Chopin's original publishers included Maurice Schlesinger and Camille Pleyel. His works soon began to appear in popular 19th-century piano anthologies. The first collected edition was by Breitkopf & Härtel (1878–1902). Among modern scholarly editions of Chopin's works are the version under the name of Paderewski published between 1937 and 1966 and the more recent Polish "National Edition", edited by Jan Ekier, both of which contain detailed explanations and discussions regarding choices and sources.

Who released the first collection of Chopin's works?

Breitkopf & Härtel

Who edited the Polish "National Edition" of Chopin's works?

Jan Ekier

Maurice Schlesinger and Camille Pleyel were what to Chopin?

original publishers

Where did Chopin's work start t oshow up?

popular 19th-century piano anthologies.

What was the name under scholarly publications of Chopin's work form 1937 to 1966?

Paderewski

Who edited the Polish National Edition?

Jan Ekier


Improvisation stands at the centre of Chopin's creative processes. However, this does not imply impulsive rambling: Nicholas Temperley writes that "improvisation is designed for an audience, and its starting-point is that audience's expectations, which include the current conventions of musical form." The works for piano and orchestra, including the two concertos, are held by Temperley to be "merely vehicles for brilliant piano playing ... formally longwinded and extremely conservative". After the piano concertos (which are both early, dating from 1830), Chopin made no attempts at large-scale multi-movement forms, save for his late sonatas for piano and for cello; "instead he achieved near-perfection in pieces of simple general design but subtle and complex cell-structure." Rosen suggests that an important aspect of Chopin's individuality is his flexible handling of the four-bar phrase as a structural unit.

What is central to Chopin's process?

Improvisation

Rosen suggests that a central part of Chopin's uniqueness is how he handles what?

the four-bar phrase

What is central to Chopin's creativeness?

Improvisation

Who wrote that "improvisation is designed for an audience"?

Nicholas Temperley

What did Rosen suggest was important about chopin's personality?

his flexible handling of the four-bar phrase as a structural unit.


J. Barrie Jones suggests that "amongst the works that Chopin intended for concert use, the four ballades and four scherzos stand supreme", and adds that "the Barcarolle Op. 60 stands apart as an example of Chopin's rich harmonic palette coupled with an Italianate warmth of melody." Temperley opines that these works, which contain "immense variety of mood, thematic material and structural detail", are based on an extended "departure and return" form; "the more the middle section is extended, and the further it departs in key, mood and theme, from the opening idea, the more important and dramatic is the reprise when it at last comes."

What piece does J. Barrie Jones pinpoint as a great example of Chopin's palette?

the Barcarolle Op. 60

What does J. Barrie Jones feel stands supreme of Chopin's concert pieces?

the four ballades and four scherzos

What form does Temperley feel that Chopin's ballades and scherzos are based on?

departure and return


Chopin's mazurkas and waltzes are all in straightforward ternary or episodic form, sometimes with a coda. The mazurkas often show more folk features than many of his other works, sometimes including modal scales and harmonies and the use of drone basses. However, some also show unusual sophistication, for example Op. 63 No. 3, which includes a canon at one beat's distance, a great rarity in music.

Chopin's mazurkas contain more of what than his other compositions?

folk features

What form are Chopin's mazurkas and waltzes in?

straightforward ternary or episodic form, sometimes with a coda.

Which of Chopin's works shows more folk aspects?

mazurkas

What type of bass do Chopin's mazurkas exhibit?

drone bass

What does Chopin's Op. 63 No. 3 have that is rare?

a canon at one beat's distance


Chopin's polonaises show a marked advance on those of his Polish predecessors in the form (who included his teachers Zywny and Elsner). As with the traditional polonaise, Chopin's works are in triple time and typically display a martial rhythm in their melodies, accompaniments and cadences. Unlike most of their precursors, they also require a formidable playing technique.

What time are Chopin's polonaises written in?

triple time

Chopin's ability to create an advanced polonasises surpassed even two of his teachers, Zywny and who?

Elsner

Chopin's polonaise often have what kind of rhythm in their melodies?

martial

Chopin's polonaises needed what kind of playing technique?

formidable


The 21 nocturnes are more structured, and of greater emotional depth, than those of Field (whom Chopin met in 1833). Many of the Chopin nocturnes have middle sections marked by agitated expression (and often making very difficult demands on the performer) which heightens their dramatic character.

How many nocturnes did Chopin compose?

What is it about the middle of Chopin's nocturnes that increases their drama?

agitated expression

Chopin's nocturnes were more structured than who?

Field

What year did Chopin meet Field?

Which type of Chopin's compositons were difficult for perfomers due to their middle sections?

nocturnes


Chopin's études are largely in straightforward ternary form. He used them to teach his own technique of piano playing—for instance playing double thirds (Op. 25, No. 6), playing in octaves (Op. 25, No. 10), and playing repeated notes (Op. 10, No.  7).

What pieces of his did Chopin use to teach his technique?

études

What form are most of Chopin's études in?

straightforward ternary

Chopin often taught his piano technique using what form of music he wrote?

études


The preludes, many of which are very brief (some consisting of simple statements and developments of a single theme or figure), were described by Schumann as "the beginnings of studies". Inspired by J.S. Bach's The Well-Tempered Clavier, Chopin's preludes move up the circle of fifths (rather than Bach's chromatic scale sequence) to create a prelude in each major and minor tonality. The preludes were perhaps not intended to be played as a group, and may even have been used by him and later pianists as generic preludes to others of his pieces, or even to music by other composers, as Kenneth Hamilton suggests: he has noted a recording by Ferruccio Busoni of 1922, in which the Prelude Op. 28 No. 7 is followed by the Étude Op. 10 No. 5.

What piece of Bach's did Chopin take inspiration for his preludes?

The Well-Tempered Clavier

Who suggested that Chopin's preludes were not intended to be played as a group?

Kenneth Hamilton

What was described as "the beginning of studies" by Schumann?

The preludes

What inspired Chopin for his preludes?

J.S. Bach's The Well-Tempered Clavier

Kenneth Hamilton suggests that the preludes may not have been meant as a group but rather as what?

generic preludes to others of his pieces

Who did a recording where Étude Op. 10 No. 5. follows relude Op. 28 No. 7?

Ferruccio Busoni


The two mature piano sonatas (No. 2, Op. 35, written in 1839 and No. 3, Op. 58, written in 1844) are in four movements. In Op. 35, Chopin was able to combine within a formal large musical structure many elements of his virtuosic piano technique—"a kind of dialogue between the public pianism of the brilliant style and the German sonata principle". The last movement, a brief (75-bar) perpetuum mobile in which the hands play in unmodified octave unison throughout, was found shocking and unmusical by contemporaries, including Schumann. The Op. 58 sonata is closer to the German tradition, including many passages of complex counterpoint, "worthy of Brahms" according to the music historians Kornel Michałowski and Jim Samson.

How many movements are No. 2, Op. 35 and No. 3, Op 58 in?

four

What two people claimed that Op 58 was "worthy of Brahms"?

Kornel Michałowski and Jim Samson

How many movements are in No. 2, Op. 35 and No. 3, Op 58?

four

Which movement was found lacking in musicality by Schumann?

The last movement

According to music historians, which sonata is similar to German tradition and worthy of Brahms?

Op. 58


Chopin's harmonic innovations may have arisen partly from his keyboard improvisation technique. Temperley says that in his works "novel harmonic effects frequently result from the combination of ordinary appoggiaturas or passing notes with melodic figures of accompaniment", and cadences are delayed by the use of chords outside the home key (neapolitan sixths and diminished sevenths), or by sudden shifts to remote keys. Chord progressions sometimes anticipate the shifting tonality of later composers such as Claude Debussy, as does Chopin's use of modal harmony.

Chopin's chord progressions are similar in style to what other composer?

Claude Debussy

What likely arose due to Chopin's technique with keyboards?

harmonic innovations

Who wrote about Chopin's "novel harmonic effects"?

Temperley


In 1841, Léon Escudier wrote of a recital given by Chopin that year, "One may say that Chopin is the creator of a school of piano and a school of composition. In truth, nothing equals the lightness, the sweetness with which the composer preludes on the piano; moreover nothing may be compared to his works full of originality, distinction and grace." Chopin refused to conform to a standard method of playing and believed that there was no set technique for playing well. His style was based extensively on his use of very independent finger technique. In his Projet de méthode he wrote: "Everything is a matter of knowing good fingering ... we need no less to use the rest of the hand, the wrist, the forearm and the upper arm." He further stated: "One needs only to study a certain position of the hand in relation to the keys to obtain with ease the most beautiful quality of sound, to know how to play short notes and long notes, and [to attain] unlimited dexterity." The consequences of this approach to technique in Chopin's music include the frequent use of the entire range of the keyboard, passages in double octaves and other chord groupings, swiftly repeated notes, the use of grace notes, and the use of contrasting rhythms (four against three, for example) between the hands.

What was Chopin's style based upon?

independent finger technique

Who wrote about a Chopin 1841 recital?

Léon Escudier

What writing of Chopin talks about everything about piano playing has to do with proper fingering?

his Projet de méthode


Polish composers of the following generation included virtuosi such as Moritz Moszkowski, but, in the opinion of J. Barrie Jones, his "one worthy successor" among his compatriots was Karol Szymanowski (1882–1937). Edvard Grieg, Antonín Dvořák, Isaac Albéniz, Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky and Sergei Rachmaninoff, among others, are regarded by critics as having been influenced by Chopin's use of national modes and idioms. Alexander Scriabin was devoted to the music of Chopin, and his early published works include nineteen mazurkas, as well as numerous études and preludes; his teacher Nikolai Zverev drilled him in Chopin's works to improve his virtuosity as a performer. In the 20th century, composers who paid homage to (or in some cases parodied) the music of Chopin included George Crumb, Bohuslav Martinů, Darius Milhaud, Igor Stravinsky and Heitor Villa-Lobos.

According to J. Barrie Jones who was the only true successor to Chopin?

Karol Szymanowski

Many people were considered influenced by Chopin's what?

national modes and idioms

Who was Alexander Scriabin's teacher?

Nikolai Zverev

Who was Chopin's worthy successor according to Jones?

Karol Szymanowski

Who was devoted to the music of Chopin?

Alexander Scriabin

Who was Alexander Scriabin's teacher?

Nikolai Zverev


Jonathan Bellman writes that modern concert performance style—set in the "conservatory" tradition of late 19th- and 20th-century music schools, and suitable for large auditoria or recordings—militates against what is known of Chopin's more intimate performance technique. The composer himself said to a pupil that "concerts are never real music, you have to give up the idea of hearing in them all the most beautiful things of art." Contemporary accounts indicate that in performance, Chopin avoided rigid procedures sometimes incorrectly attributed to him, such as "always crescendo to a high note", but that he was concerned with expressive phrasing, rhythmic consistency and sensitive colouring. Berlioz wrote in 1853 that Chopin "has created a kind of chromatic embroidery ... whose effect is so strange and piquant as to be impossible to describe ... virtually nobody but Chopin himself can play this music and give it this unusual turn". Hiller wrote that "What in the hands of others was elegant embellishment, in his hands became a colourful wreath of flowers."

Who wrote that the current large concert style conflicts with Chopin's preference of intimate performances?

Jonathan Bellman

What did Chopin tend to avoid?

rigid procedures

What has been falsely credited to Chopin?

"always crescendo to a high note"

What did Chopin tell a student is given up in concerts?

hearing in them all the most beautiful things of art

Who wrote about Chopin's "chromatic embroidery"?

Berlioz

Who wrote that Chopin's music, when played by him, became a "colorful wreath of flowers"?

Hiller


Chopin's music is frequently played with rubato, "the practice in performance of disregarding strict time, 'robbing' some note-values for expressive effect". There are differing opinions as to how much, and what type, of rubato is appropriate for his works. Charles Rosen comments that "most of the written-out indications of rubato in Chopin are to be found in his mazurkas ... It is probable that Chopin used the older form of rubato so important to Mozart ... [where] the melody note in the right hand is delayed until after the note in the bass ... An allied form of this rubato is the arpeggiation of the chords thereby delaying the melody note; according to Chopin's pupil, Karol Mikuli, Chopin was firmly opposed to this practice."

Chopin's compositions are often played with what?

rubato

What does rubato mean?

the practice in performance of disregarding strict time

In Chopin's music where strict timing is disregarded, what is it called?

rubato

What type of Chopin's music had the most disregard for strict timing according to Charles Rosen?

mazurkas


Friederike Müller, a pupil of Chopin, wrote: "[His] playing was always noble and beautiful; his tones sang, whether in full forte or softest piano. He took infinite pains to teach his pupils this legato, cantabile style of playing. His most severe criticism was 'He—or she—does not know how to join two notes together.' He also demanded the strictest adherence to rhythm. He hated all lingering and dragging, misplaced rubatos, as well as exaggerated ritardandos ... and it is precisely in this respect that people make such terrible errors in playing his works."

According to who did Chopin demand strictly sticking with rhythm?

Friederike Müller

Which student said Chopin made sure his students knew his legato, cantabile style of playing?

Friederike Müller

According to Friederike Müller, Chopin insisted his students have the strictest adherence to what?

rhythm.


With his mazurkas and polonaises, Chopin has been credited with introducing to music a new sense of nationalism. Schumann, in his 1836 review of the piano concertos, highlighted the composer's strong feelings for his native Poland, writing that "Now that the Poles are in deep mourning [after the failure of the November 1830 rising], their appeal to us artists is even stronger ... If the mighty autocrat in the north [i.e. Nicholas I of Russia] could know that in Chopin's works, in the simple strains of his mazurkas, there lurks a dangerous enemy, he would place a ban on his music. Chopin's works are cannon buried in flowers!" The biography of Chopin published in 1863 under the name of Franz Liszt (but probably written by Carolyne zu Sayn-Wittgenstein) claims that Chopin "must be ranked first among the first musicians ... individualizing in themselves the poetic sense of an entire nation."

Chopin was noted as introducing music to what?

sense of nationalism

What year did Schumann review Chopin's piano concertos?

In his review Schumann made note of Chopin's emotions for what?

Poland

Why did Schumann say the Poles were in mourning?

the failure of the November 1830

A biography on Chopin released under Franz Liszt's name was likely written by who?

Carolyne zu Sayn-Wittgenstein

Chopin was able to bring about a new sense of nationalism with his music because of his mazurkas and what?

polonaises

Who wrote a glowing review of Chopin's love for his country through his music in 1836?

Schumann

Schumann described Chopin's music as cannons buried in what?

flowers

Though Franz Liszt is credited with Chopin's 1863 biography, who probably actually wrote it?

Carolyne zu Sayn-Wittgenstein


Some modern commentators have argued against exaggerating Chopin's primacy as a "nationalist" or "patriotic" composer. George Golos refers to earlier "nationalist" composers in Central Europe, including Poland's Michał Kleofas Ogiński and Franciszek Lessel, who utilised polonaise and mazurka forms. Barbara Milewski suggests that Chopin's experience of Polish music came more from "urbanised" Warsaw versions than from folk music, and that attempts (by Jachimecki and others) to demonstrate genuine folk music in his works are without basis. Richard Taruskin impugns Schumann's attitude toward Chopin's works as patronizing and comments that Chopin "felt his Polish patriotism deeply and sincerely" but consciously modelled his works on the tradition of Bach, Beethoven, Schubert and Field.

Who said that Chopin's familiarity with Polish music was more "urbanised"  than true folk music?

Barbara Milewski

George Golos references what two musicians when claiming Chopin's nationalism was overrated?

Michał Kleofas Ogiński and Franciszek Lessel

Who said Chopin's works were modeled after Bach, Beethoven, Schubert and Field?

Richard Taruskin


A reconciliation of these views is suggested by William Atwood: "Undoubtedly [Chopin's] use of traditional musical forms like the polonaise and mazurka roused nationalistic sentiments and a sense of cohesiveness amongst those Poles scattered across Europe and the New World ... While some sought solace in [them], others found them a source of strength in their continuing struggle for freedom. Although Chopin's music undoubtedly came to him intuitively rather than through any conscious patriotic design, it served all the same to symbolize the will of the Polish people ..."

William Atwood suggested that Chopin's music wasn't purposely patriotic but what?

intuitive

A modern commentator, William Atwood, feels Poles not only sought solace in Chopin's music but also found them a source of strength as they continued to fight for what?

freedom

Where were Poles scattered to?

Europe and the New World


Jones comments that "Chopin's unique position as a composer, despite the fact that virtually everything he wrote was for the piano, has rarely been questioned." He also notes that Chopin was fortunate to arrive in Paris in 1831—"the artistic environment, the publishers who were willing to print his music, the wealthy and aristocratic who paid what Chopin asked for their lessons"—and these factors, as well as his musical genius, also fuelled his contemporary and later reputation. While his illness and his love-affairs conform to some of the stereotypes of romanticism, the rarity of his public recitals (as opposed to performances at fashionable Paris soirées) led Arthur Hutchings to suggest that "his lack of Byronic flamboyance [and] his aristocratic reclusiveness make him exceptional" among his romantic contemporaries, such as Liszt and Henri Herz.

Arthur Hutchings stated that Chopin's lack of what made him special?

Byronic flamboyance

Who were two of Chopin's contemporaries?

Liszt and Henri Herz

What place was considered lucky for Chopin to have arrived at considering how much he charged for piano lessons?

Paris

Who said Chopin was unlike his romantic contemporaries Liszt and Henri Herz?

Arthur Hutchings


Chopin's qualities as a pianist and composer were recognized by many of his fellow musicians. Schumann named a piece for him in his suite Carnaval, and Chopin later dedicated his Ballade No. 2 in F major to Schumann. Elements of Chopin's music can be traced in many of Liszt's later works. Liszt later transcribed for piano six of Chopin's Polish songs. A less fraught friendship was with Alkan, with whom he discussed elements of folk music, and who was deeply affected by Chopin's death.

In what suite did Schumann name a work for Chopin?

Carnaval

What piece of Chopin's work was dedicated to Schumann?

Ballade No. 2 in F major

How many of Chopin's Polish songs did Liszt transliterate for piano?

six

With who did Chopin feel comfortable speaking of folk music with?

Alkan

What was recognized about Chopin from his musical peers?

qualities as a pianist and composer

What Schumann suite contained the name of a piece Schumann named for Chopin?

Carnaval

What piece did Chopin dedicate to Schumann?

Ballade No. 2 in F major

What other musician shows to have elements of Chopin in his work?

Liszt


Two of Chopin's long-standing pupils, Karol Mikuli (1821–1897) and Georges Mathias, were themselves piano teachers and passed on details of his playing to their own students, some of whom (such as Raoul Koczalski) were to make recordings of his music. Other pianists and composers influenced by Chopin's style include Louis Moreau Gottschalk, Édouard Wolff (1816–1880) and Pierre Zimmermann. Debussy dedicated his own 1915 piano Études to the memory of Chopin; he frequently played Chopin's music during his studies at the Paris Conservatoire, and undertook the editing of Chopin's piano music for the publisher Jacques Durand.

Who dedicated his 1915 piano Études to Chopin?

Debussy

For what publisher to Debussy edit Chopin's music for?

Jacques Durand

Who was a student of Chopin's former students and actually recorded some Chopin music?

Raoul Koczalski

What music did Debussy play a lot at the Paris Conservatoire?

Chopin's


The exact nature of relations between Tibet and the Ming dynasty of China (1368–1644) is unclear. Analysis of the relationship is further complicated by modern political conflicts and the application of Westphalian sovereignty to a time when the concept did not exist. Some Mainland Chinese scholars, such as Wang Jiawei and Nyima Gyaincain, assert that the Ming dynasty had unquestioned sovereignty over Tibet, pointing to the Ming court's issuing of various titles to Tibetan leaders, Tibetans' full acceptance of these titles, and a renewal process for successors of these titles that involved traveling to the Ming capital. Scholars within China also argue that Tibet has been an integral part of China since the 13th century and that it was thus a part of the Ming Empire. But most scholars outside China, such as Turrell V. Wylie, Melvin C. Goldstein, and Helmut Hoffman, say that the relationship was one of suzerainty, that Ming titles were only nominal, that Tibet remained an independent region outside Ming control, and that it simply paid tribute until the Jiajing Emperor (1521–1566), who ceased relations with Tibet.

Who were Wang Jiawei and Nyima Gyaincain?

Mainland Chinese scholars


Some scholars note that Tibetan leaders during the Ming frequently engaged in civil war and conducted their own foreign diplomacy with neighboring states such as Nepal. Some scholars underscore the commercial aspect of the Ming-Tibetan relationship, noting the Ming dynasty's shortage of horses for warfare and thus the importance of the horse trade with Tibet. Others argue that the significant religious nature of the relationship of the Ming court with Tibetan lamas is underrepresented in modern scholarship. In hopes of reviving the unique relationship of the earlier Mongol leader Kublai Khan (r. 1260–1294) and his spiritual superior Drogön Chögyal Phagpa (1235–1280) of the Sakya school of Tibetan Buddhism, the Yongle Emperor (r. 1402–1424) made a concerted effort to build a secular and religious alliance with Deshin Shekpa (1384–1415), the Karmapa of the Karma Kagyu school. However, the Yongle Emperor's attempts were unsuccessful.

What important trade did the Ming Dynasty have with Tibet?

horse trade

During what years did the Mongol leader Kublai Khan rule?

Who did the Yongle Emperor try to build a religious alliance with?

Deshin Shekpa

Deshin Shekpa was the head of what school?

the Karma Kagyu school

The Tibetan leaders had a diplomacy with what neighboring state?

Nepal


The Ming initiated sporadic armed intervention in Tibet during the 14th century, but did not garrison permanent troops there. At times the Tibetans also used armed resistance against Ming forays. The Wanli Emperor (r. 1572–1620) made attempts to reestablish Sino-Tibetan relations after the Mongol-Tibetan alliance initiated in 1578, which affected the foreign policy of the subsequent Qing dynasty (1644–1912) of China in their support for the Dalai Lama of the Gelug school. By the late 16th century, the Mongols were successful armed protectors of the Gelug Dalai Lama, after increasing their presence in the Amdo region. This culminated in Güshi Khan's (1582–1655) conquest of Tibet from 1637–1642 and the establishment of the Ganden Phodrang regime by the 5th Dalai Lama with his help.

What did the Tibetans use against Ming forays?

armed resistance

Who were the armed protectors for the Gelug Dalai Lama?

the Mongols

Which regime did Güshi Khan help establish?

the Ganden Phodrang

When was the Mongol-Tibetan alliance started?


Tibet was once a strong power contemporaneous with Tang China (618–907). Until the Tibetan Empire's collapse in the 9th century, it was the Tang's major rival in dominating Inner Asia. The Yarlung rulers of Tibet also signed various peace treaties with the Tang, culminating in a treaty in 821 that fixed the borders between Tibet and China.

In what century did the Tibetan Empire fall?

the 9th century

Who signed multiple peace treaties with the Tang?

The Yarlung rulers of Tibet

What did one of the treaties between the Tang and Tibet help fix?

the borders between Tibet and China

Who was the Tangs biggest rival?

Tibet

What year did Tang and Tibet sign a treaty to fix the borders?


During the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period of China (907–960), while the fractured political realm of China saw no threat in a Tibet which was in just as much political disarray, there was little in the way of Sino-Tibetan relations. Few documents involving Sino-Tibetan contacts survive from the Song dynasty (960–1279). The Song were far more concerned with countering northern enemy states of the Khitan-ruled Liao dynasty (907–1125) and Jurchen-ruled Jin dynasty (1115–1234).

When did the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period of China take place?

When did the Song dynasty take place?

What dynasty was concerned with countering northern enemy states?

Song dynasty

Who ruled the Liao dynasty?

the Khitan

Who ruled the  Jin dynasty?

Jurchen


In 1207, the Mongol ruler Genghis Khan (r. 1206–1227) conquered and subjugated the ethnic Tangut state of the Western Xia (1038–1227). In the same year, he established diplomatic relations with Tibet by sending envoys there. The conquest of the Western Xia alarmed Tibetan rulers, who decided to pay tribute to the Mongols. However, when they ceased to pay tribute after Genghis Khan's death, his successor Ögedei Khan (r. 1229–1241) launched an invasion into Tibet.

Which ruler took Western Xia under their control?

Genghis Khan

Who was Genghis Khan's successor?

Ögedei Khan

What years did Ögedei Khan rule?

Who invaded Tibet?

Ögedei Khan


The Mongol prince Godan, a grandson of Genghis Khan, raided as far as Lhasa. During his attack in 1240, Prince Godan summoned Sakya Pandita (1182–1251), leader of the Sakya school of Tibetan Buddhism, to his court in what is now Gansu in Western China. With Sakya Pandita's submission to Godan in 1247, Tibet was officially incorporated into the Mongol Empire during the regency of Töregene Khatun (1241–1246). Michael C. van Walt van Praag writes that Godan granted Sakya Pandita temporal authority over a still politically fragmented Tibet, stating that "this investiture had little real impact" but it was significant in that it established the unique "Priest-Patron" relationship between the Mongols and the Sakya lamas.

Who was the Mongol prince?

Godan

Who was the leader of the Sakya school of Tibetan Buddhism?

Sakya Pandita

Who was the regent of the Mongol Empire?

Töregene Khatun

In what years was Töregene Khatun the regent of the Mongol Empire?


Starting in 1236, the Mongol prince Kublai, who later ruled as Khagan from 1260–1294, was granted a large appanage in North China by his superior, Ögedei Khan. Karma Pakshi, 2nd Karmapa Lama (1203–1283)—the head lama of the Karma Kagyu lineage of Tibetan Buddhism—rejected Kublai's invitation, so instead Kublai invited Drogön Chögyal Phagpa (1235–1280), successor and nephew of Sakya Pandita, who came to his court in 1253. Kublai instituted a unique relationship with the Phagpa lama, which recognized Kublai as a superior sovereign in political affairs and the Phagpa lama as the senior instructor to Kublai in religious affairs. Kublai also made Drogön Chögyal Phagpa the director of the government agency known as the Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs and the ruling priest-king of Tibet, which comprised thirteen different states ruled by myriarchies.

How many states were ruled by myriarchies?

thirteen

What title did prince Kublai rule as from 1260 to 1294?

Khagan

Who was the superior of prince Kublai?

Ögedei Khan

Who became the second Karmapa Lama?

Karma Pakshi

With whom did Kublai Khan have a unique relationship with?

the Phagpa lama


Kublai Khan did not conquer the Song dynasty in South China until 1279, so Tibet was a component of the early Mongol Empire before it was combined into one of its descendant empires with the whole of China under the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368). Van Praag writes that this conquest "marked the end of independent China," which was then incorporated into the Yuan dynasty that ruled China, Tibet, Mongolia, Korea, parts of Siberia and Upper Burma. Morris Rossabi, a professor of Asian history at Queens College, City University of New York, writes that "Khubilai wished to be perceived both as the legitimate Khan of Khans of the Mongols and as the Emperor of China. Though he had, by the early 1260s, become closely identified with China, he still, for a time, claimed universal rule", and yet "despite his successes in China and Korea, Khubilai was unable to have himself accepted as the Great Khan". Thus, with such limited acceptance of his position as Great Khan, Kublai Khan increasingly became identified with China and sought support as Emperor of China.

When did Kublai Khan conquer the song dynasty?

When did the Yuan dynasty rule?

Which dynasty ruled all of china?

the Yuan dynasty

What did Khubilai claim for a while?

universal rule

Where did Khubilai seek support as Emperor?

China


In 1358, the Sakya viceregal regime installed by the Mongols in Tibet was overthrown in a rebellion by the Phagmodru myriarch Tai Situ Changchub Gyaltsen (1302–1364). The Mongol Yuan court was forced to accept him as the new viceroy, and Changchub Gyaltsen and his successors, the Phagmodrupa Dynasty, gained de facto rule over Tibet.

What year was the Sakya viceregal regime eradicated?

Who placed the Sakya viceregal regime position of authority?

the Mongols in Tibet

Who eradicated the Sakya viceregal regime?

the Phagmodru myriarch Tai Situ Changchub Gyaltsen

Which dynasty became ruler of Tibet?

the Phagmodrupa Dynasty


In 1368, a Han Chinese revolt known as the Red Turban Rebellion toppled the Mongol Yuan dynasty in China. Zhu Yuanzhang then established the Ming dynasty, ruling as the Hongwu Emperor (r. 1368–1398). It is not clear how much the early Ming court understood the civil war going on in Tibet between rival religious sects, but the first emperor was anxious to avoid the same trouble that Tibet had caused for the Tang dynasty. Instead of recognizing the Phagmodru ruler, the Hongwu Emperor sided with the Karmapa of the nearer Kham region and southeastern Tibet, sending envoys out in the winter of 1372–1373 to ask the Yuan officeholders to renew their titles for the new Ming court.

Who created the Ming Dynasty?

Zhu Yuanzhang

Who caused the Yuan dynasty to fall?

the Red Turban Rebellion

Who ruled as the the Hongwu Emperor?

Zhu Yuanzhang

What years did Zhu Yuanzhang rule as the Hongwu Emperor?

Who did the Hongwu Emperor send convoys to?

Yuan officeholders


As evident in his imperial edicts, the Hongwu Emperor was well aware of the Buddhist link between Tibet and China and wanted to foster it. Rolpe Dorje, 4th Karmapa Lama (1340–1383) rejected the Hongwu Emperor's invitation, although he did send some disciples as envoys to the court in Nanjing. The Hongwu Emperor also entrusted his guru Zongluo, one of many Buddhist monks at court, to head a religious mission into Tibet in 1378–1382 in order to obtain Buddhist texts.

Who was the fourth Karmapa Lama?

Rolpe Dorje

Who rejected an invitation by the Hongwu Emperor?

Rolpe Dorje

What did the the Hongwu Emperor want to continue to promote?

the Buddhist link between Tibet and China

Who did Rolpe Dorje send as envoys to court in Nanjing?

disciples


However, the early Ming government enacted a law, later rescinded, which forbade Han Chinese to learn the tenets of Tibetan Buddhism. There is little detailed evidence of Chinese—especially lay Chinese—studying Tibetan Buddhism until the Republican era (1912–1949). Despite these missions on behalf of the Hongwu Emperor, Morris Rossabi writes that the Yongle Emperor (r. 1402–1424) "was the first Ming ruler actively to seek an extension of relations with Tibet."

Who created a law that did not allow Han Chinese to learn the beliefs of Tibetan Buddhism?

Ming government

What years did the Yongle Emperor reign?

Who worked towards obtaining a extension of relations with Tibet?

the Yongle Emperor


According to the official Twenty-Four Histories, the History of Ming compiled in 1739 by the subsequent Qing dynasty (1644–1912), the Ming dynasty established the "É-Lì-Sī Army-Civilian Marshal Office" (Chinese: 俄力思軍民元帥府) in western Tibet and installed the "Ü-Tsang Itinerant High Commandery" and "Amdo-Kham Itinerant High Commandery" to administer Kham. The Mingshi states that administrative offices were set up under these high commanderies, including one Itinerant Commandery, three Pacification Commissioner's Offices, six Expedition Commissioner's Offices, four Wanhu offices (myriarchies, in command of 10,000 households each) and seventeen Qianhu offices (chiliarchies, each in command of 1,000 households).

What years did the Qing dynasty rule?

what year was the history of Ming produced?

What did the Ming dynasty create?

É-Lì-Sī Army-Civilian Marshal Office

How many Qianhu offices were there?

seventeen Qianhu offices

where was the É-Lì-Sī Army-Civilian Marshal Office established?

western Tibet


The Ming court appointed three Princes of Dharma (法王) and five Princes (王), and granted many other titles, such as Grand State Tutors (大國師) and State Tutors (國師), to the important schools of Tibetan Buddhism, including the Karma Kagyu, Sakya, and Gelug. According to Wang Jiawei and Nyima Gyaincain, leading officials of these organs were all appointed by the central government and were subject to the rule of law. Yet Van Praag describes the distinct and long-lasting Tibetan law code established by the Phagmodru ruler Tai Situ Changchub Gyaltsen as one of many reforms to revive old Imperial Tibetan traditions.

How many princes of Dharma were assigned by the Ming court?

three

Who established the Tibetan law code?

Tai Situ Changchub Gyaltsen

Who was the Phagmodru ruler?

Tai Situ Changchub Gyaltsen


The late Turrell V. Wylie, a former professor of the University of Washington, and Li Tieh-tseng argue that the reliability of the heavily censored History of Ming as a credible source on Sino-Tibetan relations is questionable, in the light of modern scholarship. Other historians also assert that these Ming titles were nominal and did not actually confer the authority that the earlier Yuan titles had. Van Praag writes that the "numerous economically motivated Tibetan missions to the Ming Court are referred to as 'tributary missions' in the Ming Shih." Van Praag writes that these "tributary missions" were simply prompted by China's need for horses from Tibet, since a viable horse market in Mongol lands was closed as a result of incessant conflict. Morris Rossabi also writes that "Tibet, which had extensive contacts with China during the Yuan, scarcely had diplomatic relations with the Ming."

who was a professor of the University of Washington?

Turrell V. Wylie

Who had a large amount of contacts with china during Yuan?

Tibet

Who believed that Tibet barely had any diplomatic relations with the Ming?

Morris Rossabi


Historians disagree on what the relationship was between the Ming court and Tibet and whether or not Ming China had sovereignty over Tibet. Van Praag writes that Chinese court historians viewed Tibet as an independent foreign tributary and had little interest in Tibet besides a lama-patron relationship. The historian Tsepon W. D. Shakabpa supports van Praag's position. However, Wang Jiawei and Nyima Gyaincain state that these assertions by van Praag and Shakabpa are "fallacies".

Who supported van Praag's beliefs?

historian Tsepon W. D. Shakabpa

Who did not agree with van Praag and Shakabpa?

Wang Jiawei and Nyima Gyaincain


Wang and Nyima argue that the Ming emperor sent edicts to Tibet twice in the second year of the Ming dynasty, and demonstrated that he viewed Tibet as a significant region to pacify by urging various Tibetan tribes to submit to the authority of the Ming court. They note that at the same time, the Mongol Prince Punala, who had inherited his position as ruler of areas of Tibet, went to Nanjing in 1371 to pay tribute and show his allegiance to the Ming court, bringing with him the seal of authority issued by the Yuan court. They also state that since successors of lamas granted the title of "prince" had to travel to the Ming court to renew this title, and since lamas called themselves princes, the Ming court therefore had "full sovereignty over Tibet." They state that the Ming dynasty, by issuing imperial edicts to invite ex-Yuan officials to the court for official positions in the early years of its founding, won submission from ex-Yuan religious and administrative leaders in the Tibetan areas, and thereby incorporated Tibetan areas into the rule of the Ming court. Thus, they conclude, the Ming court won the power to rule Tibetan areas formerly under the rule of the Yuan dynasty.

Who believed that the Ming court had full sovereignty over Tibet?

Wang and Nyima

What year did Wang and Nyima believe that the Mongol Prince Punala went to Nanjing?

What did the lamas called themselves?

princes

What edicts did the Ming issue?

imperial edicts


Journalist and author Thomas Laird, in his book The Story of Tibet: Conversations with the Dalai Lama, writes that Wang and Nyima present the government viewpoint of the People's Republic of China in their Historical Status of China's Tibet, and fail to realize that China was "absorbed into a larger, non-Chinese political unit" during the Mongol Yuan dynasty, which Wang and Nyima paint as a characteristic Chinese dynasty succeeded by the Ming. Laird asserts that the ruling Mongol khans never administered Tibet as part of China and instead ruled them as separate territories, comparing the Mongols with the British who colonized India and New Zealand, yet stating this does not make India part of New Zealand as a consequence. Of later Mongol and Tibetan accounts interpreting the Mongol conquest of Tibet, Laird asserts that "they, like all non-Chinese historical narratives, never portray the Mongol subjugation of Tibet as a Chinese one."

Who wrote the book The Story of Tibet?

Journalist and author Thomas Laird

who colonized India and New Zealand?

the British

Who's viewpoint does Thomas Laird believe Wang and Nyima present?

the government viewpoint of the People's Republic of China


The Columbia Encyclopedia distinguishes between the Yuan dynasty and the other Mongol Empire khanates of Ilkhanate, Chagatai Khanate and the Golden Horde. It describes the Yuan dynasty as "A Mongol dynasty of China that ruled from 1271 to 1368, and a division of the great empire conquered by the Mongols. Founded by Kublai Khan, who adopted the Chinese dynastic name of Yüan in 1271." The Encyclopedia Americana describes the Yuan dynasty as "the line of Mongol rulers in China" and adds that the Mongols "proclaimed a Chinese-style Yüan dynasty at Khanbaliq (Beijing)." The Metropolitan Museum of Art writes that the Mongol rulers of the Yuan dynasty "adopted Chinese political and cultural models; ruling from their capitals in Dadu, they assumed the role of Chinese emperors," although Tibetologist Thomas Laird dismissed the Yuan dynasty as a non-Chinese polity and plays down its Chinese characteristics. The Metropolitan Museum of Art also noted that in spite of the gradual assimilation of Yuan monarchs, the Mongol rulers largely ignored the literati and imposed harsh policies discriminating against southern Chinese. In his Kublai Khan: His Life and Times, Rossabi explains that Kublai "created government institutions that either resembled or were the same as the traditional Chinese ones", and he "wished to signal to the Chinese that he intended to adopt the trappings and style of a Chinese ruler".

How did the The Columbia Encyclopedia describe the Yuan dynasty?

A Mongol dynasty of China

How did the Encyclopedia Americana describe the Yuan Dynasty?

the line of Mongol rulers in China

What did Thomas Laird dismiss the Yuan dynasty as?

a non-Chinese polity

Who wrote the book Khubilai Khan?

Rossabi

When did the yuan dynasty start and end?

1271 to 1368


Nevertheless, the ethno-geographic caste hierarchy favoring the Mongols and other ethnicities were accorded higher status than the Han Chinese majority. Although Han Chinese who were recruited as advisers were often actually more influential than high officials, their status was not as well defined. Kublai also abolished the imperial examinations of China's civil service legacy, which was not reinstated until Ayurbarwada Buyantu Khan's reign (1311–1320). Rossabi writes that Kublai recognized that in order to rule China, "he had to employ Chinese advisors and officials, yet he could not rely totally on Chinese advisers because he had to maintain a delicate balancing act between ruling the sedentary civilization of China and preserving the cultural identity and values of the Mongols." And "in governing China, he was concerned with the interests of his Chinese subjects, but also with exploiting the resources of the empire for his own aggrandizement. His motivations and objectives alternated from one to the other throughout his reign," according to Rossabi. Van Praag writes in The Status of Tibet that the Tibetans and Mongols, on the other hand, upheld a dual system of rule and an interdependent relationship that legitimated the succession of Mongol khans as universal Buddhist rulers, or chakravartin. Van Praag writes that "Tibet remained a unique part of the Empire and was never fully integrated into it," citing examples such as a licensed border market that existed between China and Tibet during the Yuan.

When did Ayurbarwada Buyantu Khan reign?

During the Yuan what existed between China and Tibet?

a licensed border market

Who was granted higher status than the Han Chinese majority?

the Mongols and other ethnicities


The official position of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China is that the Ming implemented a policy of managing Tibet according to conventions and customs, granting titles and setting up administrative organs over Tibet. The State Council Information Office of the People's Republic states that the Ming dynasty's Ü-Tsang Commanding Office governed most areas of Tibet. It also states that while the Ming abolished the policy council set up by the Mongol Yuan to manage local affairs in Tibet and the Mongol system of Imperial Tutors to govern religious affairs, the Ming adopted a policy of bestowing titles upon religious leaders who had submitted to the Ming dynasty. For example, an edict of the Hongwu Emperor in 1373 appointed the Tibetan leader Choskunskyabs as the General of the Ngari Military and Civil Wanhu Office, stating:

Who abolished the policy council?

the Ming

What was the Tibetan leader  Choskunskyabs  appointed as?

the General of the Ngari Military and Civil Wanhu Office

Who governed most areas of Tibet?

Ming dynasty's Ü-Tsang Commanding Office


Chen Qingying, Professor of History and Director of the History Studies Institute under the China Tibetology Research Center in Beijing, writes that the Ming court conferred new official positions on ex-Yuan Tibetan leaders of the Phachu Kargyu and granted them lower-ranking positions. Of the county (zong or dzong) leaders of Neiwo Zong and Renbam Zong, Chen states that when "the Emperor learned the actual situation of the Phachu Kargyu, the Ming court then appointed the main Zong leaders to be senior officers of the Senior Command of Dbus and Gtsang." The official posts that the Ming court established in Tibet, such as senior and junior commanders, offices of Qianhu (in charge of 1,000 households), and offices of Wanhu (in charge of 10,000 households), were all hereditary positions according to Chen, but he asserts that "the succession of some important posts still had to be approved by the emperor," while old imperial mandates had to be returned to the Ming court for renewal.

Where is the China Tibetology Research Center located?

Beijing

Who was the Director of the History Studies Institute?

Chen Qingying

How many households were the offices of Qianhu in charge of?

1,000 households

How many households were the offices of Wanhu in charge of?

10,000 households


According to Tibetologist John Powers, Tibetan sources counter this narrative of titles granted by the Chinese to Tibetans with various titles which the Tibetans gave to the Chinese emperors and their officials. Tribute missions from Tibetan monasteries to the Chinese court brought back not only titles, but large, commercially valuable gifts which could subsequently be sold. The Ming emperors sent invitations to ruling lamas, but the lamas sent subordinates rather than coming themselves, and no Tibetan ruler ever explicitly accepted the role of being a vassal of the Ming.

What was the name of the Tibetologist?

John Powers

Who did the Ming emperors send invitations to?

ruling lamas

When the lamas received an invite from the emperors, who did they send instead?

subordinates


Hans Bielenstein writes that as far back as the Han dynasty (202 BCE–220 CE), the Han Chinese government "maintained the fiction" that the foreign officials administering the various "Dependent States" and oasis city-states of the Western Regions (composed of the Tarim Basin and oasis of Turpan) were true Han representatives due to the Han government's conferral of Chinese seals and seal cords to them.

What was the western regions composed of?

the Tarim Basin and oasis of Turpan

Who believed that they were the true Han Western representatives?

foreign officials


Wang and Nyima state that after the official title "Education Minister" was granted to Tai Situ Changchub Gyaltsen (1302–1364) by the Yuan court, this title appeared frequently with his name in various Tibetan texts, while his Tibetan title "Degsi" (sic properly sde-srid or desi) is seldom mentioned. Wang and Nyima take this to mean that "even in the later period of the Yuan dynasty, the Yuan imperial court and the Phagmodrupa Dynasty maintained a Central-local government relation." The Tai Situpa is even supposed to have written in his will: "In the past I received loving care from the emperor in the east. If the emperor continues to care for us, please follow his edicts and the imperial envoy should be well received."

What title was given by the Yuan court to Tai Situ Changchub Gyaltsen ?

Education Minister

What Tibetan title was hardly ever mentioned when referring to Tai Situ Changchub Gyaltsen?

Degsi

What dynasty kept a Central-local government relation with the Yuan imperial court?

Phagmodrupa Dynasty

What two people claim the title of Education Minister was often seen next to Tai Situ Changchub Gyaltsen's name in Tibetan texts?

Wang and Nyima

Who wrote in their will that they received loving care from the emperor in the east?

The Tai Situpa


However, Lok-Ham Chan, a professor of history at the University of Washington, writes that Changchub Gyaltsen's aims were to recreate the old Tibetan Kingdom that existed during the Chinese Tang dynasty, to build "nationalist sentiment" amongst Tibetans, and to "remove all traces of Mongol suzerainty." Georges Dreyfus, a professor of religion at Williams College, writes that it was Changchub Gyaltsen who adopted the old administrative system of Songtsän Gampo (c. 605–649)—the first leader of the Tibetan Empire to establish Tibet as a strong power—by reinstating its legal code of punishments and administrative units. For example, instead of the 13 governorships established by the Mongol Sakya viceroy, Changchub Gyaltsen divided Central Tibet into districts (dzong) with district heads (dzong dpon) who had to conform to old rituals and wear clothing styles of old Imperial Tibet. Van Praag asserts that Changchub Gyaltsen's ambitions were to "restore to Tibet the glories of its Imperial Age" by reinstating secular administration, promoting "national culture and traditions," and installing a law code that survived into the 20th century.

Who divided Central Tibet into districts?

Changchub Gyaltsen

Who strongly believed Changchub Gyaltsen wanted to restore the glories of its Imperial age to Tibet?

Van Praag

What university was Lok-Ham Chan a professor at?

the University of Washington

What did Lok-Ham Chan claim  Changchub Gyaltsen wanted to remove?

all traces of Mongol suzerainty


According to Chen, the Ming officer of Hezhou (modern day Linxia) informed the Hongwu Emperor that the general situation in Dbus and Gtsang "was under control," and so he suggested to the emperor that he offer the second Phagmodru ruler, Jamyang Shakya Gyaltsen, an official title. According to the Records of the Founding Emperor, the Hongwu Emperor issued an edict granting the title "Initiation State Master" to Sagya Gyaincain, while the latter sent envoys to the Ming court to hand over his jade seal of authority along with tribute of colored silk and satin, statues of the Buddha, Buddhist scriptures, and sarira.

Who did the Hongwu Emperor grant the title Initiation State Master to?

Sagya Gyaincain

Who suggested to the emperor that an official title be granted to second Phagmodru ruler?

the Ming officer of Hezhou

Who was the second Phagmodru ruler?

Jamyang Shakya Gyaltsen

Who told the emperor that the situation in Dbus and Gtsang were under control?

the Ming officer of Hezhou

Where were the envoys sent?

to the Ming court


Dreyfus writes that after the Phagmodrupa lost its centralizing power over Tibet in 1434, several attempts by other families to establish hegemonies failed over the next two centuries until 1642 with the 5th Dalai Lama's effective hegemony over Tibet.

Who lost their power over Tibet?

the Phagmodrupa

What year did the Phagmodrupa lose their power over Tibet?

What year did the 5th Dalai lama start to dominate over Tibet?

What did the other families fail to establish?

hegemonies


The Ming dynasty granted titles to lamas of schools such as the Karmapa Kargyu, but the latter had previously declined Mongol invitations to receive titles. When the Ming Yongle Emperor invited Je Tsongkhapa (1357–1419), founder of the Gelug school, to come to the Ming court and pay tribute, the latter declined. Wang and Nyima write that this was due to old age and physical weakness, and also because of efforts being made to build three major monasteries. Chen Qingying states that Tsongkhapa wrote a letter to decline the Emperor's invitation, and in this reply, Tsongkhapa wrote:

The Ming Dynasty granted what titles to lamas of schools?

the Karmapa Kargyu

Who did the Ming Dynasty decline titles from after receiving invitations?

Mongol

Who was the founder of the Gelug school?

Je Tsongkhapa

Who invited Je Tsongkhapa to come pay tribute?

the Ming Yongle Emperor

Who wrote the letter declining the Emperor's invitation?

Tsongkhapa


A. Tom Grunfeld says that Tsongkhapa claimed ill health in his refusal to appear at the Ming court, while Rossabi adds that Tsongkhapa cited the "length and arduousness of the journey" to China as another reason not to make an appearance. This first request by the Ming was made in 1407, but the Ming court sent another embassy in 1413, this one led by the eunuch Hou Xian (候顯; fl. 1403–1427), which was again refused by Tsongkhapa. Rossabi writes that Tsongkhapa did not want to entirely alienate the Ming court, so he sent his disciple Chosrje Shākya Yeshes to Nanjing in 1414 on his behalf, and upon his arrival in 1415 the Yongle Emperor bestowed upon him the title of "State Teacher"—the same title earlier awarded the Phagmodrupa ruler of Tibet. The Xuande Emperor (r. 1425–1435) even granted this disciple Chosrje Shākya Yeshes the title of a "King" (王). This title does not appear to have held any practical meaning, or to have given its holder any power, at Tsongkhapa's Ganden Monastery. Wylie notes that this—like the Karma Kargyu—cannot be seen as a reappointment of Mongol Yuan offices, since the Gelug school was created after the fall of the Yuan dynasty.

When did the Ming first request Tsongkhapa to come to court?

When did the Ming court send a second request to Tsongkhapa?

Who did Tsongkhapa send in his place to Nanjing?

his disciple Chosrje Shākya Yeshes

When was Chosrje Shākya Yeshes sent to Nanjing?


Dawa Norbu argues that modern Chinese Communist historians tend to be in favor of the view that the Ming simply reappointed old Yuan dynasty officials in Tibet and perpetuated their rule of Tibet in this manner. Norbu writes that, although this would have been true for the eastern Tibetan regions of Amdo and Kham's "tribute-cum-trade" relations with the Ming, it was untrue if applied to the western Tibetan regions of Ü-Tsang and Ngari. After the Phagmodrupa Changchub Gyaltsen, these were ruled by "three successive nationalistic regimes," which Norbu writes "Communist historians prefer to ignore."

Who believed the Ming reappointed old Yuan dynasty officials in Tibet?

Dawa Norbu


Laird writes that the Ming appointed titles to eastern Tibetan princes, and that "these alliances with eastern Tibetan principalities are the evidence China now produces for its assertion that the Ming ruled Tibet," despite the fact that the Ming did not send an army to replace the Mongols after they left Tibet. Yiu Yung-chin states that the furthest western extent of the Ming dynasty's territory was Gansu, Sichuan, and Yunnan while "the Ming did not possess Tibet."

Who did the Ming appoint titles to?

eastern Tibetan princes

What didn't the Ming send to replace the Mongols when they left Tibet?

an army

What does Yiu Yung-chin claim the Ming did not possess?

Tibet


Shih-Shan Henry Tsai writes that the Yongle Emperor sent his eunuch Yang Sanbao into Tibet in 1413 to gain the allegiance of various Tibetan princes, while the Yongle Emperor paid a small fortune in return gifts for tributes in order to maintain the loyalty of neighboring vassal states such as Nepal and Tibet. However, Van Praag states that Tibetan rulers upheld their own separate relations with the kingdoms of Nepal and Kashmir, and at times "engaged in armed confrontation with them."

What was the name of the  eunuch?

Yang Sanbao

Where did the Yongle Emperor send Yang Sanbao?

Tibet

When did Yongle Emperor send Yang Sanbao into Tibet?

Why did Yongle Emperor send Yang Sanbao into Tibet?

the allegiance of various Tibetan princes

Why did the emperor pay a small fortune in gifts?

to maintain the loyalty of neighboring vassal states


Even though the Gelug exchanged gifts with and sent missions to the Ming court up until the 1430s, the Gelug was not mentioned in the Mingshi or the Mingshi Lu. On this, historian Li Tieh-tseng says of Tsongkhapa's refusal of Ming invitations to visit the Yongle Emperor's court:

Who did the Gelug exchange gifts with?

the Ming court

Until what year frame did the Gelug exchange gifts with the the Ming?

What was the Gelug not mentioned in?

the Mingshi or the Mingshi Lu


Wylie asserts that this type of censorship of the History of Ming distorts the true picture of the history of Sino-Tibetan relations, while the Ming court granted titles to various lamas regardless of their sectarian affiliations in an ongoing civil war in Tibet between competing Buddhist factions. Wylie argues that Ming titles of "King" granted indiscriminately to various Tibetan lamas or even their disciples should not be viewed as reappointments to earlier Yuan dynasty offices, since the viceregal Sakya regime established by the Mongols in Tibet was overthrown by the Phagmodru myriarchy before the Ming existed.

Regardless of their sectarian affiliations, who did the Ming grant titles to?

various lamas

Who was the viceregal Sakya regime overthrown by?

the Phagmodru myriarchy


Helmut Hoffman states that the Ming upheld the facade of rule over Tibet through periodic missions of "tribute emissaries" to the Ming court and by granting nominal titles to ruling lamas, but did not actually interfere in Tibetan governance. Melvyn C. Goldstein writes that the Ming had no real administrative authority over Tibet, as the various titles given to Tibetan leaders did not confer authority as the earlier Mongol Yuan titles had. He asserts that "by conferring titles on Tibetans already in power, the Ming emperors merely recognized political reality." Hugh Edward Richardson writes that the Ming dynasty exercised no authority over the succession of Tibetan ruling families, the Phagmodru (1354–1435), Rinpungpa (1435–1565), and Tsangpa (1565–1642).

Who believed that the Ming had no real authority over Tibet?

Melvyn C. Goldstein

What years did the Rinpungpa regime start and end?

Who believed that the titles given to Tibetan leaders did not confer authority?

Melvyn C. Goldstein

What years did the Tsangpa start and end?


In his usurpation of the throne from the Jianwen Emperor (r. 1398–1402), the Yongle Emperor was aided by the Buddhist monk Yao Guangxiao, and like his father, the Hongwu Emperor, the Yongle Emperor was "well-disposed towards Buddhism", claims Rossabi. On March 10, 1403, the Yongle Emperor invited Deshin Shekpa, 5th Karmapa Lama (1384–1415), to his court, even though the fourth Karmapa had rejected the invitation of the Hongwu Emperor. A Tibetan translation in the 16th century preserves the letter of the Yongle Emperor, which the Association for Asian Studies notes is polite and complimentary towards the Karmapa. The letter of invitation reads,

What year did the Jianwen Emperor reign start and end?

Who aided the Yongle Emperor?

the Buddhist monk Yao Guangxiao

Who was Yongle Emperor's father?

the Hongwu Emperor

When did the Yongle Emperor invite Deshin Shekpa to his court?

March 10, 1403


In order to seek out the Karmapa, the Yongle Emperor dispatched his eunuch Hou Xian and the Buddhist monk Zhi Guang (d. 1435) to Tibet. Traveling to Lhasa either through Qinghai or via the Silk Road to Khotan, Hou Xian and Zhi Guang did not return to Nanjing until 1407.

Who did the Yongle Emperor send to Tibet?

Hou Xian and the Buddhist monk Zhi Guang

Why did the Yongle Emperor send Hou Xian and Zhi Guang to Tibet?

to seek out the Karmapa

When did Hou Xian and Zhi Guang return to Nanjing?

Where did Hou Xian and Zhi Guang travel through on their way to the Karmapa?

through Qinghai or via the Silk Road to Khotan


During his travels beginning in 1403, Deshin Shekpa was induced by further exhortations by the Ming court to visit Nanjing by April 10, 1407. Norbu writes that the Yongle Emperor, following the tradition of Mongol emperors and their reverence for the Sakya lamas, showed an enormous amount of deference towards Deshin Shekpa. The Yongle Emperor came out of the palace in Nanjing to greet the Karmapa and did not require him to kowtow like a tributary vassal. According to Karma Thinley, the emperor gave the Karmapa the place of honor at his left, and on a higher throne than his own. Rossabi and others describe a similar arrangement made by Kublai Khan and the Sakya Phagpa lama, writing that Kublai would "sit on a lower platform than the Tibetan cleric" when receiving religious instructions from him.

When did Deshin Shekpa travels start?

Where did the Yongle Emperor greet the Karmapa?

Nanjing

Who did the Emperor give the place of honor at his left to?

the Karmapa

Who sat on a lower platform than the Tibetan cleric?

Kublai

Who showed a great amount of respect to Deshin Shekpa?

the Yongle Emperor


Throughout the following month, the Yongle Emperor and his court showered the Karmapa with presents. At Linggu Temple in Nanjing, he presided over the religious ceremonies for the Yongle Emperor's deceased parents, while twenty-two days of his stay were marked by religious miracles that were recorded in five languages on a gigantic scroll that bore the Emperor's seal. During his stay in Nanjing, Deshin Shekpa was bestowed the title "Great Treasure Prince of Dharma" by the Yongle Emperor. Elliot Sperling asserts that the Yongle Emperor, in bestowing Deshin Shekpa with the title of "King" and praising his mystical abilities and miracles, was trying to build an alliance with the Karmapa as the Mongols had with the Sakya lamas, but Deshin Shekpa rejected the Yongle Emperor's offer. In fact, this was the same title that Kublai Khan had offered the Sakya Phagpa lama, but Deshin Shekpa persuaded the Yongle Emperor to grant the title to religious leaders of other Tibetan Buddhist sects.

At what temple did the ceremonies for the Yongle Emperor's deceased parents take place?

Linggu Temple

Where was the Linggu Temple located?

Nanjing

What title was Deshin Shekpa given at Nanjing?

Great Treasure Prince of Dharma

Who did Deshin Shekpa persuade the Yongle Emperor to give the title to?

religious leaders of other Tibetan Buddhist sects


Tibetan sources say Deshin Shekpa also persuaded the Yongle Emperor not to impose his military might on Tibet as the Mongols had previously done. Thinley writes that before the Karmapa returned to Tibet, the Yongle Emperor began planning to send a military force into Tibet to forcibly give the Karmapa authority over all the Tibetan Buddhist schools but Deshin Shekpa dissuaded him. However, Hok-Lam Chan states that "there is little evidence that this was ever the emperor's intention" and that evidence indicates that Deshin Skekpa was invited strictly for religious purposes.

Who imposed on the military might on Tibet in the past?

the Mongols

Hok-Lam Chan states that Deshin Skekpa was only invited for what purpose?

religious purposes

What was said to be the  Yongle Emperor plans?

to send a military force into Tibet

Why was the Yongle Emperor said to have been planning to send military forces into Tibet?

to forcibly give the Karmapa authority over all the Tibetan Buddhist schools

Who convinced the Yongle emperor not to send military forces into Tibet?

Deshin Shekpa


Marsha Weidner states that Deshin Shekpa's miracles "testified to the power of both the emperor and his guru and served as a legitimizing tool for the emperor's problematic succession to the throne," referring to the Yongle Emperor's conflict with the previous Jianwen Emperor. Tsai writes that Deshin Shekpa aided the legitimacy of the Yongle Emperor's rule by providing him with portents and omens which demonstrated Heaven's favor of the Yongle Emperor on the Ming throne.

Who did the Yongle Emperor have a conflict with?

Jianwen Emperor

Who aided the legitimacy of the Yongle Emperor's rule?

Deshin Shekpa

What served as a legitimizing tool for the emperor's succession to the throne?

Deshin Shekpa's miracles


With the example of the Ming court's relationship with the fifth Karmapa and other Tibetan leaders, Norbu states that Chinese Communist historians have failed to realize the significance of the religious aspect of the Ming-Tibetan relationship. He writes that the meetings of lamas with the Emperor of China were exchanges of tribute between "the patron and the priest" and were not merely instances of a political subordinate paying tribute to a superior. He also notes that the items of tribute were Buddhist artifacts which symbolized "the religious nature of the relationship." Josef Kolmaš writes that the Ming dynasty did not exercise any direct political control over Tibet, content with their tribute relations that were "almost entirely of a religious character." Patricia Ann Berger writes that the Yongle Emperor's courting and granting of titles to lamas was his attempt to "resurrect the relationship between China and Tibet established earlier by the Yuan dynastic founder Khubilai Khan and his guru Phagpa." She also writes that the later Qing emperors and their Mongol associates viewed the Yongle Emperor's relationship with Tibet as "part of a chain of reincarnation that saw this Han Chinese emperor as yet another emanation of Manjusri."

According to Norbu who failed to realize the significance of the religious aspect of the Ming-Tibetan relationship?

Chinese Communist historians

What were the items of tribute?

Buddhist artifacts

Who believe that the Ming dynasty did not exercise any direct political control over Tibet?

Josef Kolmaš


The Information Office of the State Council of the PRC preserves an edict of the Zhengtong Emperor (r. 1435–1449) addressed to the Karmapa in 1445, written after the latter's agent had brought holy relics to the Ming court. Zhengtong had the following message delivered to the Great Treasure Prince of Dharma, the Karmapa:

What years did the Zhengtong Emperor reign?

Who maintains an edict of the Zhengtong Emperor?

The Information Office of the State Council of the PRC

Who was the edict addressed to?

the Karmapa

Who had a message delivered to them by Zhengtong?

Great Treasure Prince of Dharma

When was the edict written?

after the latter's agent had brought holy relics to the Ming court


Despite this glowing message by the Emperor, Chan writes that a year later in 1446, the Ming court cut off all relations with the Karmapa hierarchs. Until then, the court was unaware that Deshin Shekpa had died in 1415. The Ming court had believed that the representatives of the Karma Kagyu who continued to visit the Ming capital were sent by the Karmapa.

Who did the Ming cut off all relations with?

the Karmapa hierarchs

What year did the Ming cut off the Karmapa hierarchs?

When did  Deshin Shekpa  die?

Who did the Ming court think the representatives were sent by?

the Karmapa


Tsai writes that shortly after the visit by Deshin Shekpa, the Yongle Emperor ordered the construction of a road and of trading posts in the upper reaches of the Yangzi and Mekong Rivers in order to facilitate trade with Tibet in tea, horses, and salt. The trade route passed through Sichuan and crossed Shangri-La County in Yunnan. Wang and Nyima assert that this "tribute-related trade" of the Ming exchanging Chinese tea for Tibetan horses—while granting Tibetan envoys and Tibetan merchants explicit permission to trade with Han Chinese merchants—"furthered the rule of the Ming dynasty court over Tibet". Rossabi and Sperling note that this trade in Tibetan horses for Chinese tea existed long before the Ming. Peter C. Perdue says that Wang Anshi (1021–1086), realizing that China could not produce enough militarily capable steeds, had also aimed to obtain horses from Inner Asia in exchange for Chinese tea. The Chinese needed horses not only for cavalry but also as draft animals for the army's supply wagons. The Tibetans required Chinese tea not only as a common beverage but also as a religious ceremonial supplement. The Ming government imposed a monopoly on tea production and attempted to regulate this trade with state-supervised markets, but these collapsed in 1449 due to military failures and internal ecological and commercial pressures on the tea-producing regions.

Why did Yongle order the construction?

to facilitate trade with Tibet

What did Yongle want to trade with Tibet?

tea, horses, and salt

where did the trade route pass through?

through Sichuan and crossed Shangri-La County in Yunnan


Van Praag states that the Ming court established diplomatic delegations with Tibet merely to secure urgently needed horses. Wang and Nyima argue that these were not diplomatic delegations at all, that Tibetan areas were ruled by the Ming since Tibetan leaders were granted positions as Ming officials, that horses were collected from Tibet as a mandatory "corvée" tax, and therefore Tibetans were "undertaking domestic affairs, not foreign diplomacy". Sperling writes that the Ming simultaneously bought horses in the Kham region while fighting Tibetan tribes in Amdo and receiving Tibetan embassies in Nanjing. He also argues that the embassies of Tibetan lamas visiting the Ming court were for the most part efforts to promote commercial transactions between the lamas' large, wealthy entourage and Ming Chinese merchants and officials. Kolmaš writes that while the Ming maintained a laissez-faire policy towards Tibet and limited the numbers of the Tibetan retinues, the Tibetans sought to maintain a tributary relationship with the Ming because imperial patronage provided them with wealth and power. Laird writes that Tibetans eagerly sought Ming court invitations since the gifts the Tibetans received for bringing tribute were much greater in value than the latter. As for the Yongle Emperor's gifts to his Tibetan and Nepalese vassals such as silver wares, Buddha relics, utensils for Buddhist temples and religious ceremonies, and gowns and robes for monks, Tsai writes "in his effort to draw neighboring states to the Ming orbit so that he could bask in glory, the Yongle Emperor was quite willing to pay a small price". The Information Office of the State Council of the PRC lists the Tibetan tribute items as oxen, horses, camels, sheep, fur products, medical herbs, Tibetan incenses, thangkas (painted scrolls), and handicrafts; while the Ming awarded Tibetan tribute-bearers an equal value of gold, silver, satin and brocade, bolts of cloth, grains, and tea leaves. Silk workshops during the Ming also catered specifically to the Tibetan market with silk clothes and furnishings featuring Tibetan Buddhist iconography.

Why does Van Praag believe the Ming court set up a diplomatic delegation with Tibet?

to secure urgently needed horses

What shops were catered to the Tibetan market?

Silk workshops

What visual images and symbols were on furnishings from the silk workshops?

Tibetan Buddhist

who were the Tibetan areas were ruled by?

the Ming

Wang and Nyima believed horses were collected from Tibet as what kind of tax?

a mandatory "corvée" tax


While the Ming dynasty traded horses with Tibet, it upheld a policy of outlawing border markets in the north, which Laird sees as an effort to punish the Mongols for their raids and to "drive them from the frontiers of China." However, after Altan Khan (1507–1582)—leader of the Tümed Mongols who overthrew the Oirat Mongol confederation's hegemony over the steppes—made peace with the Ming dynasty in 1571, he persuaded the Ming to reopen their border markets in 1573. This provided the Chinese with a new supply of horses that the Mongols had in excess; it was also a relief to the Ming, since they were unable to stop the Mongols from periodic raiding. Laird says that despite the fact that later Mongols believed Altan forced the Ming to view him as an equal, Chinese historians argue that he was simply a loyal Chinese citizen. By 1578, Altan Khan formed a formidable Mongol-Tibetan alliance with the Gelug that the Ming viewed from afar without intervention.

Who did the Ming trade horses with?

Tibet

Who was the leader of the Tümed Mongols?

Altan Khan

Who did Altan Khan overthrow?

the Oirat Mongol confederation's hegemony

Who did Altan Khan make peace with?

the Ming dynasty

Who convinced the Ming to reopen their border markets in 1573?

Altan Khan


Patricia Ebrey writes that Tibet, like Joseon Korea and other neighboring states to the Ming, settled for its tributary status while there were no troops or governors of Ming China stationed in its territory. Laird writes that "after the Mongol troops left Tibet, no Ming troops replaced them." Wang and Nyima state that, despite the fact that the Ming refrained from sending troops to subdue Tibet and refrained from garrisoning Ming troops there, these measures were unnecessary so long as the Ming court upheld close ties with Tibetan vassals and their forces. However, there were instances in the 14th century when the Hongwu Emperor did use military force to quell unrest in Tibet. John D. Langlois writes that there was unrest in Tibet and western Sichuan, which the Marquis Mu Ying (沐英) was commissioned to quell in November 1378 after he established a Taozhou garrison in Gansu. Langlois notes that by October 1379, Mu Ying had allegedly captured 30,000 Tibetan prisoners and 200,000 domesticated animals. Yet invasion went both ways; the Ming general Qu Neng, under the command of Lan Yu, was ordered to repel a Tibetan assault into Sichuan in 1390.

When did the Hongwu Emperor use military force in Tibet?

the 14th century

When was the Marquis Mu Ying commissioned to quell?

November 1378

How many Tibetan prisoners did Mu Ying capture?

How many animals did Mu Ying capture?

Who was ordered to force a Tibetan assault into Sichuan?

Ming general Qu Neng


Discussions of strategy in the mid Ming dynasty focused primarily on recovery of the Ordos region, which the Mongols used as a rallying base to stage raids into Ming China. Norbu states that the Ming dynasty, preoccupied with the Mongol threat to the north, could not spare additional armed forces to enforce or back up their claim of sovereignty over Tibet; instead, they relied on "Confucian instruments of tribute relations" of heaping unlimited number of titles and gifts on Tibetan lamas through acts of diplomacy. Sperling states that the delicate relationship between the Ming and Tibet was "the last time a united China had to deal with an independent Tibet," that there was a potential for armed conflict at their borders, and that the ultimate goal of Ming foreign policy with Tibet was not subjugation but "avoidance of any kind of Tibetan threat." P. Christiaan Klieger argues that the Ming court's patronage of high Tibetan lamas "was designed to help stabilize border regions and protect trade routes."

What did the mid Ming dynasty discussion focus mainly on?

recovery of the Ordos region

Who used the the Ordos region as a place to stage raids?

the Mongols

Where were the Mongols trying to raise?

Ming China

Why did P. Christiaan Klieger believe that the Ming court supported high Tibetan lamas?

to help stabilize border regions and protect trade routes


Historians Luciano Petech and Sato Hisashi argue that the Ming upheld a "divide-and-rule" policy towards a weak and politically fragmented Tibet after the Sakya regime had fallen. Chan writes that this was perhaps the calculated strategy of the Yongle Emperor, as exclusive patronage to one Tibetan sect would have given it too much regional power. Sperling finds no textual evidence in either Chinese or Tibetan sources to support this thesis of Petech and Hisashi. Norbu asserts that their thesis is largely based on the list of Ming titles conferred on Tibetan lamas rather than "comparative analysis of developments in China and Tibet." Rossabi states that this theory "attributes too much influence to the Chinese," pointing out that Tibet was already politically divided when the Ming dynasty began. Rossabi also discounts the "divide-and-rule" theory on the grounds of the Yongle Emperor's failed attempt to build a strong relationship with the fifth Karmapa—one which he hoped would parallel Kublai Khan's earlier relationship with the Sakya Phagpa lama. Instead, the Yongle Emperor followed the Karmapa's advice of giving patronage to many different Tibetan lamas.

What policy does Luciano Petech and Sato Hisashi claim the Ming held towards the Tibet?

divide-and-rule

When did the Ming hold the divide and rule policy?

after the Sakya regime had fallen

Who did Yongle Emperor fail to build a solid relationship with?

fifth Karmapa

Who did the Yongle Emperor give patronage to?

many different Tibetan lamas


The Association for Asian Studies states that there is no known written evidence to suggest that later leaders of the Gelug—Gendün Drup (1391–1474) and Gendün Gyatso (1475–1571)—had any contacts with Ming China. These two religious leaders were preoccupied with an overriding concern for dealing with the powerful secular Rinpungpa princes, who were patrons and protectors of the Karma Kargyu lamas. The Rinpungpa leaders were relatives of the Phagmodrupa, yet their authority shifted over time from simple governors to rulers in their own right over large areas of Ü-Tsang. The prince of Rinbung occupied Lhasa in 1498 and excluded the Gelug from attending New Years ceremonies and prayers, the most important event in the Gelug. While the task of New Years prayers in Lhasa was granted to the Karmapa and others, Gendün Gyatso traveled in exile looking for allies. However, it was not until 1518 that the secular Phagmodru ruler captured Lhasa from the Rinbung, and thereafter the Gelug was given rights to conduct the New Years prayer. When the Drikung Kagyu abbot of Drigung Monastery threatened Lhasa in 1537, Gendün Gyatso was forced to abandon the Drepung Monastery, although he eventually returned.

Who were the Rinpungpa leaders related to?

the Phagmodrupa

When did the the prince of Rinbung occupy Lhasa?

What was the most important event to the Gelug?

New Years ceremonies and prayers

When was Gelug was given the right to conduct the New Years prayer?


The Zhengde Emperor (r. 1505–1521), who enjoyed the company of lamas at court despite protests from the censorate, had heard tales of a "living Buddha" which he desired to host at the Ming capital; this was none other than the Rinpung-supported Mikyö Dorje, 8th Karmapa Lama then occupying Lhasa. Zhengde's top advisors made every attempt to dissuade him from inviting this lama to court, arguing that Tibetan Buddhism was wildly heterodox and unorthodox. Despite protests by the Grand Secretary Liang Chu, in 1515 the Zhengde Emperor sent his eunuch official Liu Yun of the Palace Chancellery on a mission to invite this Karmapa to Beijing. Liu commanded a fleet of hundreds of ships requisitioned along the Yangtze, consuming 2,835 g (100 oz) of silver a day in food expenses while stationed for a year in Chengdu of Sichuan. After procurring necessary gifts for the mission, he departed with a cavalry force of about 1,000 troops. When the request was delivered, the Karmapa lama refused to leave Tibet despite the Ming force brought to coerce him. The Karmapa launched a surprise ambush on Liu Yun's camp, seizing all the goods and valuables while killing or wounding half of Liu Yun's entire escort. After this fiasco, Liu fled for his life, but only returned to Chengdu several years later to find that the Zhengde Emperor had died.

When did the Zhengde Emperor rule?

Who's company did the Zhengde Emperor enjoy?

the company of lamas

Who was the 8th Karmapa Lama?

Mikyö Dorje


Elliot Sperling, a specialist of Indian studies and the director of the Tibetan Studies program at Indiana University’s Department of Central Eurasia Studies, writes that "the idea that Tibet became part of China in the 13th century is a very recent construction." He writes that Chinese writers of the early 20th century were of the view that Tibet was not annexed by China until the Manchu Qing dynasty invasion during the 18th century. He also states that Chinese writers of the early 20th century described Tibet as a feudal dependency of China, not an integral part of it. Sperling states that this is because "Tibet was ruled as such, within the empires of the Mongols and the Manchus" and also that "China's intervening Ming dynasty ... had no control over Tibet." He writes that the Ming relationship with Tibet is problematic for China’s insistence of its unbroken sovereignty over Tibet since the 13th century. As for the Tibetan view that Tibet was never subject to the rule of the Yuan or Qing emperors of China, Sperling also discounts this by stating that Tibet was "subject to rules, laws and decisions made by the Yuan and Qing rulers" and that even Tibetans described themselves as subjects of these emperors.

Who said Tibet  wasn't an integral part of of China?

Chinese writers of the early 20th century

What does Sperling claim did not have any control over Tibet?

China's intervening Ming dynasty

Since what century has Sperling described Ming and Tibet's relation being problematic for China?

the 13th century

When was the Manchu Qing dynasty invasion?

the 18th century


Josef Kolmaš, a sinologist, Tibetologist, and Professor of Oriental Studies at the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, writes that it was during the Qing dynasty "that developments took place on the basis of which Tibet came to be considered an organic part of China, both practically and theoretically subject to the Chinese central government." Yet he states that this was a radical change in regards to all previous eras of Sino-Tibetan relations.

During Which dynasty does Josef Kolmaš claim Tibet was considered an organic part of China?

the Qing dynasty

Josef Kolmaš  states that Tibet became subject to what government?

the Chinese central government


P. Christiaan Klieger, an anthropologist and scholar of the California Academy of Sciences in San Francisco, writes that the vice royalty of the Sakya regime installed by the Mongols established a patron and priest relationship between Tibetans and Mongol converts to Tibetan Buddhism. According to him, the Tibetan lamas and Mongol khans upheld a "mutual role of religious prelate and secular patron," respectively. He adds that "Although agreements were made between Tibetan leaders and Mongol khans, Ming and Qing emperors, it was the Republic of China and its Communist successors that assumed the former imperial tributaries and subject states as integral parts of the Chinese nation-state."

Who does P. Christiaan Klieger claim to have had a mutual role of religious prelate?

the Tibetan lamas and Mongol khans

Who does P. Christiaan Klieger believe undertook the former imperial tributaries?

the Republic of China and its Communist successors

Where does P. Christiaan Klieger work?

the California Academy of Sciences in San Francisco

Who was the  vice royalty of the Sakya regime established by?

the Mongols

The Sakya regime established what kind of relationship between the Tibetans and Mongol converts?

patron and priest relationship


China Daily, a CCP-controlled news organization since 1981, states in a 2008 article that although there were dynastic changes after Tibet was incorporated into the territory of Yuan dynasty's China in the 13th century, "Tibet has remained under the jurisdiction of the central government of China." It also states that the Ming dynasty "inherited the right to rule Tibet" from the Yuan dynasty, and repeats the claims in the Mingshi about the Ming establishing two itinerant high commands over Tibet. China Daily states that the Ming handled Tibet's civil administration, appointed all leading officials of these administrative organs, and punished Tibetans who broke the law. The party-controlled People's Daily, the state-controlled Xinhua News Agency, and the state-controlled national television network China Central Television posted the same article that China Daily had, the only difference being their headlines and some additional text.

When was Tibet included into the territory of Yuan dynasty's China?

the 13th century

Who was said to have gained the right to rule Tibet?

the Ming dynasty

When was China Daily started?

Who does the article claim had two itinerant high commands over Tibet?

the Ming

According to article Tibet has remained under what jurisdiction?

the central government of China


During the reign of the Jiajing Emperor (r. 1521–1567), the native Chinese ideology of Daoism was fully sponsored at the Ming court, while Tibetan Vajrayana and even Chinese Buddhism were ignored or suppressed. Even the History of Ming states that the Tibetan lamas discontinued their trips to Ming China and its court at this point. Grand Secretary Yang Tinghe under Jiajing was determined to break the eunuch influence at court which typified the Zhengde era, an example being the costly escort of the eunuch Liu Yun as described above in his failed mission to Tibet. The court eunuchs were in favor of expanding and building new commercial ties with foreign countries such as Portugal, which Zhengde deemed permissible since he had an affinity for foreign and exotic people.

When did the Jiajing Emperor reign?

What ideology was sponsored at the Ming court?

the native Chinese ideology of Daoism

Who stopped their trips to Ming China?

the Tibetan lamas

Who was the Grand Secretary under Jiajing?

Yang Tinghe

Who broke the eunuch influence at court?

Yang Tinghe


With the death of Zhengde and ascension of Jiajing, the politics at court shifted in favor of the Neo-Confucian establishment which not only rejected the Portuguese embassy of Fernão Pires de Andrade (d. 1523), but had a predisposed animosity towards Tibetan Buddhism and lamas. Evelyn S. Rawski, a professor in the Department of History of the University of Pittsburgh, writes that the Ming's unique relationship with Tibetan prelates essentially ended with Jiajing's reign while Ming influence in the Amdo region was supplanted by the Mongols.

Who was Zhengde's successor?

Jiajing

What establishment did the politics at court shift in favor of?

Neo-Confucian establishment

Which embassy did the Neo-Confucian establishment reject?

the Portuguese embassy

Who did the Neo-Confucian establishment have animosity towards?

Tibetan Buddhism and lamas

Evelyn S. Rawski claims that Ming's relationship with Tibetan prelates ended during who's reign?

Jiajing


Meanwhile, the Tumed Mongols began moving into the Kokonor region (modern Qinghai), raiding the Ming Chinese frontier and even as far as the suburbs of Beijing under Altan Khan (1507–1582). Klieger writes that Altan Khan's presence in the west effectively reduced Ming influence and contact with Tibet. After Altan Khan made peace with the Ming dynasty in 1571, he invited the third hierarch of the Gelug—Sönam Gyatso (1543–1588)—to meet him in Amdo (modern Qinghai) in 1578, where he accidentally bestowed him and his two predecessors with the title of Dalai Lama—"Ocean Teacher". The full title was "Dalai Lama Vajradhara", "Vajradhara" meaning "Holder of the Thunderbolt" in Sanskrit. Victoria Huckenpahler notes that Vajradhara is considered by Buddhists to be the primordial Buddha of limitless and all-pervasive beneficial qualities, a being that "represents the ultimate aspect of enlightenment." Goldstein writes that Sönam Gyatso also enhanced Altan Khan's standing by granting him the title "king of religion, majestic purity". Rawski writes that the Dalai Lama officially recognized Altan Khan as the "Protector of the Faith".

What region did the Tumed Mongols move into?

the Kokonor region

Which frontier did the Tumed Mongols raid?

the Ming Chinese frontier

The presence of the Altan Khan in the west reduced whos influence?

the Ming

When did Altan Khan make peace with the Ming dynasty?

Who did Altan Khan invite to meet him in Amdo?

the third hierarch of the Gelug—Sönam Gyatso


Laird writes that Altan Khan abolished the native Mongol practices of shamanism and blood sacrifice, while the Mongol princes and subjects were coerced by Altan to convert to Gelug Buddhism—or face execution if they persisted in their shamanistic ways. Committed to their religious leader, Mongol princes began requesting the Dalai Lama to bestow titles on them, which demonstrated "the unique fusion of religious and political power" wielded by the Dalai Lama, as Laird writes. Kolmaš states that the spiritual and secular Mongol-Tibetan alliance of the 13th century was renewed by this alliance constructed by Altan Khan and Sönam Gyatso. Van Praag writes that this restored the original Mongol patronage of a Tibetan lama and "to this day, Mongolians are among the most devout followers of the Gelugpa and the Dalai Lama." Angela F. Howard writes that this unique relationship not only provided the Dalai Lama and Panchen Lama with religious and political authority in Tibet, but that Altan Khan gained "enormous power among the entire Mongol population."

What practice did Altan Khan put to an end?

the native Mongol practices of shamanism and blood sacrifice

Who did Altan Khan persuade to convert to Gelug Buddhism?

the Mongol princes and subjects

What did Altan Khan threaten the Mongol princes and subjects with if they did not convert?

execution

Who did the Mongol princes ask to grant them titles?

the Dalai Lama

Why did the Mongol princes ask for titles?

Committed to their religious leader


Rawski writes that Altan Khan's conversion to the Gelug "can be interpreted as an attempt to expand his authority in his conflict with his nominal superior, Tümen Khan." To further cement the Mongol-Tibetan alliance, the great-grandson of Altan Khan—the 4th Dalai Lama (1589–1616)—was made the fourth Dalai Lama. In 1642, the 5th Dalai Lama (1617–1682) became the first to wield effective political control over Tibet.

Who was Altan Khan's nominal superior?

Tümen Khan

To make the Mongol-Tibetan alliance stronger who became the 4th Dalai Lama?

the great-grandson of Altan Khan

Who was the first Dalai Lama to have political control over Tibet?

the 5th Dalai Lama

When did the 5th Dalai Lama gain political control over Tibet?

In 1642


Sonam Gyatso, after being granted the grandiose title by Altan Khan, departed for Tibet. Before he left, he sent a letter and gifts to the Ming Chinese official Zhang Juzheng (1525–1582), which arrived on March 12, 1579. Sometime in August or September of that year, Sonam Gyatso's representative stationed with Altan Khan received a return letter and gift from the Wanli Emperor (r. 1572–1620), who also conferred upon Sonam Gyatso a title; this was the first official contact between a Dalai Lama and a government of China. However, Laird states that when Wanli invited him to Beijing, the Dalai Lama declined the offer due to a prior commitment, even though he was only 400 km (250 mi) from Beijing. Laird adds that "the power of the Ming emperor did not reach very far at the time." Although not recorded in any official Chinese records, Sonam Gyatso's biography states that Wanli again conferred titles on Sonam Gyatso in 1588, and invited him to Beijing for a second time, but Sonam Gyatso was unable to visit China as he died the same year in Mongolia working with Altan Khan's son to further the spread of Buddhism.

Who was given the grandiose title?

Sonam Gyatso

Who granted Sonam Gyatso the title of grandiose?

Altan Khan

Who did Sonam Gyatso send gifts to?

Zhang Juzheng

Who was the Ming Chinese official?

Zhang Juzheng

Where did Sonam Gyatso die?

Mongolia


Of the third Dalai Lama, China Daily states that the "Ming dynasty showed him special favor by allowing him to pay tribute." China Daily then says that Sonam Gyatso was granted the title Dorjichang or Vajradhara Dalai Lama in 1587 [sic!], but China Daily does not mention who granted him the title. Without mentioning the role of the Mongols, China Daily states that it was the successive Qing dynasty which established the title of Dalai Lama and his power in Tibet: "In 1653, the Qing emperor granted an honorific title to the fifth Dalai Lama and then did the same for the fifth Panchen Lama in 1713, officially establishing the titles of the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Erdeni, and their political and religious status in Tibet."

Who did the Ming dynasty showed favors to?

the third Dalai Lama

What was the the third Dalai Lama allowed to do?

pay tribute

What title was Sonam Gyatso granted in 1587?

the title Dorjichang or Vajradhara Dalai Lama

In 1653 who did the Qing emperor grant a title to?

the fifth Dalai Lama

In 1713 who did the Qing emperor grant a title to?

the fifth Panchen Lama


Chen states that the fourth Dalai Lama Yonten Gyatso was granted the title "Master of Vajradhara" and an official seal by the Wanli Emperor in 1616. This was noted in the Biography of the Fourth Dalai Lama, which stated that one Soinam Lozui delivered the seal of the Emperor to the Dalai Lama. The Wanli Emperor had invited Yonten Gyatso to Beijing in 1616, but just like his predecessor he died before being able to make the journey.

What title was the fourth Dalai Lama granted?

Master of Vajradhara

Who was the fourth Dalai Lama?

Yonten Gyatso

When did the Wanli Emperor grant the title Master of Vajradhara to Yonten Gyatso?

Who did the Wanli Emperor invite to Beijing in 1616?

Yonten Gyatso

Why didn't Yonten Gyatso make it to Beijing?

he died


Kolmaš writes that, as the Mongol presence in Tibet increased, culminating in the conquest of Tibet by a Mongol leader in 1642, the Ming emperors "viewed with apparent unconcern these developments in Tibet." He adds that the Ming court's lack of concern for Tibet was one of the reasons why the Mongols pounced on the chance to reclaim their old vassal of Tibet and "fill once more the political vacuum in that country." On the mass Mongol conversion to Tibetan Buddhism under Altan Khan, Laird writes that "the Chinese watched these developments with interest, though few Chinese ever became devout Tibetan Buddhists."

Who's presence increased in Tibet?

the Mongols

What were the Mongols trying to reclaim?

their old vassal of Tibet

When did the conquest of Tibet reach its peak?

Who's lack of concern helped the Mongols jump at a chance to reclaim their old vassal of Tibet?

the Ming court


In 1565, the powerful Rinbung princes were overthrown by one of their own ministers, Karma Tseten who styled himself as the Tsangpa, "the one of Tsang", and established his base of power at Shigatse. The second successor of this first Tsang king, Karma Phuntsok Namgyal, took control of the whole of Central Tibet (Ü-Tsang), reigning from 1611–1621. Despite this, the leaders of Lhasa still claimed their allegiance to the Phagmodru as well as the Gelug, while the Ü-Tsang king allied with the Karmapa. Tensions rose between the nationalistic Ü-Tsang ruler and the Mongols who safeguarded their Mongol Dalai Lama in Lhasa. The fourth Dalai Lama refused to give an audience to the Ü-Tsang king, which sparked a conflict as the latter began assaulting Gelug monasteries. Chen writes of the speculation over the fourth Dalai Lama's mysterious death and the plot of the Ü-Tsang king to have him murdered for "cursing" him with illness, although Chen writes that the murder was most likely the result of a feudal power struggle. In 1618, only two years after Yonten Gyatso died, the Gelug and the Karma Kargyu went to war, the Karma Kargyu supported by the secular Ü-Tsang king. The Ü-Tsang ruler had a large number of Gelugpa lamas killed, occupied their monasteries at Drepung and Sera, and outlawed any attempts to find another Dalai Lama. In 1621, the Ü-Tsang king died and was succeeded by his young son Karma Tenkyong, an event which stymied the war effort as the latter accepted the six-year-old Lozang Gyatso as the new Dalai Lama. Despite the new Dalai Lama's diplomatic efforts to maintain friendly relations with the new Ü-Tsang ruler, Sonam Rapten (1595–1657), the Dalai Lama's chief steward and treasurer at Drepung, made efforts to overthrow the Ü-Tsang king, which led to another conflict. In 1633, the Gelugpas and several thousand Mongol adherents defeated the Ü-Tsang king's troops near Lhasa before a peaceful negotiation was settled. Goldstein writes that in this the "Mongols were again playing a significant role in Tibetan affairs, this time as the military arm of the Dalai Lama."

When were the Rinbung princes overthrown?

Who took control of the whole of Central Tibet?

Karma Phuntsok Namgyal

When did Karma Phuntsok Namgyal reign?

Who did Ü-Tsang king have an alliance with?

the Karmapa

Who refused an audience with the Ü-Tsang king?

The fourth Dalai Lama


When an ally of the Ü-Tsang ruler threatened destruction of the Gelugpas again, the fifth Dalai Lama Lozang Gyatso pleaded for help from the Mongol prince Güshi Khan (1582–1655), leader of the Khoshut (Qoshot) tribe of the Oirat Mongols, who was then on a pilgrimage to Lhasa. Güshi Khan accepted his role as protector, and from 1637–1640 he not only defeated the Gelugpas' enemies in the Amdo and Kham regions, but also resettled his entire tribe into Amdo. Sonam Chöpel urged Güshi Khan to assault the Ü-Tsang king's homebase of Shigatse, which Güshi Khan agreed upon, enlisting the aid of Gelug monks and supporters. In 1642, after a year's siege of Shigatse, the Ü-Tsang forces surrendered. Güshi Khan then captured and summarily executed Karma Tenkyong, the ruler of Ü-Tsang, King of Tibet.

Who did the 5th Dalai Lama beg for help from?

the Mongol prince Güshi Khan

What role did Güshi Khan take on?

protector

Which enemies did Güshi Khan defeat?

the Gelugpas

Where did Güshi Khan resettle his tribe?

Amdo

When did the  Ü-Tsang forces surrender?