred group (e.g., upper and middle class blacks), often to the detriment of the least fortunate among the non-preferred groups (e.g., poor white or Asian); that they reduce the incentives of both the preferred and non-preferred to perform at their best – the former because doing so is unnecessary and the latter because it can prove futile – thereby resulting in net losses for society as a whole; and that they engender animosity toward preferred groups as well.:115–147

Which book did Terry Eastland write?

From Ending Affirmative Action: The Case for Colorblind Justice

Outside of promoting diversity, was does Eastland believe the other reason to be in favor of affirmative action is?

remedying past discrimination

What did Eastland believe the founders of affirmative action did not consider?

how the benefits of affirmative action would go to those who did not need it

Why does Sowell believe that there is little to no incentive for the preferred minority groups to perform at their best?

because doing so is unnecessary

What argument does Sowell make in his claim that non - preferred minorities have less incentive to perform at their best?

because it can prove futile

Which song did Terry Eastland write?

I'm not sure.

Outside of promoting diversity, was does Eastland believe the other reason to be against affirmative action is?

I'm not sure.

What did Westland believe the founders of affirmative action did not consider?

I'm not sure.

Why does Sowell believe that there is a lot of incentive for the preferred minority groups to perform at their best?

I'm not sure.

What argument does Sowell make in his claim that preferred minorities have less incentive to perform at their best?

I'm not sure.


Some commentators have defined reverse discrimination as a policy or practice in which members of a majority are discriminated against in favor of a historically disadvantaged group or minority.[non-primary source needed] Many argue that reverse discrimination results from affirmative action policies and that these policies are just another form of discrimination no different from examples in the past. People like Ward Connerly assert that affirmative action requires the very discrimination it is seeking to eliminate. According to these opponents, this contradiction might make affirmative action counter-productive. One argument for reverse discrimination is the idea that affirmative action encourages mediocrity and incompetence. Job positions would not be offered to the applicants who are the most qualified, but to applicants with a special trait such as a certain race, ethnicity, or gender. For example, opponents say affirmative action causes unprepared applicants to be accepted in highly demanding educational institutions or jobs which result in eventual failure (see, for example, Richard Sander's study of affirmative action in Law School, bar exam and eventual performance at law firms). Other opponents say that affirmative action lowers the bar and so denies those who strive for excellence on their own merit and the sense of real achievement. Opponents of affirmative action suggest that merit should be the primary factor considered in applying for job positions, college, graduate school, etc.

What is a definition of reverse discrimination?

a policy or practice in which members of a majority are discriminated against in favor of a historically disadvantaged group or minority

What do some commentators claim the irony of policies resulting from affirmative action is?

these policies are just another form of discrimination

Who is an example of someone that states that affirmative action is another form of discrimination?

Ward Connerly

What does the opposition of affirmative action believe should be the main key in determining acceptance in employment or education?

merit

An argument against affirmative action is that it encourages what?

mediocrity and incompetence

What is a definition of discrimination?

I'm not sure.

What do some commentators reject the irony of policies resulting from affirmative action is?

I'm not sure.

Who is an example of someone that states that affirmative action is not another form of discrimination?

I'm not sure.

What does the opposition of affirmative action believe should be the main key in determining acceptance in unemployment?

I'm not sure.

An argument against affirmative action is that it discourages what?

I'm not sure.


Another popular argument for affirmative action is the compensation argument. Blacks were mistreated in the past for a morally irrelevant characteristic of being black so society today should compensate for the injuries. This causes reverse discrimination in the form of preferential hirings, contracts, and scholarships as a means to ameliorate past wrongs. Many opponents argue that this form of reparation is morally indefensible because if blacks were harmed for being black in the past, then preferential treatment for this same trait is illogical. In addition, arguments are made that whites today who innocently benefited from past injustices should not be punished for something they had no control over. Therefore, they are being reverse discriminated against because they are receiving the punishment that should be given to people who willingly and knowingly benefited from discriminatory practices

What is a typical argument in favor of affirmative action?

compensation argument

In the compensation argument, who should supposedly have to make up for past discrimination against blacks?

society today should compensate for the injuries

Which argument is being made by those who oppose affirmative action in relation to the compensation argument?

preferential treatment for this same trait is illogical

In terms of whites, what is an argument that is used to try and refute the benefits of affirmative action as it relates to the compensation argument?

whites today who innocently benefited from past injustices should not be punished for something they had no control over

According to opposition believers, who should be punished for discrimination?

people who willingly and knowingly benefited from discriminatory practices

What is a typical argument against affirmative action?

I'm not sure.

In the compensation argument, who should supposedly have to make up for past discrimination against whites?

I'm not sure.

Which argument is being made by those who support affirmative action in relation to the compensation argument?

I'm not sure.

In terms of blacks, what is an argument that is used to try and refute the benefits of affirmative action as it relates to the compensation argument?

I'm not sure.


Some opponents further claim that affirmative action has undesirable side-effects and that it fails to achieve its goals. They argue that it hinders reconciliation, replaces old wrongs with new wrongs, undermines the achievements of minorities, and encourages groups to identify themselves as disadvantaged, even if they are not. It may increase racial tension and benefit the more privileged people within minority groups at the expense of the disenfranchised within better-off groups (such as lower-class whites and Asians).There has recently been a strong push among American states to ban racial or gender preferences in university admissions, in reaction to the controversial and unprecedented decision in Grutter v. Bollinger. In 2006, nearly 60% of Michigan voters decided to ban affirmative action in university admissions. Michigan joined California, Florida, Texas, and Washington in banning the use of race or sex in admissions considerations. Some opponents believe, among other things, that affirmative action devalues the accomplishments of people who belong to a group it's supposed to help, therefore making affirmative action counter-productive. Furthermore, opponents of affirmative action claim that these policies dehumanize individuals and applicants to jobs or school are judged as members of a group without consideration for the individual person.

Other than failing to achieve its goal, what else do opponents to affirmative action claim it has?

undesirable side-effects

Other than benefiting more privileged people within minority groups, what is another argument against affirmative action?

may increase racial tension

When was there a vote regarding affirmative action in Michigan?

How many Michigan voters elected to ban affirmative action for university admissions?

Which court case featured an unprecedented and controversial decision?

Grutter v. Bollinger

Other than failing to achieve its goal, what else do people who agree with affirmative action claim it has?

I'm not sure.

Other than benefiting more privileged people outside of minority groups, what is another argument against affirmative action?

I'm not sure.

When was there a vote not regarding affirmative action in Michigan?

I'm not sure.

How many Michigan voters elected to support affirmative action for university admissions?

I'm not sure.

Which court case featured an uncontroversial decision?

I'm not sure.


In the US, a prominent form of racial preferences relates to access to education, particularly admission to universities and other forms of higher education. Race, ethnicity, native language, social class, geographical origin, parental attendance of the university in question (legacy admissions), and/or gender are sometimes taken into account when the university assesses an applicant's grades and test scores. Individuals can also be awarded scholarships and have fees paid on the basis of criteria listed above. In 1978, the Supreme Court ruled in Bakke v. Regents that public universities (and other government institutions) could not set specific numerical targets based on race for admissions or employment. The Court said that "goals" and "timetables" for diversity could be set instead.

Where are racial preferences highlighted the most in the United States?

admission to universities and other forms of higher education

What is another term for kids who get preferential treatment due to their parents attending the same university?

legacy admissions

Which case that went to the Supreme Court resulted in a decision regarding public universities and affirmative action?

Bakke v. Regents

What are public universities not allowed to do?

set specific numerical targets based on race for admissions or employment

Instead of being allowed to set numerical targets, what did the Court rule that universities are allowed to do?

"goals" and "timetables" for diversity could be set

Where are racial preferences highlighted the most in the UK?

I'm not sure.

What is another term for kids who don't get preferential treatment due to their parents attending the same university?

I'm not sure.

Which case that went to the Supreme Court resulted in a decision regarding private universities and affirmative action?

I'm not sure.

What are public universities allowed to do?

I'm not sure.


The racial preferences debate related to admission to US colleges and universities reflects competing notions of the mission of colleges: "To what extent should they pursue scholarly excellence, to what extent civic goods, and how should these purposes be balanced?". Scholars such as Ronald Dworkin have asserted that no college applicant has a right to expect that a university will design its admissions policies in a way that prizes any particular set of qualities. In this view, admission is not an honor bestowed to reward superior merit but rather a way to advance the mission as each university defines it. If diversity is a goal of the university and their racial preferences do not discriminate against applicants based on hatred or contempt, then affirmative action can be judged acceptable based on the criteria related to the mission the university sets for itself.

What does the racial preferences debate indicate about universities and colleges?

competing notions of the mission of colleges

What claim did Ronald Dworkin make about the expectations that a college application should not have?

a right to expect that a university will design its admissions policies in a way that prizes any particular set of qualities

What does Ronald Dworkin believe admission should represent?

a way to advance the mission as each university defines it

When can affirmative action be judged to be acceptable in terms of admissions?

If diversity is a goal of the university and their racial preferences do not discriminate

What does the racial preferences debate not indicate about universities and colleges?

I'm not sure.

What claim did Ronald Dworkin make about the expectations that a college application should have?

I'm not sure.

When can affirmative action be judged to be unacceptable in terms of admissions?

I'm not sure.


To accommodate the ruling in Hopwood v. Texas banning any use of race in school admissions, the State of Texas passed a law guaranteeing entry to any state university if a student finished in the top 10% of their graduating class. Florida and California have also replaced racial quotas with class rank and other criteria. Class rank tends to benefit top students at less competitive high schools, to the detriment of students at more competitive high schools. This effect, however, may be intentional since less-funded, less competitive schools are more likely to be schools where minority enrollment is high. Critics argue that class rank is more a measure of one's peers than of one's self. The top 10% rule adds racial diversity only because schools are still highly racially segregated because of residential patterns. The class rank rule has the same consequence as traditional affirmative action: opening schools to students who would otherwise not be admitted had the given school used a holistic, merit-based approach. From 1996 to 1998, Texas had merit-based admission to its state universities, and minority enrollment dropped. The state's adoption of the "top 10 percent" rule returned minority enrollment to pre-1996 levels.

What did the ruling in Hopwood v Texas set a precedent for in terms of admission policies?

banning any use of race in school admissions

What did the law passed by the State of Texas guarantee?

entry to any state university if a student finished in the top 10% of their graduating class

Other than Texas and Florida, which other state replaced racial quotas?

California

What is one example of what racial quotas were replaced with?

class rank

After the state passed the top 10% rule, what happened to minority enrollment?

returned minority enrollment to pre-1996 levels

What didn't the ruling in Hopwood v Texas set a precedent for in terms of admission policies?

I'm not sure.

What did the law passed by the State of Texas not guarantee?

I'm not sure.

Other than Texas and Florida, which other state did not replace racial quotas?

I'm not sure.

What is one example of what racial quotas were not replaced with?

I'm not sure.


During a panel discussion at Harvard University's reunion for African American alumni during the 2003–04 academic year, two prominent black professors at the institution—Lani Guinier and Henry Louis Gates—pointed out an unintended effect of affirmative action policies at Harvard. They stated that only about a third of black Harvard undergraduates were from families in which all four grandparents were born into the African American community. The majority of black students at Harvard were Caribbean and African immigrants or their children, with some others the mixed-race children of biracial couples. One Harvard student, born in the South Bronx to a black family whose ancestors have been in the United States for multiple generations, said that there were so few Harvard students from the historic African American community that they took to calling themselves "the descendants" (i.e., descendants of American slaves). The reasons for this underrepresentation of historic African Americans, and possible remedies, remain a subject of debate.

What was going on at Harvard University during the 2003 - 04 academic year?

a panel discussion

What did two prominent black professors point out at the panel discussion?

an unintended effect of affirmative action policies at Harvard

What portion of black Harvard undergraduates came from families in which all four grandparents were born into the African American community?

a third

What did the African American students at Harvard that could trace their lineage back multiple generations begin calling themselves?

the descendants

Other than the reasons for the under representation of African Americans, what else is still up for debate?

possible remedies

What was going on at Harvard University during the 2007 - 08 academic year?

I'm not sure.

What did two prominent white professors point out at the panel discussion?

I'm not sure.

What portion of black Harvard undergraduates came from families in which all four grandparents were born into the Asian American community?

I'm not sure.

What did the Asian American students at Harvard that could trace their lineage back multiple generations begin calling themselves?

I'm not sure.

Other than the reasons for the under representation of Asian Americans, what else is still up for debate?

I'm not sure.