The small, head-mounted device measures an individual's daily rest and activity patterns, as well as exposure to short-wavelength light that stimulates the circadian system. The device measures activity and light together at regular time intervals and electronically stores and logs its operating temperature. The Daysimeter can gather data for up to 30 days for analysis.

How many days can the Daysimeter gather for analysis?

What type of light stimulates the circadian system?

short-wavelength light


Specification of illumination requirements is the basic concept of deciding how much illumination is required for a given task. Clearly, much less light is required to illuminate a hallway compared to that needed for a word processing work station. Generally speaking, the energy expended is proportional to the design illumination level. For example, a lighting level of 400 lux might be chosen for a work environment involving meeting rooms and conferences, whereas a level of 80 lux could be selected for building hallways. If the hallway standard simply emulates the conference room needs, then much more energy will be consumed than is needed. Unfortunately, most of the lighting standards even today have been specified by industrial groups who manufacture and sell lighting, so that a historical commercial bias exists in designing most building lighting, especially for office and industrial settings.

What is a basic concept of deciding how much illumination is required for a given task?

Specification of illumination requirements


Lighting control systems reduce energy usage and cost by helping to provide light only when and where it is needed. Lighting control systems typically incorporate the use of time schedules, occupancy control, and photocell control (i.e.daylight harvesting). Some systems also support demand response and will automatically dim or turn off lights to take advantage of utility incentives. Lighting control systems are sometimes incorporated into larger building automation systems.

What can help reduce energy and usage cost by providing light only when or where it is needed?

Lighting control


Many newer control systems are using wireless mesh open standards (such as ZigBee), which provides benefits including easier installation (no need to run control wires) and interoperability with other standards-based building control systems (e.g. security).

What type of standard do newer control systems use?

wireless mesh open standards

What is the name of one type of control system used?

ZigBee

Does a wireless mesh open standard make installation harder?

no


Occupancy sensors to allow operation for whenever someone is within the area being scanned can control lighting. When motion can no longer be detected, the lights shut off. Passive infrared sensors react to changes in heat, such as the pattern created by a moving person. The control must have an unobstructed view of the building area being scanned. Doors, partitions, stairways, etc. will block motion detection and reduce its effectiveness. The best applications for passive infrared occupancy sensors are open spaces with a clear view of the area being scanned. Ultrasonic sensors transmit sound above the range of human hearing and monitor the time it takes for the sound waves to return. A break in the pattern caused by any motion in the area triggers the control. Ultrasonic sensors can see around obstructions and are best for areas with cabinets and shelving, restrooms, and open areas requiring 360-degree coverage. Some occupancy sensors utilize both passive infrared and ultrasonic technology, but are usually more expensive. They can be used to control one lamp, one fixture or many fixtures.

What sensor controls light with motion sensors?

Occupancy sensors

What does a passive infrared sensor react to?

changes in heat

What type of sensor transmits sound above the range of human hearing?

Ultrasonic sensors

Would you want to use passive infrared sensor in a area requiring 360-degree coverage?

no


Daylighting is the oldest method of interior lighting. Daylighting is simply designing a space to use as much natural light as possible. This decreases energy consumption and costs, and requires less heating and cooling from the building. Daylighting has also been proven to have positive effects on patients in hospitals as well as work and school performance. Due to a lack of information that indicate the likely energy savings, daylighting schemes are not yet popular among most buildings.

What is the oldest method of interior lighting?

Daylighting

Daylighting has been proven to have negative effects on people?

not


In recent years light emitting diodes (LEDs) are becoming increasingly efficient leading to an extraordinary increase in the use of solid state lighting. In many situations, controlling the light emission of LEDs may be done most effectively by using the principles of nonimaging optics.

What is a form of solid state lighting?

LEDs

What is the best way to control light emissions of LEDs?

nonimaging optics


Beyond the energy factors being considered, it is important not to over-design illumination, lest adverse health effects such as headache frequency, stress, and increased blood pressure be induced by the higher lighting levels. In addition, glare or excess light can decrease worker efficiency.

What can cause health effects such headache frequency?

higher lighting levels


Analysis of lighting quality particularly emphasizes use of natural lighting, but also considers spectral content if artificial light is to be used. Not only will greater reliance on natural light reduce energy consumption, but will favorably impact human health and performance. New studies have shown that the performance of students is influenced by the time and duration of daylight in their regular schedules. Designing school facilities to incorporate the right types of light at the right time of day for the right duration may improve student performance and well-being. Similarly, designing lighting systems that maximize the right amount of light at the appropriate time of day for the elderly may help relieve symptoms of Alzheimer's Disease. The human circadian system is entrained to a 24-hour light-dark pattern that mimics the earth’s natural light/dark pattern. When those patterns are disrupted, they disrupt the natural circadian cycle. Circadian disruption may lead to numerous health problems including breast cancer, seasonal affective disorder, delayed sleep phase syndrome, and other ailments.

Maximizing the right amount of light at the appropriate time for elderly may help systems of what?

Alzheimer's Disease

The human circadian system is entrained to how many hours light-dark pattern?

What happens to the natural carcidan cycle when light-dark patterns are disrupted?

disrupt the natural circadian cycle


A study conducted in 1972 and 1981, documented by Robert Ulrich, surveyed 23 surgical patients assigned to rooms looking out on a natural scene. The study concluded that patients assigned to rooms with windows allowing lots of natural light had shorter postoperative hospital stays, received fewer negative evaluative comments in nurses’ notes, and took fewer potent analegesics than 23 matched patients in similar rooms with windows facing a brick wall. This study suggests that due to the nature of the scenery and daylight exposure was indeed healthier for patients as opposed to those exposed to little light from the brick wall. In addition to increased work performance, proper usage of windows and daylighting crosses the boundaries between pure aesthetics and overall health.

Who documented 23 surgical patients assigned rooms looking out on a natural scene?

Robert Ulrich

Did the patients with natural scenes have longer postoperative hospital stays?

no

Did patients that have natural scenes require more potent analgesics?

no


Alison Jing Xu, assistant professor of management at the University of Toronto Scarborough and Aparna Labroo of Northwestern University conducted a series of studies analyzing the correlation between lighting and human emotion. The researchers asked participants to rate a number of things such as: the spiciness of chicken-wing sauce, the aggressiveness of a fictional character, how attractive someone was, their feelings about specific words, and the taste of two juices–all under different lighting conditions. In their study, they found that both positive and negative human emotions are felt more intensely in bright light. Professor Xu stated, "we found that on sunny days depression-prone people actually become more depressed." They also found that dim light makes people make more rational decisions and settle negotiations easier. In the dark, emotions are slightly suppressed. However, emotions are intensified in the bright light.

What University was Alision Jing Xu the assistant professor of management at?

University of Toronto Scarborough

What Univerity was Aparna Labroo associated with?

Northwestern University


In 1849, Dr. Abraham Gesner, a Canadian geologist, devised a method where kerosene could be distilled from petroleum. Earlier coal-gas methods had been used for lighting since the 1820s, but they were expensive. Gesner's kerosene was cheap, easy to produce, could be burned in existing lamps, and did not produce an offensive odor as did most whale oil. It could be stored indefinitely, unlike whale oil, which would eventually spoil. The American petroleum boom began in the 1850s. By the end of the decade there were 30 kerosene plants operating in the United States. The cheaper, more efficient fuel began to drive whale oil out of the market. John D. Rockefeller was most responsible for the commercial success of kerosene. He set up a network of kerosene distilleries which would later become Standard Oil, thus completely abolishing the need for whale-oil lamps. These types of lamps may catch fire or emit carbon-monoxide and sometimes are odorous making them problematic for asthmatic people.

What devised a method where kerosene could be distilled from petroleum?

Dr. Abraham Gesner

What year was it discovered that petroleum could be distilled into kerosene?

What method of lighting have been used since 1820s?

coal-gas methods


Compact fluorescent lamps (aka 'CFLs') use less power to supply the same amount of light as an incandescent lamp, however they contain mercury which is a dispose hazard. Due to the ability to reduce electric consumption, many organizations have undertaken measures to encourage the adoption of CFLs. Some electric utilities and local governments have subsidized CFLs or provided them free to customers as a means of reducing electric demand. For a given light output, CFLs use between one fifth and one quarter of the power of an equivalent incandescent lamp. One of the simplest and quickest ways for a household or business to become more energy efficient is to adopt CFLs as the main lamp source, as suggested by the Alliance for Climate Protection. Unlike incandescent lamps CFL's need a little time to 'warm up' and reach full brightness. Care should be taken when selecting CFL's because not all of them are suitable for dimming.

What does CFL stand for?

Compact fluorescent lamps

Are all CFLs suitable for dimming?

not


LED lamps have been advocated as the newest and best environmental lighting method. According to the Energy Saving Trust, LED lamps use only 10% power compared to a standard incandescent bulb, where compact fluorescent lamps use 20% and energy saving halogen lamps 70%. The lifetime is also much longer — up to 50,000 hours. A downside is still the initial cost, which is higher than that of compact fluorescent lamps.

How much more power does a standard incandescent bulb use compared to LED?

What is the average lifetime of a CFL?

50,000 hours

How much power does a halogen lamp save compared to a standard blub?


Light pollution is a growing problem in reaction to excess light being given off by numerous signs, houses, and buildings. Polluting light is often wasted light involving unnecessary energy costs and carbon dioxide emissions. Light pollution is described as artificial light that is excessive or intrudes where it is not wanted. Well-designed lighting sends light only where it is needed without scattering it elsewhere. Poorly designed lighting can also compromise safety. For example, glare creates safety issues around buildings by causing very sharp shadows, temporarily blinding passersby making them vulnerable to would-be assailants.

What is known as artificial light that is excessive or intrusive?

Light pollution

What causes sharp shadows around buildings?

glare


From a military standpoint, lighting is a critical part of the battlefield conditions. Shadows are good places to hide, while bright areas are more exposed. It is often beneficial to fight with the Sun or other light source behind you, giving your enemy disturbing visual glare and partially hiding your own movements in backlight. If natural light is not present searchlights and flares can be used. However the use of light may disclose your own hidden position and modern warfare have seen increased use of night vision through the use of infrared cameras and image intensifiers.

In a battlefield does not have natural light what could you use instead?

searchlights and flares

The use of what may disclose your own hidden position on a battlefield?

light

Modern warfare has seen the increased use of what?

infrared cameras


Flares can also be used by the military to mark positions, usually for targeting, but laser-guided and GPS weapons have eliminated this need for the most part.

What can be used by military for targeting?

Flares

What has eliminated the need for flares on a battlefield?

laser-guided and GPS weapons


The International Commission on Illumination (CIE) is an international authority and standard defining organization on color and lighting. Publishing widely used standard metrics such as various CIE color spaces and the color rendering index.

What does the CIE stand for?

International Commission on Illumination


The Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (IESNA), in conjunction with organizations like ANSI and ASHRAE, publishes guidelines, standards, and handbooks that allow categorization of the illumination needs of different built environments. Manufacturers of lighting equipment publish photometric data for their products, which defines the distribution of light released by a specific luminaire. This data is typically expressed in standardized form defined by the IESNA.

What does the IESNA stand for?

The Illuminating Engineering Society of North America

Who else publishes along with IESNA?

ANSI and ASHRAE

What defines photo metric data?

distribution of light released


The International Association of Lighting Designers (IALD) is an organization which focuses on the advancement of lighting design education and the recognition of independent professional lighting designers. Those fully independent designers who meet the requirements for professional membership in the association typically append the abbreviation IALD to their name.

What does IALD stand for?

The International Association of Lighting Designers


The Professional Lighting Designers Association (PLDA), formerly known as ELDA is an organisation focusing on the promotion of the profession of Architectural Lighting Design. They publish a monthly newsletter and organise different events throughout the world.

What does PLDA stand for?

The Professional Lighting Designers Association

What was the PLDA formerly known as?

ELDA


The National Council on Qualifications for the Lighting Professions (NCQLP) offers the Lighting Certification Examination which tests rudimentary lighting design principles. Individuals who pass this exam become ‘Lighting Certified’ and may append the abbreviation LC to their name. This certification process is one of three national (U.S.) examinations (the others are CLEP and CLMC) in the lighting industry and is open not only to designers, but to lighting equipment manufacturers, electric utility employees, etc.

Who offers the Lighting Certification Examination?

NCQLP

What does NCQLP stand for?

The National Council on Qualifications for the Lighting Professions

Which abbreviation can you append to your name after becoming Lighting Certified?

LC

What other national examinations are available?

CLEP and CLMC


The Professional Lighting And Sound Association (PLASA) is a UK-based trade organisation representing the 500+ individual and corporate members drawn from the technical services sector. Its members include manufacturers and distributors of stage and entertainment lighting, sound, rigging and similar products and services, and affiliated professionals in the area. They lobby for and represent the interests of the industry at various levels, interacting with government and regulating bodies and presenting the case for the entertainment industry. Example subjects of this representation include the ongoing review of radio frequencies (which may or may not affect the radio bands in which wireless microphones and other devices use) and engaging with the issues surrounding the introduction of the RoHS (Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive) regulations.

What does PLASA stand for?

The Professional Lighting And Sound Association

Where is PLASA based?

UK

How many individuals does PLASA represent?

What does RoHS stand for?

Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive


Separation of powers is a political doctrine originating in the writings of Montesquieu in The Spirit of the Laws where he urged for a constitutional government with three separate branches of government. Each of the three branches would have defined abilities to check the powers of the other branches. This idea was called separation of powers. This philosophy heavily influenced the writing of the United States Constitution, according to which the Legislative, Executive, and Judicial branches of the United States government are kept distinct in order to prevent abuse of power. This United States form of separation of powers is associated with a system of checks and balances.

Which political practice did Montesquieu originate?

Separation of powers

How many divisions of the government did Montesquieu call for?

three

What document was greatly informed by the idea of separation of powers?

United States Constitution

What kind of oversight does the separation of powers help to promote?

checks and balances

What was the doctrine called that allowed the three branches of government to check the powers of each other?

separation of powers

What originates in the writings of the Legislative powers?

I'm not sure.

Who urged for a government with four individual branches?

I'm not sure.

In which doctrine did the US call for three separate branches of government?

I'm not sure.

Which philosophy was a great influence on the Legislative branch of government?

I'm not sure.

Which document was greatly influenced by the idea of a constitutional government?

I'm not sure.


During the Age of Enlightenment, philosophers such as John Locke advocated the principle in their writings, whereas others, such as Thomas Hobbes, strongly opposed it. Montesquieu was one of the foremost supporters of separating the legislature, the executive, and the judiciary. His writings considerably influenced the opinions of the framers of the United States Constitution.

Which Enlightenment thinker supported the idea of separation of powers?

John Locke

Which Enlightenment thinker was against the separation of powers?

Thomas Hobbes

Who was a leading advocate of dividing government into different branches?

Montesquieu

Whose thoughts were impacted by Montesquieu's philosophy?

the framers of the United States Constitution

Who was an advocate of separation of powers?

John Locke

Who was an opponent of separation of powers?

Thomas Hobbes

Who's writing were very influential on the design of the United States Constitution?

Montesquieu

During which age did Thomas Hobbes advocate the principle in his writing?

I'm not sure.

During which age did John Locke oppose the principle in his writing?

I'm not sure.

Who was at the forefront of the opposition towards separating the branches of government?

I'm not sure.

Who's writings had no influence on the framers of the US constitution?

I'm not sure.


Strict separation of powers did not operate in The United Kingdom, the political structure of which served in most instances[citation needed] as a model for the government created by the U.S. Constitution.[citation needed] Under the UK Westminster system, based on parliamentary sovereignty and responsible government, Parliament (consisting of the Sovereign (King-in-Parliament), House of Lords and House of Commons) was the supreme lawmaking authority. The executive branch acted in the name of the King ("His Majesty's Government"), as did the judiciary. The King's Ministers were in most cases members of one of the two Houses of Parliament, and the Government needed to sustain the support of a majority in the House of Commons. One minister, the Lord Chancellor, was at the same time the sole judge in the Court of Chancery and the presiding officer in the House of Lords. Therefore, it may be seen that the three branches of British government often violated the strict principle of separation of powers, even though there were many occasions when the different branches of the government disagreed with each other. Some U.S. states did not observe a strict separation of powers in the 18th century. In New Jersey, the Governor also functioned as a member of the state's highest court and as the presiding officer of one house of the New Jersey Legislature. The President of Delaware was a member of the Court of Appeals; the presiding officers of the two houses of the state legislature also served in the executive department as Vice Presidents. In both Delaware and Pennsylvania, members of the executive council served at the same time as judges. On the other hand, many southern states explicitly required separation of powers. Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina and Georgia all kept the branches of government "separate and distinct."

What country's government, on which the US government was modeled, did not formally implement separation of powers?

UK

What were the two main principles informing the government of the UK?

parliamentary sovereignty and responsible government

What term describes the status of the different branches of government in Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina and Georgia?

separate and distinct

What country's government served as a model for the United States Government?

United Kingdom

In the 18th century what function, besides President, did the Delaware President serve?

a member of the Court of Appeals

Which political structure served as a model for the United Kingdom government?

I'm not sure.

What body consisted of the House of Lords and the House of Majesty;s government?

I'm not sure.

What were the Chancellor's Ministers mos often members of?

I'm not sure.

In which state was the Governor a member of the court of appeals?

I'm not sure.

In which states did members of the Lord Chancellor's council and judges serve at the same time?

I'm not sure.


Congress has the sole power to legislate for the United States. Under the nondelegation doctrine, Congress may not delegate its lawmaking responsibilities to any other agency. In this vein, the Supreme Court held in the 1998 case Clinton v. City of New York that Congress could not delegate a "line-item veto" to the President, by powers vested in the government by the Constitution.

What is the only branch of U.S. government imbued with lawmaking abilities?

Congress

Which court case upheld the rule of nondelegation?

Clinton v. City of New York

When was Clinton v. City of New York decided by the Supreme Court?

In the US who has the sole power to pass legislation?

Congress

What is the doctrine called that does not allow congress to pass on their power to pass laws to any other agency?

nondelegation doctrine

What was the court case that struck down the line item veto?

Clinton v. City of New York

What year was Clinton v. City of New York decided by the supreme court?

Who has shared legislative power in the United States?

I'm not sure.

Which doctrine says Congress can delegate its powers to whoever it wants?

I'm not sure.

In which year was the court case Clinton v. Supreme Court held?

I'm not sure.

Who may delegate lawmaking responsibilities to other agencies as it pleases?

I'm not sure.

In which country does Congress have shared lawmaking responsibilities?

I'm not sure.


Where Congress does not make great and sweeping delegations of its authority, the Supreme Court has been less stringent. One of the earliest cases involving the exact limits of non-delegation was Wayman v. Southard 23 U.S. (10 Wet.) 1, 42 (1825). Congress had delegated to the courts the power to prescribe judicial procedure; it was contended that Congress had thereby unconstitutionally clothed the judiciary with legislative powers. While Chief Justice John Marshall conceded that the determination of rules of procedure was a legislative function, he distinguished between "important" subjects and mere details. Marshall wrote that "a general provision may be made, and power given to those who are to act under such general provisions, to fill up the details."

What was one of the first times the Supreme Court tried a case regarding nondelegation?

Wayman v. Southard

In what year was Wayman v. Southard tried by the U.S. Supreme Court?

Who was Chief Justice of the Supreme Court when Wayman v. Southard reached the Supreme Court?

John Marshall

In Wayman v. Southard, what branch was accused of being given lawmaking abilities by Congress?

the judiciary

What is the name of the 1825 case where the supreme court held that congress could delegate their responsibilities to the court?

Wayman v. Southard

Who was chief justice of the supreme court under the Wayman v. Southard ruling?

John Marshall

Where has the Supreme Court been known to be more stringent towards Congress?

I'm not sure.

What is one of the most recent races regarding limits of non delegation?

I'm not sure.

When did the Supreme Court hear John Marshall v Southard?

I'm not sure.

Which case was heard by Congress in regards to non delegation limits?

I'm not sure.

When was the US Congress Court Wayman v. Southard heard?

I'm not sure.


Marshall's words and future court decisions gave Congress much latitude in delegating powers. It was not until the 1930s that the Supreme Court held a delegation of authority unconstitutional. In a case involving the creation of the National Recovery Administration called A.L.A. Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States, 295 U.S. 495 (1935), Congress could not authorize the president to formulate codes of "fair competition." It was held that Congress must set some standards governing the actions of executive officers. The Court, however, has deemed that phrases such as "just and reasonable," "public interest" and "public convenience" suffice.

When was the first time that a Congressional attempt at delegating lawmaking responsibility was found to be in violation of the Constitution?

the 1930s

The establishment of what body was the subject of A.L.A. Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States?

National Recovery Administration

In what year was A.L.A. Schechter v. United States tried before the Supreme Court?

In what year did the supreme court determine that delegating powers by congress was unconstitutional?

What was the supreme court case that was determined that congress could not allow the President to determine fair competition?

Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States

What gave Congress less latitude in delegating powers?

I'm not sure.

During which decade did the Supreme Court hold a delegation of authority as constitutional?

I'm not sure.

When did Congress make the decision that a delegation of authority is unconstitutional?

I'm not sure.

In which case was Congress able to authorize the president to formulate codes?

I'm not sure.

During which year did Congress authorize the presidential formulation of fair competition codes?

I'm not sure.


Executive power is vested, with exceptions and qualifications, in the President. By law (Section 2.) the president becomes the Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy, Militia of several states when called into service, has power to make treaties and appointments to office "with the Advice and Consent of the Senate," receive Ambassadors and Public Ministers, and "take care that the laws be faithfully executed" (Section 3.) By using these words, the Constitution does not require the president to personally enforce the law; rather, officers subordinate to the president may perform such duties. The Constitution empowers the president to ensure the faithful execution of the laws made by Congress and approved by the President. Congress may itself terminate such appointments, by impeachment, and restrict the president. Bodies such as the War Claims Commission, the Interstate Commerce Commission and the Federal Trade Commission—all quasi-judicial—often have direct Congressional oversight.

Which branches of the national military does the U.S. president command?

Army and Navy

Whose approval is required for the president's appointees to take office?

Senate

What is a Congressional means of removing presidential appointees?

impeachment

What term can characterize the status of bodies like the War Claims Commission and the Interstate Commerce Commission?

quasi-judicial

Which of the three branches has the duty of Commander and Chief?

Executive

Who has the authority to make treaties?

the President

What is it called when congress terminates an appointment of the President?

impeachment

Who has over-sight of the Federal Trade Commission?

Congress

In whom is Congressional power vested?

I'm not sure.

What does the Vice President become Commander in Chief of?

I'm not sure.

By the words it uses, what does the Constitution require the President to do regarding laws?

I'm not sure.

Laws are made by the President and approved by which body?

I'm not sure.

Who may the President restrict through impeachment?

I'm not sure.


Congress often writes legislation to restrain executive officials to the performance of their duties, as laid out by the laws Congress passes. In INS v. Chadha (1983), the Supreme Court decided (a) The prescription for legislative action in Art. I, § 1—requiring all legislative powers to be vested in a Congress consisting of a Senate and a House of Representatives—and § 7—requiring every bill passed by the House and Senate, before becoming law, to be presented to the president, and, if he disapproves, to be repassed by two-thirds of the Senate and House—represents the Framers' decision that the legislative power of the Federal Government be exercised in accord with a single, finely wrought and exhaustively considered procedure. This procedure is an integral part of the constitutional design for the separation of powers. Further rulings clarified the case; even both Houses acting together cannot override Executive vetos without a 2⁄3 majority. Legislation may always prescribe regulations governing executive officers.

To what does congress attempt to limit executive officials?

the performance of their duties

What court case affirmed the mandates of the first and seventh sections of Article I of the Constitution?

INS v. Chadha

When was INS v Chadha tried before the Supreme Court?

By what margin can congress over ride a Presidential veto?

two-thirds

Who often writes laws to restrain Congress to the performance of their duties?

I'm not sure.

In which case did Congress decide that all powers would be vested in the Supreme Court consisting of a Senate and House of Representatives?

I'm not sure.

Congress decide that all powers would be vested in the Supreme Court consisting of a which two bodies?

I'm not sure.

In what year did Congress decide that all powers would be vested in the Supreme Court consisting of a Senate and House of Representatives?

I'm not sure.

Who must be presented with every bill passed by the President?

I'm not sure.


Judicial power—the power to decide cases and controversies—is vested in the Supreme Court and inferior courts established by Congress. The judges must be appointed by the president with the advice and consent of the Senate, hold office during good behavior and receive compensations that may not be diminished during their continuance in office. If a court's judges do not have such attributes, the court may not exercise the judicial power of the United States. Courts exercising the judicial power are called "constitutional courts."

In what branch is the ability to try legal cases placed?

Judicial

Who nominates justices for the U.S. Supreme Court?

president

Who must approve presidential appointees to the Supreme Court?

Senate

What is the term for judicial institutions exercising their power?

constitutional courts

What is the power given to the supreme court and lower courts called?

Judicial power

Who appoints a judge?

the president

Who gives the President advice and consent for a judge appointment?

the Senate

Which type of power is vested in Congress?

I'm not sure.

Who must be appointed by Supreme Court judges?

I'm not sure.

What are courts exercising presidential power referred to?

I'm not sure.

Who appoints judges to the presidency?

I'm not sure.

What type of power gives the power to decided controversies to the president?

I'm not sure.


Congress may establish "legislative courts," which do not take the form of judicial agencies or commissions, whose members do not have the same security of tenure or compensation as the constitutional court judges. Legislative courts may not exercise the judicial power of the United States. In Murray's Lessee v. Hoboken Land & Improvement Co. (1856), the Supreme Court held that a legislative court may not decide "a suit at the common law, or in equity, or admiralty," as such a suit is inherently judicial. Legislative courts may only adjudicate "public rights" questions (cases between the government and an individual and political determinations).

What kind of courts did congress establish?

legislative courts

What power are legislative courts not allowed to exercise?

judicial power of the United States

Which type of courts are established by Hoboken Land & Improvement CO.?

I'm not sure.

Which form do legislative courts take?

I'm not sure.

Which power of the United States may legislative courts exercise?

I'm not sure.

Which questions are legislative courts not able to adjudicate?

I'm not sure.

Which type of courts do legislative courts create in the form of judicial agencies?

I'm not sure.


The president exercises a check over Congress through his power to veto bills, but Congress may override any veto (excluding the so-called "pocket veto") by a two-thirds majority in each house. When the two houses of Congress cannot agree on a date for adjournment, the president may settle the dispute. Either house or both houses may be called into emergency session by the president. The Vice President serves as president of the Senate, but he may only vote to break a tie.

Who can determine a date of adjournment if congress cannot agree?

President

Who can call congress into emergency session?

The president

Who serves as president of the Senate?

The Vice President

How does Congress exercise a check over the President?

I'm not sure.

Who has the ability to override any veto made by Congress?

I'm not sure.

Which veto is the only one Congress is able to override with a two thirds majority?

I'm not sure.

Who settles the dispute when the President and Vice President cannot come to an agreement for a date of adjournment?

I'm not sure.

Who serves as President of the Senate and is the only member with voting rights?

I'm not sure.


The president, as noted above, appoints judges with the Senate's advice and consent. He also has the power to issue pardons and reprieves. Such pardons are not subject to confirmation by either the House of Representatives or the Senate, or even to acceptance by the recipient.

Who has the power to issue a pardon?

The president

Who has the power to issue a reprieve?

The president

Who appoints the President with the approval of judges?

I'm not sure.

Who appoints the Senate with the approval of judges?

I'm not sure.

Who appoints judges with the President's approval?

I'm not sure.

The president does not have the power to issue pardons or what else?

I'm not sure.

Other than reprieves, what is the Senate able to issue?

I'm not sure.


The president is the civilian Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States. He has the authority to command them to take appropriate military action in the event of a sudden crisis. However, only the Congress is explicitly granted the power to declare war per se, as well as to raise, fund and maintain the armed forces. Congress also has the duty and authority to prescribe the laws and regulations under which the armed forces operate, such as the Uniform Code of Military Justice, and requires that all Generals and Admirals appointed by the president be confirmed by a majority vote of the Senate before they can assume their office.

Who is the commander and chief of the Army?

The president

Who has the power to declare ware?

Congress

Who has the responsibility to confirm Generals and Admirals?

the Senate

Who is the Commander in Chief of Congress?

I'm not sure.

Who is the Commander in Chief of laws and regulations?

I'm not sure.

Who lacks power to command the miliary take action during crises?

I'm not sure.

Who lacks authority to make laws to govern the armed forces?

I'm not sure.

Who is the only body with authority to declare majority vote?

I'm not sure.


Courts check both the executive branch and the legislative branch through judicial review. This concept is not written into the Constitution, but was envisioned by many of the Constitution's Framers (for example, The Federalist Papers mention it). The Supreme Court established a precedent for judicial review in Marbury v. Madison. There were protests by some at this decision, born chiefly of political expediency, but political realities in the particular case paradoxically restrained opposing views from asserting themselves. For this reason, precedent alone established the principle that a court may strike down a law it deems unconstitutional.

Who is responsible for judicial review?

Courts

What is the court case that established judicial review?

Marbury v. Madison

Through which type of review does the Constitution check the executive and legislative branches?

I'm not sure.

In which case did the Constitution establish a precedent for judicial review?

I'm not sure.

Through which type of review does the President check the executive and legislative branches?

I'm not sure.

In which case did the Supreme Court establish a precedent for Federalist Papers?

I'm not sure.

What abolished the principle that a court could strike down unconstitutional laws?

I'm not sure.


A common misperception is that the Supreme Court is the only court that may determine constitutionality; the power is exercised even by the inferior courts. But only Supreme Court decisions are binding across the nation. Decisions of a Court of Appeals, for instance, are binding only in the circuit over which the court has jurisdiction.

Which courts decisions are binding across the entire United States?

the Supreme Court

Which court is the only one able to determine constitutionality?

I'm not sure.

Which power are inferior courts unable to exercise?

I'm not sure.

Which courts' decisions, other than Supreme Court, are binding across the country?

I'm not sure.

Which is the only court unable to determine constitutionality?

I'm not sure.


The power to review the constitutionality of laws may be limited by Congress, which has the power to set the jurisdiction of the courts. The only constitutional limit on Congress' power to set the jurisdiction of the judiciary relates to the Supreme Court; the Supreme Court may exercise only appellate jurisdiction except in cases involving states and cases affecting foreign ambassadors, ministers or consuls.

Who can limit judicial review of a law?

Congress

Who's judicial power does congress have the right to limit?

the Supreme Court

Who lacks the ability to review the constitutionality of laws?

I'm not sure.

Who lacks the power to set the jurisdiction of courts?

I'm not sure.

The Supreme court has power to set jurisdiction of what?

I'm not sure.

Who has the ability to determine whether a Supreme Court is constitutional or not?

I'm not sure.

The only constitutional limit on the Supreme Court's power to set jurisdiction relates to which body?

I'm not sure.


The Chief Justice presides in the Senate during a president's impeachment trial. The rules of the Senate, however, generally do not grant much authority to the presiding officer. Thus, the Chief Justice's role in this regard is a limited one.

Who presides over an impeachment trial?

The Chief Justice

Where does the Chief Justice preside during a Senate impeachment trial?

I'm not sure.

Which rules grant much authority to the presiding officer?

I'm not sure.

Who has an unlimited role in this regard?

I'm not sure.

Where does the president preside during the Chief Justice impeachment trial?

I'm not sure.

Which rules do not grant authority to the President?

I'm not sure.


The Constitution does not explicitly indicate the pre-eminence of any particular branch of government. However, James Madison wrote in Federalist 51, regarding the ability of each branch to defend itself from actions by the others, that "it is not possible to give to each department an equal power of self-defense. In republican government, the legislative authority necessarily predominates."

Who wrote that the legislative branch was the predominate branch of government?

James Madison

In which Federalist paper did James Madison state that the legislative branch of government was predominate?

Federalist 51

Who wrote in the Constitution that legislative authority is predominate?

I'm not sure.

Where did the Constitution write that it's not possible to give each department equal power?

I'm not sure.

Who wrote that it was possible to give equal power of self defense to each department?

I'm not sure.

Which document explicitly indicates pre-eminence of the judicial branch of government?

I'm not sure.

Which document explicitly indicates pre-eminence of the executive branch of government?

I'm not sure.


Throughout America's history dominance of one of the three branches has essentially been a see-saw struggle between Congress and the president. Both have had periods of great power and weakness such as immediately after the Civil War when republicans had a majority in Congress and were able to pass major legislation and shoot down most of the president's vetoes. They also passed acts to essentially make the president subordinate to Congress, such as the Tenure of Office Act. Johnson's later impeachment also cost the presidency much political power. However the president has also exercised greater power largely during the 20th century. Both Roosevelts greatly expanded the powers of the president and wielded great power during their terms.

Immediately following the civil war which branch of government was seen to have the greater amount of power?

Congress

Between who and the Senate has dominance of one branch of government been a struggle?

I'm not sure.

After which war did Republicans hold a minority in Congress?

I'm not sure.

After which war did Democrats hold a majority in Congress?

I'm not sure.

Which act was passed to make Congress subordinate to the President?

I'm not sure.

The Tenure of Office Act says Congress is subordinate to who?

I'm not sure.


The first six presidents of the United States did not make extensive use of the veto power: George Washington only vetoed two bills, James Monroe one, and John Adams, Thomas Jefferson and John Quincy Adams none. James Madison, a firm believer in a strong executive, vetoed seven bills. None of the first six Presidents, however, used the veto to direct national policy. It was Andrew Jackson, the seventh President, who was the first to use the veto as a political weapon. During his two terms in office, he vetoed twelve bills—more than all of his predecessors combined. Furthermore, he defied the Supreme Court in enforcing the policy of ethnically cleansing Native American tribes ("Indian Removal"); he stated (perhaps apocryphally), "John Marshall has made his decision. Now let him enforce it!"

How many bills did George Washington veto?

two

How many bills did James Monroe veto?

one

How many bills did Andrew Jackson veto

twelve

Who was the seventh President of the United States?

Andrew Jackson

Which president vetoed six bills?

I'm not sure.

Who was the last president to use veto as a political weapon?

I'm not sure.

How many bills did Andrew Jackson veto to make him the least likely president to veto a bill?

I'm not sure.

Who stated "Andrew Jackson has made his decision. Now let him enforce it!"?

I'm not sure.

Who defied the Supreme Court by enforcing Supreme Court Removal?

I'm not sure.


Some of Jackson's successors made no use of the veto power, while others used it intermittently. It was only after the Civil War that presidents began to use the power to truly counterbalance Congress. Andrew Johnson, a Democrat, vetoed several Reconstruction bills passed by the "Radical Republicans." Congress, however, managed to override fifteen of Johnson's twenty-nine vetoes. Furthermore, it attempted to curb the power of the presidency by passing the Tenure of Office Act. The Act required Senate approval for the dismissal of senior Cabinet officials. When Johnson deliberately violated the Act, which he felt was unconstitutional (Supreme Court decisions later vindicated such a position), the House of Representatives impeached him; he was acquitted in the Senate by one vote.

How many of Andrew Johnson's veto's were over turned by Congress

fifteen

What act did congress pass that gave the senate the right to approve the dismissal of a cabinet official?

Tenure of Office Act

After which war did Congress begin using power to counterbalance the President?

I'm not sure.

Who vetoed several bills passed by the Radical Democrats?

I'm not sure.

How many of Johnson's fifteen vetoes did Congress override?

I'm not sure.

How many of Congress' 29 vetoes did Johnson override?

I'm not sure.

Through which act did Jackson attempt to curb presidential power?

I'm not sure.


Johnson's impeachment was perceived to have done great damage to the presidency, which came to be almost subordinate to Congress. Some believed that the president would become a mere figurehead, with the Speaker of the House of Representatives becoming a de facto Prime Minister. Grover Cleveland, the first Democratic President following Johnson, attempted to restore the power of his office. During his first term, he vetoed over four hundred bills—twice as many bills as his twenty-one predecessors combined. He also began to suspend bureaucrats who were appointed as a result of the patronage system, replacing them with more "deserving" individuals. The Senate, however, refused to confirm many new nominations, instead demanding that Cleveland turn over the confidential records relating to the suspensions. Cleveland steadfastly refused, asserting, "These suspensions are my executive acts ... I am not responsible to the Senate, and I am unwilling to submit my actions to them for judgment." Cleveland's popular support forced the Senate to back down and confirm the nominees. Furthermore, Congress finally repealed the controversial Tenure of Office Act that had been passed during the Johnson Administration. Overall, this meant that Cleveland's Administration marked the end of presidential subordination.

Who was the first president to veto over 400 bills?

Grover Cleveland

Under which President was the Tenure of Office Act repealed?

Grover Cleveland

What did Cleveland's impeachment do to the presidency?

I'm not sure.

Who's impeachment was perceived as having helped the presidency?

I'm not sure.

Which body of government because subordinate to the presidency?

I'm not sure.

After Grover Cleveland, who was the first Democratic President?

I'm not sure.

Who was the first Republican President after Johnson?

I'm not sure.


Several twentieth-century presidents have attempted to greatly expand the power of the presidency. Theodore Roosevelt, for instance, claimed that the president was permitted to do whatever was not explicitly prohibited by the law—in direct contrast to his immediate successor, William Howard Taft. Franklin Delano Roosevelt held considerable power during the Great Depression. Congress had granted Franklin Roosevelt sweeping authority; in Panama Refining v. Ryan, the Court for the first time struck down a Congressional delegation of power as violative of the doctrine of separation of powers. The aforementioned Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States, another separation of powers case, was also decided during Franklin Roosevelt's presidency. In response to many unfavorable Supreme Court decisions, Roosevelt introduced a "Court Packing" plan, under which more seats would be added to the Supreme Court for the president to fill. Such a plan (which was defeated in Congress) would have seriously undermined the judiciary's independence and power.

Which President attempted to pack the supreme court?

Franklin Roosevelt

Who had granted Franklin Roosevelt sweeping authority during the great depression?

Congress

Which presidents have tried to decrease the power of the presidential office?

I'm not sure.

Who claimed the president was not permitted to do whatever wasn't allowed by law?

I'm not sure.

Who failed to have considerable power during the Great Depression?

I'm not sure.

Who had considerable power during the Great Recession?

I'm not sure.

Who introduced a plan to decrease the number of Supreme Court seats for the president to fill?

I'm not sure.


Richard Nixon used national security as a basis for his expansion of power. He asserted, for example, that "the inherent power of the President to safeguard the security of the nation" authorized him to order a wiretap without a judge's warrant. Nixon also asserted that "executive privilege" shielded him from all legislative oversight; furthermore, he impounded federal funds (that is to say, he refused to spend money that Congress had appropriated for government programs). In the specific cases aforementioned, however, the Supreme Court ruled against Nixon. This was also because of an ongoing criminal investigation into the Watergate tapes, even though they acknowledged the general need for executive privilege. Since then, Nixon's successors have sometimes asserted that they may act in the interests of national security or that executive privilege shields them from Congressional oversight. Though such claims have in general been more limited than Nixon's, one may still conclude that the presidency's power has been greatly augmented since the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.

Under what basis did Richard Nixon assert an expansion of the power of the President?

national security

Who used the Supreme Court as a basis for expansion of power?

I'm not sure.

Who claimed that executive privilege did not shield him from legislative oversight?

I'm not sure.

Which president refused to spend money that was appropriated by the Supreme Court?

I'm not sure.

Into which tapes was there an ongoing civil investigation?

I'm not sure.

Which president followed Congress' plan for appropriated government programs?

I'm not sure.


It is said[by whom?] on one side of this debate that separation of powers means that powers are shared among different branches; no one branch may act unilaterally on issues (other than perhaps minor questions), but must obtain some form of agreement across branches. That is, it is argued that "checks and balances" apply to the Judicial branch as well as to the other branches.

What term is used when one branch of government must get approval from at least one other branch of government?

checks and balances

What does combination of powers mean?

I'm not sure.

What does not apply to the judicial branch?

I'm not sure.

What does not apply to any branch of government?

I'm not sure.

Branches are free to act in which way on all issues?

I'm not sure.

The Judicial branch of government is the only one to which what is applied?

I'm not sure.


An example of the first view is the regulation of attorneys and judges, and the establishment of rules for the conduct of the courts, by the Congress and in the states the legislatures. Although in practice these matters are delegated to the Supreme Court, the Congress holds these powers and delegates them to the Supreme Court only for convenience in light of the Supreme Court's expertise, but can withdraw that delegation at any time.

Who has congress delegated the responsibility of establishing the rules of conduct for the courts to?

the Supreme Court

The regulation of Congress is an example of what?

I'm not sure.

While Supreme Court holds these powers, who does it delegate them to?

I'm not sure.

In practice, what is delegated to Congress?

I'm not sure.

What is Congress unable to withdraw?

I'm not sure.


An example of the second view at the State level is found in the view of the Florida Supreme Court, that only the Florida Supreme Court may license and regulate attorneys appearing before the courts of Florida, and only the Florida Supreme Court may set rules for procedures in the Florida courts.[citation needed] The State of New Hampshire also follows this system.[citation needed]

Who may license and regulate attorneys in Florida?

the Florida Supreme Court

Who sets the procedures to be followed in the Florida court system?

the Florida Supreme Court

In which supreme court is an example of the third view at the State level?

I'm not sure.

Where is an example of the second view at the National level found?

I'm not sure.

Which court is the only one able to set rules for procedures in State courts?

I'm not sure.

Which court is the only one able to regulate attorneys appearing before the Supreme Court?

I'm not sure.

Which court is the only one able to license attorneys appearing before New Hampshire Supreme Court?

I'm not sure.


One may claim that the judiciary has historically been the weakest of the three branches. In fact, its power to exercise judicial review—its sole meaningful check on the other two branches—is not explicitly granted by the U.S Constitution. The U.S. Supreme Court exercised its power to strike down congressional acts as unconstitutional only twice prior to the Civil War: in Marbury v. Madison (1803) and Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857). The Supreme Court has since then made more extensive use of judicial review.

Which branch may be historically claimed to be the strongest of the branches of government?

I'm not sure.

Which power of the judiciary is explicitly granted in the Constitution?

I'm not sure.

How many times prior to Dred Scott v. Sandford had the Supreme Court exercised its power to strike down congressional acts?

I'm not sure.

How many times before World War I has the Supreme Court exercised its power to strike down congressional acts?

I'm not sure.

Before the Civil War, the Marbury had exercised its power to strike down what type of acts only twice?

I'm not sure.


Many political scientists believe that separation of powers is a decisive factor in what they see as a limited degree of American exceptionalism. In particular, John W. Kingdon made this argument, claiming that separation of powers contributed to the development of a unique political structure in the United States. He attributes the unusually large number of interest groups active in the United States, in part, to the separation of powers; it gives groups more places to try to influence, and creates more potential group activity. He also cites its complexity as one of the reasons for lower citizen participation.[citation needed]

What do many political scientists think is a factor in an unlimited degree in American exceptionalism?

I'm not sure.

Who claimed that separation of powers deteriorated the unique political structure in the US?

I'm not sure.

What do many political scientists attribute the large number of active interest groups in the US to?

I'm not sure.

What does John W. Kingdon attribute the small number of interest groups in the US to?

I'm not sure.

Who attributes the small number of active interest groups to the separation of powers?

I'm not sure.


Architecture (Latin architectura, from the Greek ἀρχιτέκτων arkhitekton "architect", from ἀρχι- "chief" and τέκτων "builder") is both the process and the product of planning, designing, and constructing buildings and other physical structures. Architectural works, in the material form of buildings, are often perceived as cultural symbols and as works of art. Historical civilizations are often identified with their surviving architectural achievements.

What is the latin word for architecture?

Architectural

In what language does the word "architecture" have its origins?

Greek

What two words is "architecture" a combination of?

ἀρχι- "chief" and τέκτων "builder"

Architecture involves the creation of what?

buildings and other physical structures

Aside from symbolizing cultures, what else are architectural works thought of as?

as works of art

What can extant architectural works be used to identify?

Historical civilizations

What is the french word for architecture?

I'm not sure.

What is the Italian word for architecture?

I'm not sure.

What do you call the destruction of buildings?

I'm not sure.

What structures never be viewed as both works of art and symbols of certain cultures?

I'm not sure.

Civilizations from the past will never be identified by what surviving structures?

I'm not sure.


The earliest surviving written work on the subject of architecture is De architectura, by the Roman architect Vitruvius in the early 1st century AD. According to Vitruvius, a good building should satisfy the three principles of firmitas, utilitas, venustas, commonly known by the original translation – firmness, commodity and delight. An equivalent in modern English would be:

What is the oldest architecture plans that has survived?

De architectura

Who created the oldest surviving architecture plans?

Roman architect Vitruvius

When did Vitruvius create these plans?

1st century AD.

What are the three principles every plan should consider?

firmness, commodity and delight.

What is the first known extant writing about architecture called?

De architectura

Who was the author of  De architectura?

Vitruvius

What was Vitruvius' profession?

architect

What were Vitruvius' three principles for a well made building?

firmitas, utilitas, venustas

What is the commonly seen English translation of the three principles?

firmness, commodity and delight

What is the youngest architecture plans that has survived?

I'm not sure.

Who created the most recent surviving architecture plans?

I'm not sure.

What was written in the 2nd century AD?

I'm not sure.

What was Vitruvius' fourth principles for a well made building?

I'm not sure.

What is the commonly seen French translation of the three principles?

I'm not sure.


According to Vitruvius, the architect should strive to fulfill each of these three attributes as well as possible. Leon Battista Alberti, who elaborates on the ideas of Vitruvius in his treatise, De Re Aedificatoria, saw beauty primarily as a matter of proportion, although ornament also played a part. For Alberti, the rules of proportion were those that governed the idealised human figure, the Golden mean. The most important aspect of beauty was therefore an inherent part of an object, rather than something applied superficially; and was based on universal, recognisable truths. The notion of style in the arts was not developed until the 16th century, with the writing of Vasari: by the 18th century, his Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects had been translated into Italian, French, Spanish and English.

When were the styles of arts created?

16th century

Who wrote Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects?

Vasari

By the 18th century which languages was Vasaris book translated in?

Italian, French, Spanish and English

In Vitruvius's mind, whose responsibility was it to see the principles carried out?

architect

Who wrote De Re Aedificatoria?

Leon Battista Alberti

What did Leon Battista Alberti consider most important for beauty?

proportion

What ideal proportion did Alberti promote?

the Golden mean

In what century did "style" as an artistic concept arise?

What was created in the 17th century?

I'm not sure.

Who wrote Lives of the Least Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects?

I'm not sure.

By the 16th century which languages was Vasaris book translated in?

I'm not sure.

In Vitruvius's mind, whose responsibility was it to see the principles rejected?

I'm not sure.

Who wrote Re Re Aedificatoria?

I'm not sure.


In the early 19th century, Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin wrote Contrasts (1836) that, as the titled suggested, contrasted the modern, industrial world, which he disparaged, with an idealized image of neo-medieval world. Gothic architecture, Pugin believed, was the only "true Christian form of architecture."

Who wrote the book Contrasts?

Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin

What year was Contrasts written in?

What was the name of Pugin's book?

Contrasts

In what year was Contrasts written?

What world did Pugin dislike?

modern, industrial world

What type of architecture did Pugin consider truly Christian?

Gothic

What book was written in the 18th century?

I'm not sure.

Who wrote Contrasts in the 17th century?

I'm not sure.

When did Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin paint the artwork called Contrasts?

I'm not sure.

What world did Pugin like?

I'm not sure.

What type of architecture did Pugin consider truly non-Christian?

I'm not sure.


The 19th-century English art critic, John Ruskin, in his Seven Lamps of Architecture, published 1849, was much narrower in his view of what constituted architecture. Architecture was the "art which so disposes and adorns the edifices raised by men ... that the sight of them" contributes "to his mental health, power, and pleasure".

Who wrote Seven Lamps of Architecture?

John Ruskin

Who was the author of Seven Lamps of Architecture?

John Ruskin

What was Ruskin's career?

art critic

When was  Seven Lamps of Architecture published?

What, according to Ruskin, should looking at architecture contribute to its viewer?

to his mental health, power, and pleasure

Who wrote Eight Lamps of Architecture?

I'm not sure.

When did John Ruskin write the Seven Lamps of Architecture?

I'm not sure.

What book came out in the 18th century?

I'm not sure.

What subject did John Ruskin teach in college?

I'm not sure.

Who said "art which never disposes and adorns the edifices"

I'm not sure.


For Ruskin, the aesthetic was of overriding significance. His work goes on to state that a building is not truly a work of architecture unless it is in some way "adorned". For Ruskin, a well-constructed, well-proportioned, functional building needed string courses or rustication, at the very least.

Does Ruskin believe all buildings are works of architecture?

not

What was most significant in architecture according to Ruskin?

the aesthetic

To be true architecture in Ruskin's opinion what should be done to a structure?

it is in some way "adorned"

What features at minimum did Ruskin insist on for a building to be considered functional?

string courses or rustication

Who believes all buildings are works of architecture?

I'm not sure.

What was least significant in architecture according to Ruskin?

I'm not sure.

To be true architecture in Ruskin's opinion what should never be done to a structure?

I'm not sure.

What features at maximum did Ruskin insist on for a building to be considered functional?

I'm not sure.


On the difference between the ideals of architecture and mere construction, the renowned 20th-century architect Le Corbusier wrote: "You employ stone, wood, and concrete, and with these materials you build houses and palaces: that is construction. Ingenuity is at work. But suddenly you touch my heart, you do me good. I am happy and I say: This is beautiful. That is Architecture".

What century was the architect Le Corbusier in?

Who wrote on the topic of architectural ideals contrasted with simple construction?

Le Corbusier

What was Le Corbusier 's profession?

Architect

When did Le Corbusier live and write?

What part of him did Le Corbusier say proper architecture touched?

heart

What state of emotion did Le Corbusier say architecture put him in?

I am happy

What century was the architect Le Corbusier born?

I'm not sure.

Who disagreed on the topic of architectural ideals contrasted with simple construction?

I'm not sure.

What job did Le Corbusier quit?

I'm not sure.

Who said "You don't employ stone, wood, and concrete"

I'm not sure.

Who said "I am happy and I say: This is beautiful. That is not Architecture"

I'm not sure.


While the notion that structural and aesthetic considerations should be entirely subject to functionality was met with both popularity and skepticism, it had the effect of introducing the concept of "function" in place of Vitruvius' "utility". "Function" came to be seen as encompassing all criteria of the use, perception and enjoyment of a building, not only practical but also aesthetic, psychological and cultural.

What term replaced Vitruvius' term "utility"?

Function

In addition to being practically useful what other aspects did a building need in order to be considered functional?

aesthetic, psychological and cultural

Whose concept of utility did the more modern concept of function replace?

Vitruvius

What aspects of a building were considered part of the larger concept of function?

all criteria of the use, perception and enjoyment of a building

What were the reactions to the idea that function should come before other concerns?

both popularity and skepticism

What term replaced Vitruvius' term "nonutility"?

I'm not sure.

What was the term "criteria" replaced by?

I'm not sure.

Whose concept of utility did the more modern concept of function not replace?

I'm not sure.

What aspects of a building were considered part of the smaller concept of function?

I'm not sure.

What were the reactions to the idea that function should never come before other concerns?

I'm not sure.


Among the philosophies that have influenced modern architects and their approach to building design are rationalism, empiricism, structuralism, poststructuralism, and phenomenology.

What are some philosophies that modern architects use?

rationalism, empiricism, structuralism, poststructuralism, and phenomenology.

Rationalism and empiricism are examples of what?

philosophies

Aside from the architects what did the philosophies influence?

their approach to building design

Which philosophy followed structuralism?

poststructuralism

What are some philosophies that ancient architects use?

I'm not sure.

Rationalism and empiricism are not examples of what?

I'm not sure.

Which philosophy came before structuralism?

I'm not sure.

Aside from the architects what did the rationalism influence?

I'm not sure.


In the late 20th century a new concept was added to those included in the compass of both structure and function, the consideration of sustainability, hence sustainable architecture. To satisfy the contemporary ethos a building should be constructed in a manner which is environmentally friendly in terms of the production of its materials, its impact upon the natural and built environment of its surrounding area and the demands that it makes upon non-sustainable power sources for heating, cooling, water and waste management and lighting.

When was the conecept, Sustainable architecture used?

late 20th century

What novel concept was introduced at the end of the 20th century?

sustainability

To what should a building be friendly?

environment

What sort of power sources should a building not overuse if the building is to be considered environmentally friendly?

non-sustainable power sources

When was the conecept, unsustainable architecture used?

I'm not sure.

What novel concept was introduced at the end of the 19th century?

I'm not sure.

To what should a building be not friendly?

I'm not sure.

What sort of power sources should a building always overuse if the building is to be considered environmentally friendly?

I'm not sure.


Building first evolved out of the dynamics between needs (shelter, security, worship, etc.) and means (available building materials and attendant skills). As human cultures developed and knowledge began to be formalized through oral traditions and practices, building became a craft, and "architecture" is the name given to the most highly formalized and respected versions of that craft.

What dynamic needs were the reason for building to be done?

shelter, security, worship

Oral traditions allowed what to become formalized in human cultures?

knowledge

What was building considered?

a craft

What was the most valued type of building craft called?

architecture

Aside from skills, what is required in order to have the means for building?

building materials

What dynamic needs were the reason for building to be demolished?

I'm not sure.

Oral traditions disallowed what to become formalized in human cultures?

I'm not sure.

What was building never considered?

I'm not sure.

What was the least valued type of building craft called?

I'm not sure.

Aside from skills, what is not required in order to have the means for building?

I'm not sure.


It is widely assumed that architectural success was the product of a process of trial and error, with progressively less trial and more replication as the results of the process proved increasingly satisfactory. What is termed vernacular architecture continues to be produced in many parts of the world. Indeed, vernacular buildings make up most of the built world that people experience every day. Early human settlements were mostly rural. Due to a surplus in production the economy began to expand resulting in urbanization thus creating urban areas which grew and evolved very rapidly in some cases, such as that of Çatal Höyük in Anatolia and Mohenjo Daro of the Indus Valley Civilization in modern-day Pakistan.

What type of buildings are are built mostly through out the world?

vernacular buildings

Why did the economy begin to expand?

a surplus in production

Through what process is it thought that the first architectural achievements were made?

trial and error

What is a popular type of architecture that still exists around the planet?

vernacular

In what environment were many of the first human settlements?

rural

What sort of an effect did a growing economy have on human settlements?

urbanization

At what speed did urban settlements sometimes expand?

rapidly

What type of buildings are not built mostly through out the world?

I'm not sure.

Why did the economy stop expanding?

I'm not sure.

Through what process is it thought that the first architectural achievements were not made?

I'm not sure.

What is a popular type of architecture that doesn't exist around the planet?

I'm not sure.

In what environment were many of the latest human settlements?

I'm not sure.


In many ancient civilizations, such as those of Egypt and Mesopotamia, architecture and urbanism reflected the constant engagement with the divine and the supernatural, and many ancient cultures resorted to monumentality in architecture to represent symbolically the political power of the ruler, the ruling elite, or the state itself.

What civilizations used the divine and supernatural in their architecture?

Egypt and Mesopotamia

What are two examples of past civilizations?

Egypt and Mesopotamia

To what did these civilizations have ties that to were shown off by their architecture?

the divine and the supernatural

What does architectural monumentality often represent?

political power

What civilizations didn't use the divine and supernatural in their architecture?

I'm not sure.

What are three examples of past civilizations?

I'm not sure.

To what did these civilizations have ties that to weren't shown off by their architecture?

I'm not sure.

What does architectural monumentality never represent?

I'm not sure.


Early Asian writings on architecture include the Kao Gong Ji of China from the 7th–5th centuries BCE; the Shilpa Shastras of ancient India and Manjusri Vasthu Vidya Sastra of Sri Lanka.

Name one Asian architectural writer.

Kao Gong Ji

What country produced the Kao Gong Ji?

China

When was the Kao Gong Ji written?

7th–5th centuries BCE

What architectural writing came from Sri Lanka?

Manjusri Vasthu Vidya Sastra

India produced which early architectural text?

Shilpa Shastras

Who wrote late Asian writings?

I'm not sure.

What country rejected the Kao Gong Ji?

I'm not sure.

What was written in 4th century BCE?

I'm not sure.

What religious writing came from Sri Lanka?

I'm not sure.

India produced which modern architectural text?

I'm not sure.


The architecture of different parts of Asia developed along different lines from that of Europe; Buddhist, Hindu and Sikh architecture each having different characteristics. Buddhist architecture, in particular, showed great regional diversity. Hindu temple architecture, which developed around the 3rd century BCE, is governed by concepts laid down in the Shastras, and is concerned with expressing the macrocosm and the microcosm. In many Asian countries, pantheistic religion led to architectural forms that were designed specifically to enhance the natural landscape.

What religion led to architectural changes in many Asian countries?

pantheistic religion

Which cultures architecture showed a lot of diversity?

Buddhist architecture

When did Hindu temple architecture begin being produced?

3rd century BCE

What does Hindu temple architecture try to express?

the macrocosm and the microcosm

What is the source of the concepts in Hindu temple architecture?

the Shastras

What type of architectural is especially known for its regional differences

Buddhist

What kind of religious theology affected landscape related architecture in Asia?

pantheistic religion

What religion led to architectural changes in many English countries?

I'm not sure.

Which cultures architecture showed a lot of similarities?

I'm not sure.

When did Muslim temple architecture begin being produced?

I'm not sure.

What does Hindu temple architecture try to hide?

I'm not sure.

What type of architectural is especially known for its non-regional differences

I'm not sure.


Islamic architecture began in the 7th century CE, incorporating architectural forms from the ancient Middle East and Byzantium, but also developing features to suit the religious and social needs of the society. Examples can be found throughout the Middle East, North Africa, Spain and the Indian Sub-continent. The widespread application of the pointed arch was to influence European architecture of the Medieval period.

What cultures architecture inspired Islamic architecture to use pointed arch's?

European architecture

When was Islamic architecture first seen?

7th century CE

In addition to forms from the ancient Middle East, what other place's forms had an effect on Islamic architecture?

Byzantium

What other parts of the society's needs did architecture fill?

religious and social needs

What kind of arch design from Islamic architecture affected European architects?

pointed arch


The major architectural undertakings were the buildings of abbeys and cathedrals. From about 900 CE onwards, the movements of both clerics and tradesmen carried architectural knowledge across Europe, resulting in the pan-European styles Romanesque and Gothic.

What type of buildings were took the most effort to build?

abbeys and cathedrals.

What were the most important buildings of the time?

abbeys and cathedrals

What two groups spread knowledge of architecture in Europe?

clerics and tradesmen

What style is Gothic?

pan-European

What is another pan-European style?

Romanesque

When did the clerics and tradesmen start spreading architectural information?

900 CE onwards

What type of buildings were took the least effort to build?

I'm not sure.

What were the least important buildings of the time?

I'm not sure.

What three groups spread knowledge of architecture in Europe?

I'm not sure.

What style is pre-Gothic?

I'm not sure.

What is another pre-European style?

I'm not sure.


In Renaissance Europe, from about 1400 onwards, there was a revival of Classical learning accompanied by the development of Renaissance Humanism which placed greater emphasis on the role of the individual in society than had been the case during the Medieval period. Buildings were ascribed to specific architects – Brunelleschi, Alberti, Michelangelo, Palladio – and the cult of the individual had begun. There was still no dividing line between artist, architect and engineer, or any of the related vocations, and the appellation was often one of regional preference.

When was Renaissance Humanism developed?

When did the Classical learning revival begin?

1400 onwards

What continent did this revival take place on?

Europe

What was the name for the time period?

Renaissance

What did Renaissance Humanism emphasize?

role of the individual

What three vocations were not really considered separate from each other at that time?

artist, architect and engineer

What was developed before 1400?

I'm not sure.

When did the Classical learning revival ed?

I'm not sure.

What state did this revival take place in?

I'm not sure.

What was the name for the time period before this?

I'm not sure.

What didn't Renaissance Humanism emphasize?

I'm not sure.


Architecture has to do with planning and designing form, space and ambience to reflect functional, technical, social, environmental and aesthetic considerations. It requires the creative manipulation and coordination of materials and technology, and of light and shadow. Often, conflicting requirements must be resolved. The practice of Architecture also encompasses the pragmatic aspects of realizing buildings and structures, including scheduling, cost estimation and construction administration. Documentation produced by architects, typically drawings, plans and technical specifications, defines the structure and/or behavior of a building or other kind of system that is to be or has been constructed.

What sort of considerations does architectural design take into account?

functional, technical, social, environmental and aesthetic

In architecture what aspects are planned and designed?

form, space and ambience

Aside from planning and design what other types of aspects does architecture involve?

pragmatic aspects

What sort of considerations does architectural design never take into account?

I'm not sure.

In architecture what aspects are never planned and designed?

I'm not sure.

Aside from planning and design what other types of aspects does architecture never involve?

I'm not sure.


Nunzia Rondanini stated, "Through its aesthetic dimension architecture goes beyond the functional aspects that it has in common with other human sciences. Through its own particular way of expressing values, architecture can stimulate and influence social life without presuming that, in and of itself, it will promote social development.'

Who said that architecture was able extend beyond function?

Nunzia Rondanini

In what way did Nunzia Rondanini believe architecture moved past mere functionality?

Through its aesthetic dimension

What could, in Rondanini's opinion, architecture "stimulate and influence"?

social life

What shouldn't architecture be assumed to promote, according to Rondanini?

social development

What does architecture share with other sciences?

functional aspects

Who said that architecture wasn't able extend beyond function?

I'm not sure.

In what way did Nunzia Rondanini not believe architecture moved past mere functionality?

I'm not sure.

What couldn't, in Rondanini's opinion, architecture "stimulate and influence"?

I'm not sure.

What should architecture be assumed to promote, according to Rondanini?

I'm not sure.

How does architecture differ from other sciences?

I'm not sure.


To restrict the meaning of (architectural) formalism to art for art's sake is not only reactionary; it can also be a purposeless quest for perfection or originality which degrades form into a mere instrumentality".

What is a reactionary thing to limit formalism's meaning to?

art for art's sake

What sort of quest lacks purpose?

quest for perfection or originality

What ends up being reduced in quality by this quest?

form

What is a reactionary thing to expand formalism's meaning to?

I'm not sure.

What sort of quest defines purpose?

I'm not sure.

What ends up being maximized in quality by this quest?

I'm not sure.


The architecture and urbanism of the Classical civilizations such as the Greek and the Roman evolved from civic ideals rather than religious or empirical ones and new building types emerged. Architectural "style" developed in the form of the Classical orders.

From what ideals did Classical architecture emerge?

civic ideals

These civic ideas allowed what to come into being?

new building types

What ideals were Greek and Roman Classical architecture not based on?

religious or empirical ones

What owes its development to the Classical orders?

Architectural "style"

From what ideals did Classical architecture not come from?

I'm not sure.

These civic ideas allowed what to not come into being?

I'm not sure.

What ideals were Greek and Roman Classical architecture based on?

I'm not sure.

What doesn't owe its development to the Classical orders?

I'm not sure.


Texts on architecture have been written since ancient time. These texts provided both general advice and specific formal prescriptions or canons. Some examples of canons are found in the writings of the 1st-century BCE Roman Architect Vitruvius. Some of the most important early examples of canonic architecture are religious.

When were architectural writings first made?

ancient time

Aside from general advice what did the texts contain?

specific formal prescriptions

What is another term for specific formal prescriptions?

canons

When did Vitruvius write his canons?

1st-century BCE

What is a significant early architectural canonical type?

religious

When were architectural writings last made?

I'm not sure.

Aside from general advice what did the texts not contain?

I'm not sure.

What is another term for specific informal prescriptions?

I'm not sure.

Who wrote canons in 2nd century BCE?

I'm not sure.

What is an insignificant early architectural canonical type?

I'm not sure.


In Europe during the Medieval period, guilds were formed by craftsmen to organise their trades and written contracts have survived, particularly in relation to ecclesiastical buildings. The role of architect was usually one with that of master mason, or Magister lathomorum as they are sometimes described in contemporary documents.

What organizations were created by Medieval craftsmen?

guilds

What records of the guilds are still in existence?

written contracts

What was the main thing the contracts were had to do with?

ecclesiastical buildings

What is another term for master mason?

Magister lathomorum

What organizations were not created by Medieval craftsmen?

I'm not sure.

What records of the guilds are no longer in existence?

I'm not sure.

What was the least important thing the contracts were had to do with?

I'm not sure.

What is another term for trainer mason?

I'm not sure.


A revival of the Classical style in architecture was accompanied by a burgeoning of science and engineering which affected the proportions and structure of buildings. At this stage, it was still possible for an artist to design a bridge as the level of structural calculations involved was within the scope of the generalist.

What aspects of buildings did science and engineering have an effect on?

proportions and structure

Who still could handle the structural calculations for designing at that time?

generalist

What aspects of buildings did engineering not have an effect on?

I'm not sure.

What aspects of buildings did science not have an effect on?

I'm not sure.

Who still couldn't handle the structural calculations for designing at that time?

I'm not sure.


With the emerging knowledge in scientific fields and the rise of new materials and technology, architecture and engineering began to separate, and the architect began to concentrate on aesthetics and the humanist aspects, often at the expense of technical aspects of building design. There was also the rise of the "gentleman architect" who usually dealt with wealthy clients and concentrated predominantly on visual qualities derived usually from historical prototypes, typified by the many country houses of Great Britain that were created in the Neo Gothic or Scottish Baronial styles. Formal architectural training in the 19th century, for example at École des Beaux-Arts in France, gave much emphasis to the production of beautiful drawings and little to context and feasibility. Effective architects generally received their training in the offices of other architects, graduating to the role from draughtsmen or clerks.

What two fields began to grow apart?

architecture and engineering

What did architects often neglect in their pursuit of aesthetics?

technical aspects of building design

What was a term for an architect who catered to the wealthy?

"gentleman architect"

What did 19th century formal architectural training neglect?

context and feasibility

Where did most architects learn their trade?

in the offices of other architects

What two fields got closer?

I'm not sure.

What three fields began to grow apart?

I'm not sure.

What did architects often favor in their pursuit of aesthetics?

I'm not sure.

What was a term for an architect who catered to the poor?

I'm not sure.

What did 18th century formal architectural training neglect?

I'm not sure.


Meanwhile, the Industrial Revolution laid open the door for mass production and consumption. Aesthetics became a criterion for the middle class as ornamented products, once within the province of expensive craftsmanship, became cheaper under machine production.

What started with the Industrial Revolution?

mass production and consumption

What became cheap enough for the middle class to buy?

ornamented products

As products came within their financial reach what concept began to interest the middle class?

Aesthetics

What ended with the Industrial Revolution?

I'm not sure.

What became cheap enough for the lower class to buy?

I'm not sure.

As products came within their financial reach what concept began to interest the upper class?

I'm not sure.

As products came within their financial reach what concept began to interest the lower class?

I'm not sure.


Vernacular architecture became increasingly ornamental. House builders could use current architectural design in their work by combining features found in pattern books and architectural journals.

What kind of books did housebuilders use?

pattern books and architectural journals

What type of design did these texts allow the builders to incorporate?

current architectural design

What kind of books did housebuilders reject?

I'm not sure.

What type of design did these texts allow the builders to reject?

I'm not sure.


Around the beginning of the 20th century, a general dissatisfaction with the emphasis on revivalist architecture and elaborate decoration gave rise to many new lines of thought that served as precursors to Modern Architecture. Notable among these is the Deutscher Werkbund, formed in 1907 to produce better quality machine made objects. The rise of the profession of industrial design is usually placed here. Following this lead, the Bauhaus school, founded in Weimar, Germany in 1919, redefined the architectural bounds prior set throughout history, viewing the creation of a building as the ultimate synthesis—the apex—of art, craft, and technology.

At what century's start did revivalist fall into disfavor?

What new type of architecture was starting to come into being at this time?

Modern Architecture

When did the Deutscher Werkbund get its start?

What was the point of the Deutscher Werkbund?

to produce better quality machine made objects

In 1919 what school opened in Weimar, Germany?

the Bauhaus school

At what century's end did revivalist fall into disfavor?

I'm not sure.

What old type of architecture was starting to come into being at this time?

I'm not sure.

When did the Deutscher Werkbund end?

I'm not sure.

What started in 1970?

I'm not sure.

In 1919 what business opened in Weimar, Germany?

I'm not sure.


When modern architecture was first practiced, it was an avant-garde movement with moral, philosophical, and aesthetic underpinnings. Immediately after World War I, pioneering modernist architects sought to develop a completely new style appropriate for a new post-war social and economic order, focused on meeting the needs of the middle and working classes. They rejected the architectural practice of the academic refinement of historical styles which served the rapidly declining aristocratic order. The approach of the Modernist architects was to reduce buildings to pure forms, removing historical references and ornament in favor of functionalist details. Buildings displayed their functional and structural elements, exposing steel beams and concrete surfaces instead of hiding them behind decorative forms.

What kind of movement was modern architecture in the beginning?

avant-garde movement

Who was the new movement meant to suit the needs of?

the middle and working classes

Whose needs were no longer relevant to the new style?

the rapidly declining aristocratic order

What sort of details did the Modernists' want in their buildings?

functionalist

What details did Modernists' do away with?

historical references and ornament

What kind of movement was prehistoric architecture in the beginning?

I'm not sure.

What kind of movement was modern architecture in the ending?

I'm not sure.

Who was the old movement meant to suit the needs of?

I'm not sure.

What details did Modernists' encourage?

I'm not sure.


Architects such as Frank Lloyd Wright developed Organic architecture, in which the form was defined by its environment and purpose, with an aim to promote harmony between human habitation and the natural world with prime examples being Robie House and Fallingwater.

Who was instrumental in creating Organic architecture?

Frank Lloyd Wright

What are two of Wright's designs?

Robie House and Fallingwater

What was Wright's intention regarding humans and nature?

to promote harmony

Who was instrumental in rejecting Organic architecture?

I'm not sure.

Who was instrumental in creating inorganic architecture?

I'm not sure.

What are four of Wright's designs?

I'm not sure.

Wright wanted to promote disharmony in what two groups?

I'm not sure.


Architects such as Mies van der Rohe, Philip Johnson and Marcel Breuer worked to create beauty based on the inherent qualities of building materials and modern construction techniques, trading traditional historic forms for simplified geometric forms, celebrating the new means and methods made possible by the Industrial Revolution, including steel-frame construction, which gave birth to high-rise superstructures. By mid-century, Modernism had morphed into the International Style, an aesthetic epitomized in many ways by the Twin Towers of New York's World Trade Center designed by Minoru Yamasaki.

What made it possible to design architecture through new means and methods?

the Industrial Revolution

What new type of construction allowed the making of skyscrapers?

steel-frame construction

What style came after Modernism?

International Style

What is an example of International Style?

Twin Towers

Who designed the Twin Towers?

Minoru Yamasaki

What made it impossible to design architecture through new means and methods?

I'm not sure.

What old type of construction allowed the making of skyscrapers?

I'm not sure.

What style came before Modernism?

I'm not sure.

Who designed the Triplet Towers?

I'm not sure.

What is an example of Domestic Style?

I'm not sure.


Many architects resisted modernism, finding it devoid of the decorative richness of historical styles. As the first generation of modernists began to die after WWII, a second generation of architects including Paul Rudolph, Marcel Breuer, and Eero Saarinen tried to expand the aesthetics of modernism with Brutalism, buildings with expressive sculptural facades made of unfinished concrete. But an even new younger postwar generation critiqued modernism and Brutalism for being too austere, standardized, monotone, and not taking into account the richness of human experience offered in historical buildings across time and in different places and cultures.

What aspect of historical styles did a lot of architects find lacking in modernist styles?

decorative richness

Who were three architects who influenced Brutalism?

Paul Rudolph, Marcel Breuer, and Eero Saarinen

What material was used in Brutalist structures?

unfinished concrete

Who disagreed with the aesthetic of Brutalism?

postwar generation

What aspect of historical styles did a lot of architects find booming in modernist styles?

I'm not sure.

Who were three architects who discouraged Brutalism?

I'm not sure.

What material was never used in Brutalist structures?

I'm not sure.

Who agreed with the aesthetic of Brutalism?

I'm not sure.


One such reaction to the cold aesthetic of modernism and Brutalism is the school of metaphoric architecture, which includes such things as biomorphism and zoomorphic architecture, both using nature as the primary source of inspiration and design. While it is considered by some to be merely an aspect of postmodernism, others consider it to be a school in its own right and a later development of expressionist architecture.

What school was a response to Brutalism?

the school of metaphoric architecture

What are two examples of metaphoric architecture?

biomorphism and zoomorphic architecture

What are biomorphism and zoomorphic architecture based after design wise?

nature

What type of architecture do some consider metaphoric architecture to be a development of?

expressionist architecture

What school was a warm aesthetic of modernism

I'm not sure.

What are two examples of non-metaphoric architecture?

I'm not sure.

What are biomorphism and zoomorphic architecture not based after design wise?

I'm not sure.

What type of architecture does nobody consider metaphoric architecture to be a development of?

I'm not sure.


Beginning in the late 1950s and 1960s, architectural phenomenology emerged as an important movement in the early reaction against modernism, with architects like Charles Moore in the USA, Christian Norberg-Schulz in Norway, and Ernesto Nathan Rogers and Vittorio Gregotti in Italy, who collectively popularized an interest in a new contemporary architecture aimed at expanding human experience using historical buildings as models and precedents. Postmodernism produced a style that combined contemporary building technology and cheap materials, with the aesthetics of older pre-modern and non-modern styles, from high classical architecture to popular or vernacular regional building styles. Robert Venturi famously defined postmodern architecture as a "decorated shed" (an ordinary building which is functionally designed inside and embellished on the outside), and upheld it against modernist and brutalist "ducks" (buildings with unnecessarily expressive tectonic forms).

When was the start of the  architectural phenomenology movement?

the late 1950s and 1960s

What was  architectural phenomenology reacting to?

modernism

What were the architectural phenomenologists hoping to expand?

human experience

Who called postmodern architecture a "decorated shed"?

Robert Venturi

What term did Venturi use for brutalist and mondernist buildings?

"ducks"

When was the end of the architectural phenomenology movement?

I'm not sure.

What happened in the early 1950s?

I'm not sure.

What was architectural phenomenology not reacting to?

I'm not sure.

What were the architectural phenomenologists hoping to stay away from?

I'm not sure.

Who called postmodern architecture a "decorated building"?

I'm not sure.


Since the 1980s, as the complexity of buildings began to increase (in terms of structural systems, services, energy and technologies), the field of architecture became multi-disciplinary with specializations for each project type, technological expertise or project delivery methods. In addition, there has been an increased separation of the 'design' architect [Notes 1] from the 'project' architect who ensures that the project meets the required standards and deals with matters of liability.[Notes 2] The preparatory processes for the design of any large building have become increasingly complicated, and require preliminary studies of such matters as durability, sustainability, quality, money, and compliance with local laws. A large structure can no longer be the design of one person but must be the work of many. Modernism and Postmodernism have been criticised by some members of the architectural profession who feel that successful architecture is not a personal, philosophical, or aesthetic pursuit by individualists; rather it has to consider everyday needs of people and use technology to create liveable environments, with the design process being informed by studies of behavioral, environmental, and social sciences.

About when did architecture begin specializing?

Since the 1980s

Who can no longer design a large structure?

one person

What two architectural movements have come under criticism for their focus on individuality?

Modernism and Postmodernism

About when did architecture stop specializing?

I'm not sure.

What happened before the 1980s?

I'm not sure.

When did complexity of buildings began to decrease?

I'm not sure.

What two architectural movements have never faced criticism for their focus on individuality?

I'm not sure.