According to Presentism, time is an ordering of various realities. At a certain time some things exist and others do not. This is the only reality we can deal with and we cannot for example say that Homer exists because at the present time he does not. An Eternalist, on the other hand, holds that time is a dimension of reality on a par with the three spatial dimensions, and hence that all things—past, present, and future—can be said to be just as real as things in the present. According to this theory, then, Homer really does exist, though we must still use special language when talking about somebody who exists at a distant time—just as we would use special language when talking about something far away (the very words near, far, above, below, and such are directly comparable to phrases such as in the past, a minute ago, and so on).

According to what theory is time an ordering of various realities?

Presentism

Presentism states that at a certain time some things do what?

exist

Who believes that time is a dimension of reality on a par with the three spatial dimensions

Eternalist

According to an Eternalist, what can be said to be just as real as things in the present?

all things—past, present, and future

According to the Eternalist theory, what must we use to describe Homer?

special language

What states time is the existance of various relities?

I'm not sure.

What states all things have either always existed or not

I'm not sure.

What do Eterialist say time is independent of?

I'm not sure.

What is more real according to Eternalists?

I'm not sure.


The positions on the persistence of objects are somewhat similar. An endurantist holds that for an object to persist through time is for it to exist completely at different times (each instance of existence we can regard as somehow separate from previous and future instances, though still numerically identical with them). A perdurantist on the other hand holds that for a thing to exist through time is for it to exist as a continuous reality, and that when we consider the thing as a whole we must consider an aggregate of all its "temporal parts" or instances of existing. Endurantism is seen as the conventional view and flows out of our pre-philosophical ideas (when I talk to somebody I think I am talking to that person as a complete object, and not just a part of a cross-temporal being), but perdurantists have attacked this position. (An example of a perdurantist is David Lewis.) One argument perdurantists use to state the superiority of their view is that perdurantism is able to take account of change in objects.

How similar are the positions on the persistence of objects?

somewhat similar

Who holds  that for an object to persist through time is for it to exist completely at different times?

endurantist

Who holds for a thing to exist through time is for it to exist as a continuous reality?

perdurantist

Which view is seen as conventional?

Endurantism

Who is an example of a perdurantist?

David Lewis

Who says that objects existin incompletely in the past present and future?

I'm not sure.

Who states that an object must in different realities?

I'm not sure.

What does endurantism take account of the change in?

I'm not sure.

What says that when we talk to a person we are talking to part of a cross-temeporal being?

I'm not sure.


However, asymmetry of causation can be observed in a non-arbitrary way which is not metaphysical in the case of a human hand dropping a cup of water which smashes into fragments on a hard floor, spilling the liquid. In this order, the causes of the resultant pattern of cup fragments and water spill is easily attributable in terms of the trajectory of the cup, irregularities in its structure, angle of its impact on the floor, etc. However, applying the same event in reverse, it is difficult to explain why the various pieces of the cup should fly up into the human hand and reassemble precisely into the shape of a cup, or why the water should position itself entirely within the cup. The causes of the resultant structure and shape of the cup and the encapsulation of the water by the hand within the cup are not easily attributable, as neither hand nor floor can achieve such formations of the cup or water. This asymmetry is perceivable on account of two features: i) the relationship between the agent capacities of the human hand (i.e., what it is and is not capable of and what it is for) and non-animal agency (i.e., what floors are and are not capable of and what they are for) and ii) that the pieces of cup came to possess exactly the nature and number of those of a cup before assembling. In short, such asymmetry is attributable to the relationship between temporal direction on the one hand and the implications of form and functional capacity on the other.

How can asymmetry of causation be observed?

in a non-arbitrary way

How many features of asymmetry in the cup example can be viewed?

two

Asymmetry is attributable to a relation of what kind of direction?

temporal

What else, besides direction, is asymmetry attributable to?

implications of form and functional capacity

What can be observed in an arbitrary way?

I'm not sure.

How many examples of symetry can be observed in the cup example?

I'm not sure.

Symmetry is atributable to a ralationship of what kind of direction?

I'm not sure.

What else besides direction is symmetry attributed to?

I'm not sure.


Traditionally considered the last part of the Stone Age, the Neolithic followed the terminal Holocene Epipaleolithic period and commenced with the beginning of farming, which produced the "Neolithic Revolution". It ended when metal tools became widespread (in the Copper Age or Bronze Age; or, in some geographical regions, in the Iron Age). The Neolithic is a progression of behavioral and cultural characteristics and changes, including the use of wild and domestic crops and of domesticated animals.

What era is commonly known as the final phase of the Stone Age?

the Neolithic

What era preceded the Neolithic?

Holocene Epipaleolithic period

What event is associated with the start of farming?

Neolithic Revolution

What era saw an increase in metal tool use?

Copper Age

What era is commonly called as the final phase of the Copper Age?

I'm not sure.

What era preceded the Stone Age?

I'm not sure.

What event is associated with the start of animals?

I'm not sure.

What era saw an increase in metal animal use?

I'm not sure.

What is a progression of farming?

I'm not sure.


The beginning of the Neolithic culture is considered to be in the Levant (Jericho, modern-day West Bank) about 10,200 – 8,800 BC. It developed directly from the Epipaleolithic Natufian culture in the region, whose people pioneered the use of wild cereals, which then evolved into true farming. The Natufian period was between 12,000 and 10,200 BC, and the so-called "proto-Neolithic" is now included in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic (PPNA) between 10,200 and 8,800 BC. As the Natufians had become dependent on wild cereals in their diet, and a sedentary way of life had begun among them, the climatic changes associated with the Younger Dryas are thought to have forced people to develop farming.

What time period marks the start of Neolithic culture?

10,200 – 8,800 BC

Where did the Neolithic culture begin?

Levant (Jericho, modern-day West Bank)

What food item was the key to the evolution of farming?

wild cereals

What era lasted between 12,000 and 10,200 BC?

The Natufian period

What time period marks the start of farming culture?

I'm not sure.

Where did the Dryas culture begin?

I'm not sure.

What food item was the key to the evolution of culture?

I'm not sure.

What era lasted between 13,000 and 8,800 BC?

I'm not sure.

What are thought to have forced people to develop culture?

I'm not sure.


Not all of these cultural elements characteristic of the Neolithic appeared everywhere in the same order: the earliest farming societies in the Near East did not use pottery. In other parts of the world, such as Africa, South Asia and Southeast Asia, independent domestication events led to their own regionally distinctive Neolithic cultures that arose completely independent of those in Europe and Southwest Asia. Early Japanese societies and other East Asian cultures used pottery before developing agriculture.

What objects were not used by early farm societies in the Near East ?

pottery

What did the use of pottery help early Japanese societies develop?

agriculture

What trend led to parts of the world developing their own local Neolithic cultures?

independent domestication events

What objects were not used by early farm societies in Africa?

I'm not sure.

What did the use of pottery help early African societies develop?

I'm not sure.

What trend led to parts of the world developing their own African cultures?

I'm not sure.

Who used pottery before developing events?

I'm not sure.

Where did independent domestication events lead to their own cultures?

I'm not sure.


The Neolithic 1 (PPNA) period began roughly 10,000 years ago in the Levant. A temple area in southeastern Turkey at Göbekli Tepe dated around 9,500 BC may be regarded as the beginning of the period. This site was developed by nomadic hunter-gatherer tribes, evidenced by the lack of permanent housing in the vicinity and may be the oldest known human-made place of worship. At least seven stone circles, covering 25 acres (10 ha), contain limestone pillars carved with animals, insects, and birds. Stone tools were used by perhaps as many as hundreds of people to create the pillars, which might have supported roofs. Other early PPNA sites dating to around 9,500 to 9,000 BCE have been found in Jericho, Israel (notably Ain Mallaha, Nahal Oren, and Kfar HaHoresh), Gilgal in the Jordan Valley, and Byblos, Lebanon. The start of Neolithic 1 overlaps the Tahunian and Heavy Neolithic periods to some degree.[citation needed]

When did the The Neolithic 1 (PPNA) period start?

roughly 10,000 years ago

Where is the Göbekli Tepe temple located?

Turkey

Who built the Göbekli Tepe temple?

nomadic hunter-gatherer tribes

What is the name of earliest man made place of worship?

Göbekli Tepe

When did the Neolithic 1 (PPNA) Period end?

I'm not sure.

Where is the Gilgal located?

I'm not sure.

Who built the Gilgal?

I'm not sure.

What is the name of earliest man made pillar?

I'm not sure.

When was the earliest man made pillar built?

I'm not sure.


The Neolithic 2 (PPNB) began around 8,800 BCE according to the ASPRO chronology in the Levant (Jericho, Israel). As with the PPNA dates, there are two versions from the same laboratories noted above. This system of terminology, however, is not convenient for southeast Anatolia and settlements of the middle Anatolia basin. This era was before the Mesolithic era.[citation needed] A settlement of 3,000 inhabitants was found in the outskirts of Amman, Jordan. Considered to be one of the largest prehistoric settlements in the Near East, called 'Ain Ghazal, it was continuously inhabited from approximately 7,250 – 5,000 B.

When did the The Neolithic 2 (PPNB) era start?

around 8,800 BCE

What era followed the  The Neolithic 2 (PPNB) era?

the Mesolithic era

How many settlers were found in Jordan?

3,000 inhabitants

What is the name of one of the biggest prehistoric settlements in the Near East?

Ain Ghazal

When did the Neolithic 2 (PPNB) era end?

I'm not sure.

What era preceded the Neolithic 2 (PPNB) era?

I'm not sure.

How many settlers were founded in the PPNA?

I'm not sure.

What is the name of one of the biggest prehistoric settlements the PPNA?

I'm not sure.

When was Amman continuously inhabited?

I'm not sure.


Around 10,200 BC the first fully developed Neolithic cultures belonging to the phase Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) appeared in the fertile crescent. Around 10,700 to 9,400 BC a settlement was established in Tell Qaramel, 10 miles north of Aleppo. The settlement included 2 temples dating back to 9,650. Around 9000 BC during the PPNA, one of the world's first towns, Jericho, appeared in the Levant. It was surrounded by a stone and marble wall and contained a population of 2000–3000 people and a massive stone tower. Around 6,400 BC the Halaf culture appeared in Lebanon, Israel and Palestine, Syria, Anatolia, and Northern Mesopotamia and subsisted on dryland agriculture.

When did the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA)  phase start?

Around 10,200 BC

When was a settlement developed in Tell Qaramel?

Around 10,700 to 9,400 BC

How many temples were built in Tell Qaramel?

What was the name of the town that first appeared during the PPNA?

Jericho

What materials were used to build the wall around Jericho?

stone and marble

When did the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) phase end?

I'm not sure.

When was a settlement developed in PPNA?

I'm not sure.

What was teh name of the town that first appeared during the Tell Qaramel?

I'm not sure.

How many temples were built in PPNA?

I'm not sure.

What materials were used to build the wall around PPNA?

I'm not sure.


In 1981 a team of researchers from the Maison de l'Orient et de la Méditerranée, including Jacques Cauvin and Oliver Aurenche divided Near East neolithic chronology into ten periods (0 to 9) based on social, economic and cultural characteristics. In 2002 Danielle Stordeur and Frédéric Abbès advanced this system with a division into five periods. Natufian (1) between 12,000 and 10,200 BC, Khiamian (2) between 10,200-8,800 BC, PPNA: Sultanian (Jericho), Mureybetian, early PPNB (PPNB ancien) (3) between 8,800-7,600 BC, middle PPNB (PPNB moyen) 7,600-6,900 BC, late PPNB (PPNB récent) (4) between 7,500 and 7,000 BC and a PPNB (sometimes called PPNC) transitional stage (PPNB final) (5) where Halaf and dark faced burnished ware begin to emerge between 6,900-6,400 BC. They also advanced the idea of a transitional stage between the PPNA and PPNB between 8,800 and 8,600 BC at sites like Jerf el Ahmar and Tell Aswad.

What are the names of two researchers who divided neolithic chronology into ten periods?

Jacques Cauvin and Oliver Aurenche

What traits did researchers use to divide the ten periods?

social, economic and cultural characteristics

When was the original division of 10 advanced to a division of 5?

What are the names of two researchers who divided neolithic chronology into five periods?

Danielle Stordeur and Frédéric Abbès

What are the names of two researchers who divided neolithic chronology into nine periods?

I'm not sure.

What traits did researchers use to divide the nine periods?

I'm not sure.

When was the original division of 9 advanced to a division of 5?

I'm not sure.

What are the names of two researchers who divided neolithic chronology in to four periods?

I'm not sure.

Who advanced the idea of a final stage between the PPNA and PPNB?

I'm not sure.


Domestication of sheep and goats reached Egypt from the Near East possibly as early as 6,000 BC. Graeme Barker states "The first indisputable evidence for domestic plants and animals in the Nile valley is not until the early fifth millennium bc in northern Egypt and a thousand years later further south, in both cases as part of strategies that still relied heavily on fishing, hunting, and the gathering of wild plants" and suggests that these subsistence changes were not due to farmers migrating from the Near East but was an indigenous development, with cereals either indigenous or obtained through exchange. Other scholars argue that the primary stimulus for agriculture and domesticated animals (as well as mud-brick architecture and other Neolithic cultural features) in Egypt was from the Middle East.

When did the domestication of sheep first appear in Egypt?

6,000 BC

How did Egyptians gather food before raising livestock?

fishing, hunting, and the gathering of wild plants

What region do some scholars see as the source for Egypt's start in agriculture?

the Middle East

When did the domestication of sheep first appear in the Middle East?

I'm not sure.

How did Egyptians gather food before raising crops?

I'm not sure.

What region do some scholars see as the source for the Near East's start in agriculture?

I'm not sure.

Who suggests that these subsistence changes were due to farmers migrating?

I'm not sure.

What do other scholars say that the primary stimulus for states came from?

I'm not sure.


In southeast Europe agrarian societies first appeared in the 7th millennium BC, attested by one of the earliest farming sites of Europe, discovered in Vashtëmi, southeastern Albania and dating back to 6,500 BC. Anthropomorphic figurines have been found in the Balkans from 6000 BC, and in Central Europe by c. 5800 BC (La Hoguette). Among the earliest cultural complexes of this area are the Sesklo culture in Thessaly, which later expanded in the Balkans giving rise to Starčevo-Körös (Cris), Linearbandkeramik, and Vinča. Through a combination of cultural diffusion and migration of peoples, the Neolithic traditions spread west and northwards to reach northwestern Europe by around 4500 BC. The Vinča culture may have created the earliest system of writing, the Vinča signs, though archaeologist Shan Winn believes they most likely represented pictograms and ideograms rather than a truly developed form of writing. The Cucuteni-Trypillian culture built enormous settlements in Romania, Moldova and Ukraine from 5300 to 2300 BC. The megalithic temple complexes of Ġgantija on the Mediterranean island of Gozo (in the Maltese archipelago) and of Mnajdra (Malta) are notable for their gigantic Neolithic structures, the oldest of which date back to c. 3600 BC. The Hypogeum of Ħal-Saflieni, Paola, Malta, is a subterranean structure excavated c. 2500 BC; originally a sanctuary, it became a necropolis, the only prehistoric underground temple in the world, and showing a degree of artistry in stone sculpture unique in prehistory to the Maltese islands. After 2500 BC, the Maltese Islands were depopulated for several decades until the arrival of a new influx of Bronze Age immigrants, a culture that cremated its dead and introduced smaller megalithic structures called dolmens to Malta. In most cases there are small chambers here, with the cover made of a large slab placed on upright stones. They are claimed to belong to a population certainly different from that which built the previous megalithic temples. It is presumed the population arrived from Sicily because of the similarity of Maltese dolmens to some small constructions found in the largest island of the Mediterranean sea.

When did agrarian societies start to arise in Southeast Europe?

7th millennium BC

Where was one of earliest farming sites in Europe found?

Vashtëmi, southeastern Albania

What type of sculptures were found in the Balkans from 6000 BC?

Anthropomorphic figurines

What trend led to Neolithic traditions spreading to northwestern Europe by around 4500 BC?

cultural diffusion and migration of peoples

Who possibly created the earliest system of writing?

The Vinča culture

When did agrarian societies start to arrive in Malta?

I'm not sure.

Where was one of the earliest farming sites in Malta located?

I'm not sure.

What type of sculptures were found in the Balkans from 6,500 BC?

I'm not sure.

What trend led to Neolithic traditions spreading to northwestern Europe by around 6,500 BC?

I'm not sure.

Who possibly created the earliest system of dolmens?

I'm not sure.


In 2012, news was released about a new farming site discovered in Munam-ri, Goseong, Gangwon Province, South Korea, which may be the earliest farmland known to date in east Asia. "No remains of an agricultural field from the Neolithic period have been found in any East Asian country before, the institute said, adding that the discovery reveals that the history of agricultural cultivation at least began during the period on the Korean Peninsula". The farm was dated between 3600 and 3000 B.C. Pottery, stone projectile points, and possible houses were also found. "In 2002, researchers discovered prehistoric earthenware, jade earrings, among other items in the area". The research team will perform accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) dating to retrieve a more precise date for the site.

When was the earliest known Asian farm site found in South Korea?

What time period was the Korean farm site dated?

between 3600 and 3000 B.C.

What items were found on the Korean farm site?

Pottery, stone projectile points, and possible houses

What technology will researchers use to measure a more accurate time period for the farm site?

accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS)

When was the earliest known Asian farm site found in the AMS?

I'm not sure.

What time period was the AMS farm site dated?

I'm not sure.

What items were found on the AMS farm site?

I'm not sure.

What technology will researchers use to measure a more accurate discovery for the farm site?

I'm not sure.

When did researchers discover prehistoric plants?

I'm not sure.


In Mesoamerica, a similar set of events (i.e., crop domestication and sedentary lifestyles) occurred by around 4500 BC, but possibly as early as 11,000–10,000 BC. These cultures are usually not referred to as belonging to the Neolithic; in America different terms are used such as Formative stage instead of mid-late Neolithic, Archaic Era instead of Early Neolithic and Paleo-Indian for the preceding period. The Formative stage is equivalent to the Neolithic Revolution period in Europe, Asia, and Africa. In the Southwestern United States it occurred from 500 to 1200 C.E. when there was a dramatic increase in population and development of large villages supported by agriculture based on dryland farming of maize, and later, beans, squash, and domesticated turkeys. During this period the bow and arrow and ceramic pottery were also introduced.

What major trends appeared in Mesoamerica during 4500 BC?

crop domestication and sedentary lifestyles

What term is used to describe the mid-late Neolithic era in American education?

Formative stage

What term is used to describe the Early Neolithic era in American education?

Archaic Era

What hunting weapon was found in the Southwestern US during  500 to 1200 C.E.?

bow and arrow

What major trends appeared in Mesoamerica during 11,000 BC?

I'm not sure.

What term is used to describe the mid-late Neolithic era in Asian education?

I'm not sure.

What term is used to describe the Early Neolithic era in Asian education?

I'm not sure.

What hunting weapon was found in the Southwestern US during 1200 to 500 BC?

I'm not sure.

When was there a dramatic increase in turkeys?

I'm not sure.


During most of the Neolithic age of Eurasia, people lived in small tribes composed of multiple bands or lineages. There is little scientific evidence of developed social stratification in most Neolithic societies; social stratification is more associated with the later Bronze Age. Although some late Eurasian Neolithic societies formed complex stratified chiefdoms or even states, states evolved in Eurasia only with the rise of metallurgy, and most Neolithic societies on the whole were relatively simple and egalitarian. Beyond Eurasia, however, states were formed during the local Neolithic in three areas, namely in the Preceramic Andes with the Norte Chico Civilization, Formative Mesoamerica and Ancient Hawaiʻi. However, most Neolithic societies were noticeably more hierarchical than the Paleolithic cultures that preceded them and hunter-gatherer cultures in general.

What social groups were formed during the Neolithic age of Eurasia?

small tribes

What cultural trend did not first appear in large amounts until the Bronze Age?

social stratification

What type of cultures preceded Neolithic societies?

Paleolithic cultures

What social groups were formed during the Neolithic age of Norte?

I'm not sure.

What cultural trend did not first appear in large amounts until the Eurasian Age?

I'm not sure.

What type of cultures preceded Norte societies?

I'm not sure.

What were more hierarchical than Norte cultures?

I'm not sure.

When did states evolve in Norte?

I'm not sure.


The domestication of large animals (c. 8000 BC) resulted in a dramatic increase in social inequality in most of the areas where it occurred; New Guinea being a notable exception. Possession of livestock allowed competition between households and resulted in inherited inequalities of wealth. Neolithic pastoralists who controlled large herds gradually acquired more livestock, and this made economic inequalities more pronounced. However, evidence of social inequality is still disputed, as settlements such as Catal Huyuk reveal a striking lack of difference in the size of homes and burial sites, suggesting a more egalitarian society with no evidence of the concept of capital, although some homes do appear slightly larger or more elaborately decorated than others.

What caused a major increase in social inequality?

domestication of large animals

What started competition between families for wealth?

Possession of livestock

Who was in possession of large herds that would produce more livestock?

Neolithic pastoralists

What settlement featured equal sized homes with little evidence of capital?

Catal Huyuk

What caused a major increase in homes?

I'm not sure.

What started competition between the Catal Huyuk for wealth?

I'm not sure.

Who was in possession of large herds that would produce more wealth?

I'm not sure.

What settlement featured equal sized homes with little evidence of animals?

I'm not sure.

What resulted in inequalities of homes?

I'm not sure.


Families and households were still largely independent economically, and the household was probably the center of life. However, excavations in Central Europe have revealed that early Neolithic Linear Ceramic cultures ("Linearbandkeramik") were building large arrangements of circular ditches between 4800 BC and 4600 BC. These structures (and their later counterparts such as causewayed enclosures, burial mounds, and henge) required considerable time and labour to construct, which suggests that some influential individuals were able to organise and direct human labour — though non-hierarchical and voluntary work remain possibilities.

What was the cultural aspect was the major center of life?

the household

What time period were the huge circular ditches found in?

4800 BC and 4600 BC

What did the ditches later evolve into?

causewayed enclosures, burial mounds, and henge

What features about the ditches suggests that it was built by people under a leader's command?

required considerable time and labour to construct

What time period were the huge individuals found in?

I'm not sure.

What did the individuals later involve into?

I'm not sure.

What features about the individuals suggests that it was built by people under a leader's command?

I'm not sure.

What excavations revealed that families were building circular ditches?

I'm not sure.

What do families suggest?

I'm not sure.


There is a large body of evidence for fortified settlements at Linearbandkeramik sites along the Rhine, as at least some villages were fortified for some time with a palisade and an outer ditch. Settlements with palisades and weapon-traumatized bones have been discovered, such as at the Talheim Death Pit demonstrates "...systematic violence between groups" and warfare was probably much more common during the Neolithic than in the preceding Paleolithic period. This supplanted an earlier view of the Linear Pottery Culture as living a "peaceful, unfortified lifestyle".

Where was evidence of fortified settlements found?

Linearbandkeramik

What did some villages fortify their settlements with?

a palisade and an outer ditch

What tools were seen as evidence of violence among settlements?

weapon-traumatized bones

What site in Talheim suggests violent warfare in the Neolithic era?

the Talheim Death Pit

Where was evidence of fortified lifestyles found?

I'm not sure.

What did some villages fortify their lifestyles with?

I'm not sure.

What tools were seen as evidence of ditches among settlements?

I'm not sure.

What site in Talheim suggests violent warfare in the Paleolithic era?

I'm not sure.

What did Neollithic people have?

I'm not sure.


Control of labour and inter-group conflict is characteristic of corporate-level or 'tribal' groups, headed by a charismatic individual; whether a 'big man' or a proto-chief, functioning as a lineage-group head. Whether a non-hierarchical system of organization existed is debatable, and there is no evidence that explicitly suggests that Neolithic societies functioned under any dominating class or individual, as was the case in the chiefdoms of the European Early Bronze Age. Theories to explain the apparent implied egalitarianism of Neolithic (and Paleolithic) societies have arisen, notably the Marxist concept of primitive communism.

What production trait existed in tribal groups that were controlled by charismatic leaders?

Control of labour

What theory describes the implied egalitarianism of Neolithic societies?

Marxist concept of primitive communism

What type of disagreement existed in tribal groups that were controlled by charismatic leaders?

inter-group conflict

What production trait existed in tribal groups that were controlled by Neolithic leaders?

I'm not sure.

What theory describes the implied egalitarianism of labor societies?

I'm not sure.

What type of disagreement existed in tribal groups that were controlled by Neolithic groups?

I'm not sure.

What is a theory that has explained the egalitarianism of labor societies?

I'm not sure.

What is there evidence of?

I'm not sure.


The shelter of the early people changed dramatically from the paleolithic to the neolithic era. In the paleolithic, people did not normally live in permanent constructions. In the neolithic, mud brick houses started appearing that were coated with plaster. The growth of agriculture made permanent houses possible. Doorways were made on the roof, with ladders positioned both on the inside and outside of the houses. The roof was supported by beams from the inside. The rough ground was covered by platforms, mats, and skins on which residents slept. Stilt-houses settlements were common in the Alpine and Pianura Padana (Terramare) region. Remains have been found at the Ljubljana Marshes in Slovenia and at the Mondsee and Attersee lakes in Upper Austria, for example.

What lifestyle element changed significantly from the paleolithic to the neolithic era?

shelter

What era consisted of people living temporary homes?

paleolithic

What type of homes were built in the Neolithic era?

mud brick houses

What societal trend was the cause of permanent homes?

The growth of agriculture

Where were entrances located in early homes?

Doorways were made on the roof

What era consisted of people living on roofs?

I'm not sure.

What type of homes were built in the paleolithic era?

I'm not sure.

What societal trend was the cause of mats?

I'm not sure.

Where were entrances located in early ladders?

I'm not sure.

What made ladders possible?

I'm not sure.


A significant and far-reaching shift in human subsistence and lifestyle was to be brought about in areas where crop farming and cultivation were first developed: the previous reliance on an essentially nomadic hunter-gatherer subsistence technique or pastoral transhumance was at first supplemented, and then increasingly replaced by, a reliance upon the foods produced from cultivated lands. These developments are also believed to have greatly encouraged the growth of settlements, since it may be supposed that the increased need to spend more time and labor in tending crop fields required more localized dwellings. This trend would continue into the Bronze Age, eventually giving rise to permanently settled farming towns, and later cities and states whose larger populations could be sustained by the increased productivity from cultivated lands.

What trend led to a major shift in the livelihoods of early cultures?

crop farming and cultivation

What behavior did humans rely on to survive before agriculture?

nomadic hunter-gatherer subsistence technique

What era saw an increase in permanently settled farming towns?

the Bronze Age

What trend led to a major shift in the livelihoods of early towns?

I'm not sure.

What behavior did humans rely on to survive before the Bronze Age?

I'm not sure.

What era saw an increase in permanent crop fields?

I'm not sure.

What was brought about by crop rotating?

I'm not sure.

What had larger populations that were sustained by labor?

I'm not sure.


However, early farmers were also adversely affected in times of famine, such as may be caused by drought or pests. In instances where agriculture had become the predominant way of life, the sensitivity to these shortages could be particularly acute, affecting agrarian populations to an extent that otherwise may not have been routinely experienced by prior hunter-gatherer communities. Nevertheless, agrarian communities generally proved successful, and their growth and the expansion of territory under cultivation continued.

What were the causes of famine in early farm towns?

drought or pests

What type of societies were not affected by famine?

hunter-gatherer communities

What type of societies were usually still successful after dealing with famine?

agrarian communities

What were the causes of cultivation in early farm towns?

I'm not sure.

What type of societies were not affected by cultivation?

I'm not sure.

What type of societies were usually still successful after dealing with cultivation?

I'm not sure.

What continued without shortages?

I'm not sure.

What could sensitivity to cultivation be?

I'm not sure.


Another significant change undergone by many of these newly agrarian communities was one of diet. Pre-agrarian diets varied by region, season, available local plant and animal resources and degree of pastoralism and hunting. Post-agrarian diet was restricted to a limited package of successfully cultivated cereal grains, plants and to a variable extent domesticated animals and animal products. Supplementation of diet by hunting and gathering was to variable degrees precluded by the increase in population above the carrying capacity of the land and a high sedentary local population concentration. In some cultures, there would have been a significant shift toward increased starch and plant protein. The relative nutritional benefits and drawbacks of these dietary changes and their overall impact on early societal development is still debated.

What food related trend was significant in the new agrarian societies?

diet

What forms of availability dictated Pre-agrarian diets?

local plant and animal resources

What was included in the Post-agrarian diet?

cereal grains, plants and to a variable extent domesticated animals and animal products.

What forced the need to supplement food supply with hunting and gathering?

the increase in population

What food related trend was significant in restricted societies?

I'm not sure.

What forms of availability dictated local diets?

I'm not sure.

What was included in the local diet?

I'm not sure.

What forced the need to supplement food supply with nutrition?

I'm not sure.

What did local diets vary by?

I'm not sure.


Neolithic people were skilled farmers, manufacturing a range of tools necessary for the tending, harvesting and processing of crops (such as sickle blades and grinding stones) and food production (e.g. pottery, bone implements). They were also skilled manufacturers of a range of other types of stone tools and ornaments, including projectile points, beads, and statuettes. But what allowed forest clearance on a large scale was the polished stone axe above all other tools. Together with the adze, fashioning wood for shelter, structures and canoes for example, this enabled them to exploit their newly won farmland.

What type of occupation were Neolithic people considered to be proficient at?

farmers

What purposes were the production of farm tools used for?

tending, harvesting and processing of crops

What types of tools did early farmers use for crops?

sickle blades and grinding stones

What types of tools did early farmers use for food production?

pottery, bone implements)

What tool allowed early farmers to convert forest into arable land?

stone axe

What type of occupation were manufacturers considered to be proficient at?

I'm not sure.

What purposes were the production of statuettes used for?

I'm not sure.

What types of tools did early farmers use for shelter?

I'm not sure.

What tool allowed early manufacturers to convert forest into arable land?

I'm not sure.


Neolithic peoples in the Levant, Anatolia, Syria, northern Mesopotamia and Central Asia were also accomplished builders, utilizing mud-brick to construct houses and villages. At Çatal höyük, houses were plastered and painted with elaborate scenes of humans and animals. In Europe, long houses built from wattle and daub were constructed. Elaborate tombs were built for the dead. These tombs are particularly numerous in Ireland, where there are many thousand still in existence. Neolithic people in the British Isles built long barrows and chamber tombs for their dead and causewayed camps, henges, flint mines and cursus monuments. It was also important to figure out ways of preserving food for future months, such as fashioning relatively airtight containers, and using substances like salt as preservatives.

What did Neolithic people use mud-brick to build?

houses and villages

What scenes did the paintings on homes depict?

humans and animals

What were European homes constructed from?

wattle and daub

What types of sites were built for the deceased?

Elaborate tombs

Where do thousands of early tombs still exist?

Ireland

What did European people use mud-brick to build?

I'm not sure.

What scenes did the people on homes depict?

I'm not sure.

What were Syrian homes constructed from?

I'm not sure.

What types of sites were built for the animals?

I'm not sure.

Where do thousands of early humans still exist?

I'm not sure.


Most clothing appears to have been made of animal skins, as indicated by finds of large numbers of bone and antler pins which are ideal for fastening leather. Wool cloth and linen might have become available during the later Neolithic, as suggested by finds of perforated stones which (depending on size) may have served as spindle whorls or loom weights. The clothing worn in the Neolithic Age might be similar to that worn by Ötzi the Iceman, although he was not Neolithic (since he belonged to the later Copper age).

What did early humans use to make clothing?

animal skins

What evidence suggested that humans used animal products for clothing?

finds of large numbers of bone and antler pins

What were perforated stones used for?

spindle whorls or loom weights

What famous figure of the Copper Age wore clothes similar to the Neolithic Era?

Ötzi the Iceman

What did early humans use to make bones?

I'm not sure.

What evidence suggested that humans used copperl products for clothing?

I'm not sure.

What were perforated antlers used for?

I'm not sure.

What famous figure of the Copper Age wore clothes similar to the Copper age?

I'm not sure.

What might have become available during the Copper age?

I'm not sure.


Friedrich Hayek CH (German: [ˈfʁiːdʁɪç ˈaʊ̯ɡʊst ˈhaɪ̯ɛk]; 8 May 1899 – 23 March 1992), born in Austria-Hungary as Friedrich August von Hayek and frequently referred to as F. A. Hayek, was an Austrian and British economist and philosopher best known for his defense of classical liberalism. Hayek shared the 1974 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences with Gunnar Myrdal for his "pioneering work in the theory of money and economic fluctuations and ... penetrating analysis of the interdependence of economic, social and institutional phenomena."

In which nation was Friedrich Hayek born?

Austria-Hungary

Friedrich Hayek name was commonly shortened to what?

F. A. Hayek

What award did Hayek receive in 1974?

Nobel Memorial Prize

With whom did Hayek share his 1974 award?

Gunnar Myrdal

Along with being an economist, what else was Hayek known as?

philosopher


In 1984, he was appointed a member of the Order of the Companions of Honour by Queen Elizabeth II on the advice of Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher for his "services to the study of economics". He was the first recipient of the Hanns Martin Schleyer Prize in 1984. He also received the US Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1991 from President George H. W. Bush. In 2011, his article "The Use of Knowledge in Society" was selected as one of the top 20 articles published in The American Economic Review during its first 100 years.

Hayek became a member of which group in 1984?

Order of the Companions of Honour

For what reason was Hayek inducted into the order?

services to the study of economics

What award was Hayek the first to receive?

Hanns Martin Schleyer Prize

Who awarded Hayek the Medal of Freedom?

President George H. W. Bush

Which of Hayek's articles received recognition in 2011?

The Use of Knowledge in Society


Friedrich August von Hayek was born in Vienna to August von Hayek and Felicitas Hayek (née von Juraschek). Friedrich's father, from whom he received his middle name, was also born in Vienna in 1871. He was a medical doctor employed by the municipal ministry of health, with passion in botany, in which he wrote a number of monographs. August von Hayek was also a part-time botany lecturer at the University of Vienna. Friedrich's mother was born in 1875 to a wealthy, conservative, land-owning family. As her mother died several years prior to Friedrich's birth, Felicitas gained a significant inheritance which provided as much as half of her and August's income during the early years of their marriage. Hayek was the oldest of three brothers, Heinrich (1900–69) and Erich (1904–86), who were one-and-a-half and five years younger than him.

Who was Hayek's father?

August von Hayek

What was August von Hayek's occupation?

medical doctor

What was August von Hayek particularly passionate about?

botany

From whom did Felicitas inherit her wealth?

her mother

How many children did August von Hayek and his wife have?

three


His father's career as a university professor influenced Friedrich's goals later in life. Both of his grandfathers, who lived long enough for Friedrich to know them, were scholars. Franz von Juraschek was a leading economist in Austria-Hungary and a close friend of Eugen Böhm von Bawerk, one of the founders of the Austrian School of Economics. Von Juraschek was a statistician and was later employed by the Austrian government. Friedrich's paternal grandfather, Gustav Edler von Hayek, taught natural sciences at the Imperial Realobergymnasium (secondary school) in Vienna. He wrote systematic works in biology, some of which are relatively well known.

Who's occupation inspired Hayek when he was older?

His father's

Eugen Bohm was friends with which of Hayek's grandfathers?

Franz von Juraschek

What occupation did Hayek's grandfather's have?

scholars

Who was August von Hayek's father?

Gustav Edler von Hayek

What did August von Hayek's father write?

systematic works in biology


On his mother's side, Hayek was second cousin to the philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein. His mother often played with Wittgenstein's sisters, and had known Ludwig well. As a result of their family relationship, Hayek became one of the first to read Wittgenstein's Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus when the book was published in its original German edition in 1921. Although Hayek met Wittgenstein on only a few occasions, Hayek said that Wittgenstein's philosophy and methods of analysis had a profound influence on his own life and thought. In his later years, Hayek recalled a discussion of philosophy with Wittgenstein, when both were officers during World War I. After Wittgenstein's death, Hayek had intended to write a biography of Wittgenstein and worked on collecting family materials; and he later assisted biographers of Wittgenstein.

Who was among the first readers of Ludwig  Wittgenstein's book?

Hayek

How often times did Hayek and Wittgenstein meet?

on only a few occasions

Whose philosophy heavily influenced Hayek?

Ludwig Wittgenstein

What did Wittgenstein and Hayek do during the first world war?

both were officers

What was the name of the book Wittgenstein published in 1921?

Wittgenstein's Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus


Hayek displayed an intellectual and academic bent from a very young age. He read fluently and frequently before going to school. At his father's suggestion, Hayek, as a teenager, read the genetic and evolutionary works of Hugo de Vries and the philosophical works of Ludwig Feuerbach. In school Hayek was much taken by one instructor's lectures on Aristotle's ethics. In his unpublished autobiographical notes, Hayek recalled a division between him and his younger brothers who were only few years younger than him, but he believed that they were somehow of a different generation. He preferred to associate with adults.

What did Hayek conclude regarding his brothers?

they were somehow of a different generation

With whom did Hayek more frequently converse?

adults

Prior to his schooling, what was the state of Hayek's reading skills?

read fluently and frequently

Who told Hayek he should begin reading Hugo de Vries works?

his father

Which philosopher did Hayek learn about in a school lecture?

Aristotle


At the University of Vienna, Hayek earned doctorates in law and political science in 1921 and 1923 respectively; and he also studied philosophy, psychology, and economics. For a short time, when the University of Vienna closed, Hayek studied in Constantin von Monakow's Institute of Brain Anatomy, where Hayek spent much of his time staining brain cells. Hayek's time in Monakow's lab, and his deep interest in the work of Ernst Mach, inspired Hayek's first intellectual project, eventually published as The Sensory Order (1952). It located connective learning at the physical and neurological levels, rejecting the "sense data" associationism of the empiricists and logical positivists. Hayek presented his work to the private seminar he had created with Herbert Furth called the Geistkreis.

Where did Hayek acquire his doctorates?

University of Vienna

Where did Hayek learn about the brain?

Constantin von Monakow's Institute of Brain Anatomy

What was the name of Hayek's first work?

The Sensory Order

Where did first show his work?

the Geistkreis

With whom did Hayek establish the Geistkreis?

Herbert Furth


During Hayek's years at the University of Vienna, Carl Menger's work on the explanatory strategy of social science and Friedrich von Wieser's commanding presence in the classroom left a lasting influence on him. Upon the completion of his examinations, Hayek was hired by Ludwig von Mises on the recommendation of Wieser as a specialist for the Austrian government working on the legal and economic details of the Treaty of Saint Germain. Between 1923 and 1924 Hayek worked as a research assistant to Prof. Jeremiah Jenks of New York University, compiling macroeconomic data on the American economy and the operations of the US Federal Reserve.

What work did Hayek begin in 1923?

research assistant

Where did Carl Menger and Friedrich von Wieser influence Hayek?

University of Vienna

For whom did Hayek work upon being hired by Ludwig von Mises?

the Austrian government

What was Hayek gathering during his time as a research assistant?

macroeconomic data

What was the name of the professor Hayek worked for as a research assistant?

Jeremiah Jenks


Initially sympathetic to Wieser's democratic socialism, Hayek's economic thinking shifted away from socialism and toward the classical liberalism of Carl Menger after reading von Mises' book Socialism. It was sometime after reading Socialism that Hayek began attending von Mises' private seminars, joining several of his university friends, including Fritz Machlup, Alfred Schutz, Felix Kaufmann, and Gottfried Haberler, who were also participating in Hayek's own, more general, private seminar. It was during this time that he also encountered and befriended noted political philosopher Eric Voegelin, with whom he retained a long-standing relationship.

What ideology was Hayek originally in support of?

democratic socialism

What caused Hayek to turn away from Wiser's ideology?

reading von Mises' book Socialism

During his attendance to von Mises' seminars, who did Hayek become friends with?

Eric Voegelin

What viewpoint did the book Socialism shift Hayek toward?

classical liberalism

Who is the father of the ideology Hayek came to support?

Carl Menger


With the help of Mises, in the late 1920s Hayek founded and served as director of the Austrian Institute for Business Cycle Research, before joining the faculty of the London School of Economics (LSE) in 1931 at the behest of Lionel Robbins. Upon his arrival in London, Hayek was quickly recognised as one of the leading economic theorists in the world, and his development of the economics of processes in time and the co-ordination function of prices inspired the ground-breaking work of John Hicks, Abba Lerner, and many others in the development of modern microeconomics.

What position did Hayek gain at the Austrian Institute?

director

Who requested that Hayek be employed by LSE?

Lionel Robbins

What sort of recognition had Hayek received when he came to London?

one of the leading economic theorists in the world

What subject did Hayek's works influence and inspire?

modern microeconomics

In what year did Hayek come to London?


Hayek was concerned about the general view in Britain's academia that fascism was a capitalist reaction to socialism and The Road to Serfdom arose from those concerns. It was written between 1940 and 1943. The title was inspired by the French classical liberal thinker Alexis de Tocqueville's writings on the "road to servitude." It was first published in Britain by Routledge in March 1944 and was quite popular, leading Hayek to call it "that unobtainable book," also due in part to wartime paper rationing. When it was published in the United States by the University of Chicago in September of that year, it achieved greater popularity than in Britain. At the arrangement of editor Max Eastman, the American magazine Reader's Digest also published an abridged version in April 1945, enabling The Road to Serfdom to reach a far wider audience than academics. The book is widely popular among those advocating individualism and classical liberalism.

What did Hayek write regarding fascism and socialism?

The Road to Serfdom

Whose works served as inspiration for the title of Road to Serfdom?

Alexis de Tocqueville

When was the Road to Serfdom published?

March 1944

Where was Road to Serfdom more popular than it was in Britain?

United States

Who is responsible for Road to Serfdom being shortened for Reader's Digest in 1945?

Max Eastman


In 1950, Hayek left the London School of Economics for the University of Chicago, where he became a professor in the Committee on Social Thought. Hayek's salary was funded not by the university, but by an outside foundation. University of Chicago President Robert Hutchins was in the midst of a war with the U. of Chicago faculty over departmental autonomy and control, and Hayek got caught in the middle of that battle. Hutchins had been attempting to force all departments to adopt the neo-Thomist Great Books program of Mortimer Adler, and the U. of Chicago economists were sick of Hutchins' meddling. As the result the Economics department rejected Hutchins' pressure to hire Hayek, and Hayek became a part of the new Committee on Social Thought.

Upon leaving London, for what college did he choose to work?

University of Chicago

Who supplied Hayek's salary?

an outside foundation

What was the cause for the feud between Robert Hutchins and faculty?

departmental autonomy and control

Why did the economics department turn down Hayek's employment?

sick of Hutchins' meddling

What did Hayek serve on after his initial rejection?

Committee on Social Thought


Hayek had made contact with many at the U. of Chicago in the 1940s, with Hayek's The Road to Serfdom playing a seminal role in transforming how Milton Friedman and others understood how society works. Hayek conducted a number in influential faculty seminars while at the U. of Chicago, and a number of academics worked on research projects sympathetic to some of Hayek's own, such as Aaron Director, who was active in the Chicago School in helping to fund and establish what became the "Law and Society" program in the University of Chicago Law School. Hayek, Frank Knight, Friedman and George Stigler worked together in forming the Mont Pèlerin Society, an international forum for libertarian economists. Hayek and Friedman cooperated in support of the Intercollegiate Society of Individualists, later renamed the Intercollegiate Studies Institute, an American student organisation devoted to libertarian ideas.

Which of Hayek's works had a profound influence on those at the University of Chicago?

The Road to Serfdom

Who played a critical role in the formation of the Law and Society program?

Aaron Director

What group did Hayek form with three other people?

Mont Pèlerin Society

What was the group that Friedman and Hayek supported later renamed to?

Intercollegiate Studies Institute


After editing a book on John Stuart Mill's letters he planned to publish two books on the liberal order, The Constitution of Liberty and "The Creative Powers of a Free Civilization" (eventually the title for the second chapter of The Constitution of Liberty). He completed The Constitution of Liberty in May 1959, with publication in February 1960. Hayek was concerned "with that condition of men in which coercion of some by others is reduced as much as is possible in society". Hayek was disappointed that the book did not receive the same enthusiastic general reception as The Road to Serfdom had sixteen years before.

What topic were Hayek's next two books going to cover?

the liberal order

Which of Hayek's books was not as well received as The Road to Serfdom?

The Constitution of Liberty

As of the release of his 1960 book, how long had it been since The Road to Serfdom was released?

sixteen years

What was the title of the his 1960 book's second chapter?

The Creative Powers of a Free Civilization

How did Hayek feel about the success of the book he released in 1960?

disappointed


From 1962 until his retirement in 1968, he was a professor at the University of Freiburg, West Germany, where he began work on his next book, Law, Legislation and Liberty. Hayek regarded his years at Freiburg as "very fruitful". Following his retirement, Hayek spent a year as a visiting professor of philosophy at the University of California, Los Angeles, where he continued work on Law, Legislation and Liberty, teaching a graduate seminar by the same name and another on the philosophy of social science. Primary drafts of the book were completed by 1970, but Hayek chose to rework his drafts and finally brought the book to publication in three volumes in 1973, 1976 and 1979.

What country did Hayek move to in 1962?

West Germany

What is the name of the book Hayek started upon his arrival in West Germany?

Law, Legislation and Liberty

Where did Hayek spend an entire year after his retirement?

University of California, Los Angeles

When was the final volume of Law, Legislation and Liberty released?

During his time in Los Angeles, what was the topic of the seminars Hayek taught not related to his new book?

philosophy of social science


In February 1975, Margaret Thatcher was elected leader of the British Conservative Party. The Institute of Economic Affairs arranged a meeting between Hayek and Thatcher in London soon after. During Thatcher's only visit to the Conservative Research Department in the summer of 1975, a speaker had prepared a paper on why the "middle way" was the pragmatic path the Conservative Party should take, avoiding the extremes of left and right. Before he had finished, Thatcher "reached into her briefcase and took out a book. It was Hayek's The Constitution of Liberty. Interrupting our pragmatist, she held the book up for all of us to see. 'This', she said sternly, 'is what we believe', and banged Hayek down on the table".

What political party was Margaret Thatcher the head of in 1975?

British Conservative Party

Who did Thatcher meet with shortly after she was elected as the head of her party?

Hayek

What path was suggested as the right one for Margaret Thatcher's party by a speaker?

the "middle way"

Which of Hayek's works did Thatcher produce at the Conservative Research Department?

The Constitution of Liberty


In 1977, Hayek was critical of the Lib-Lab pact, in which the British Liberal Party agreed to keep the British Labour government in office. Writing to The Times, Hayek said, "May one who has devoted a large part of his life to the study of the history and the principles of liberalism point out that a party that keeps a socialist government in power has lost all title to the name 'Liberal'. Certainly no liberal can in future vote 'Liberal'". Hayek was criticised by Liberal politicians Gladwyn Jebb and Andrew Phillips, who both claimed that the purpose of the pact was to discourage socialist legislation.

What was the name of the agreement Hayek criticized in 1977?

Lib-Lab pact

What did some Liberal politicians claim the pact was meant to do?

discourage socialist legislation

The agreement Hayek criticized was between the British Labour government and which political party?

British Liberal Party

What did Hayek believe was lost in the continued empowerment of a socialist government?

all title to the name 'Liberal'


In 1978, Hayek came into conflict with the Liberal Party leader, David Steel, who claimed that liberty was possible only with "social justice and an equitable distribution of wealth and power, which in turn require a degree of active government intervention" and that the Conservative Party were more concerned with the connection between liberty and private enterprise than between liberty and democracy. Hayek claimed that a limited democracy might be better than other forms of limited government at protecting liberty but that an unlimited democracy was worse than other forms of unlimited government because "its government loses the power even to do what it thinks right if any group on which its majority depends thinks otherwise".

Which party was criticized for being less concerned about liberty and democracy?

the Conservative Party

With which political group was David Steel affiliated?

Liberal Party

Who disagreed with David Steel's statements in 1978

Hayek

Which type of government was more favorable than others according to Hayek?

limited democracy

Hayek believed that which type of democracy was the worst of its alternatives?

unlimited


In 1984, he was appointed as a member of the Order of the Companions of Honour (CH) by Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom on the advice of the British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher for his "services to the study of economics". Hayek had hoped to receive a baronetcy, and after he was awarded the CH he sent a letter to his friends requesting that he be called the English version of Friedrich (Frederick) from now on. After his 20 min audience with the Queen, he was "absolutely besotted" with her according to his daughter-in-law, Esca Hayek. Hayek said a year later that he was "amazed by her. That ease and skill, as if she'd known me all my life." The audience with the Queen was followed by a dinner with family and friends at the Institute of Economic Affairs. When, later that evening, Hayek was dropped off at the Reform Club, he commented: "I've just had the happiest day of my life."

What group was Hayek inducted into by the Queen of England?

Order of the Companions of Honour

Who suggest Hayek for the honor of joining the Order?

Margaret Thatcher

In 1984, what was Margaret Thatcher's position within the British government?

Prime Minister

How did Hayek wish to be referred to after his 1984 award?

Frederick

At the end of the same day Hayek met with the Queen of England, what did he say?

"I've just had the happiest day of my life."


In 1991, US President George H. W. Bush awarded Hayek the Presidential Medal of Freedom, one of the two highest civilian awards in the United States, for a "lifetime of looking beyond the horizon". Hayek died on 23 March 1992 in Freiburg, Germany, and was buried on 4 April in the Neustift am Walde cemetery in the northern outskirts of Vienna according to the Catholic rite. In 2011, his article The Use of Knowledge in Society was selected as one of the top 20 articles published in the American Economic Review during its first 100 years.

What was the reason given for Hayek's 1991 award from the President?

a "lifetime of looking beyond the horizon"

Which President presented the award to Hayek?

George H. W. Bush

Where was Hayek when he died?

Freiburg, Germany

Where was Hayek buried in relation to his home town of Vienna?

northern outskirts

Where was The Use of Knowledge in Society published?

American Economic Review


Hayek's principal investigations in economics concerned capital, money, and the business cycle. Mises had earlier applied the concept of marginal utility to the value of money in his Theory of Money and Credit (1912), in which he also proposed an explanation for "industrial fluctuations" based on the ideas of the old British Currency School and of Swedish economist Knut Wicksell. Hayek used this body of work as a starting point for his own interpretation of the business cycle, elaborating what later became known as the "Austrian Theory of the Business Cycle". Hayek spelled out the Austrian approach in more detail in his book, published in 1929, an English translation of which appeared in 1933 as Monetary Theory and the Trade Cycle. There he argued for a monetary approach to the origins of the cycle. In his Prices and Production (1931), Hayek argued that the business cycle resulted from the central bank's inflationary credit expansion and its transmission over time, leading to a capital misallocation caused by the artificially low interest rates. Hayek claimed that "the past instability of the market economy is the consequence of the exclusion of the most important regulator of the market mechanism, money, from itself being regulated by the market process".

What is the name of Mises' 1912 book?

Theory of Money and Credit

Hayek focused most of his economic works on the business cycle, money and what else?

capital

What work did Hayek produce as a result of studying Mises' book?

Austrian Theory of the Business Cycle

What is the English name for the book Hayek published in 1929?

Monetary Theory and the Trade Cycle

According to Hayek, what was the cause of the banks' wrongful allocation of funds?

artificially low interest rates


In 1929, Lionel Robbins assumed the helm of the London School of Economics (LSE). Eager to promote alternatives to what he regarded as the narrow approach of the school of economic thought that then dominated the English-speaking academic world (centred at the University of Cambridge and deriving largely from the work of Alfred Marshall), Robbins invited Hayek to join the faculty at LSE, which he did in 1931. According to Nicholas Kaldor, Hayek's theory of the time-structure of capital and of the business cycle initially "fascinated the academic world" and appeared to offer a less "facile and superficial" understanding of macroeconomics than the Cambridge school's.

Lionel Robbins came to head which school in 1929?

London School of Economics

In regards to economics, Lionel Robbins believe English-speaking academics had what?

narrow approach

Which man's works were mostly the cause of the ''narrow approach''?

Alfred Marshall

Who was responsible for bringing on Hayek at the LSE?

Lionel Robbins

What did Nicholas Kaldor say Hayek brought to macroeconomics?

less "facile and superficial" understanding


Also in 1931, Hayek critiqued Keynes's Treatise on Money (1930) in his "Reflections on the pure theory of Mr. J. M. Keynes" and published his lectures at the LSE in book form as Prices and Production. Unemployment and idle resources are, for Keynes, caused by a lack of effective demand; for Hayek, they stem from a previous, unsustainable episode of easy money and artificially low interest rates. Keynes asked his friend Piero Sraffa to respond. Sraffa elaborated on the effect of inflation-induced "forced savings" on the capital sector and about the definition of a "natural" interest rate in a growing economy. Others who responded negatively to Hayek's work on the business cycle included John Hicks, Frank Knight, and Gunnar Myrdal. Kaldor later wrote that Hayek's Prices and Production had produced "a remarkable crop of critics" and that the total number of pages in British and American journals dedicated to the resulting debate "could rarely have been equalled in the economic controversies of the past."

Hayek's critical analysis of Keyne's work was published under what title?

Prices and Production

Apart from easy money, what did Hayek believe unemployment was caused by?

artificially low interest rates

Who did Keynes turn to for assistance in arguing his point to Hayek?

Piero Sraffa

According to Nicholas Kaldor, what had Hayek's book created?

"a remarkable crop of critics"


Hayek continued his research on monetary and capital theory, revising his theories of the relations between credit cycles and capital structure in Profits, Interest and Investment (1939) and The Pure Theory of Capital (1941), but his reputation as an economic theorist had by then fallen so much that those works were largely ignored, except for scathing critiques by Nicholas Kaldor. Lionel Robbins himself, who had embraced the Austrian theory of the business cycle in The Great Depression (1934), later regretted having written the book and accepted many of the Keynesian counter-arguments.

What was the result of Hayek's Prices and Production?

works were largely ignored

What is the name of the first book Hayek released to revise his stances from Prices and Production?

Profits, Interest and Investment

Who was particularly critical of Hayek's work following Prices and Production?

Nicholas Kaldor

Lionel Robbins' The Great Depression was a result of his support for what?

the Austrian theory of the business cycle

Who did Keynes' arguments against the Austrian theory of the business cycle eventually influence?

Lionel Robbins


Hayek never produced the book-length treatment of "the dynamics of capital" that he had promised in the Pure Theory of Capital. After 1941, he continued to publish works on the economics of information, political philosophy, the theory of law, and psychology, but seldom on macroeconomics. At the University of Chicago, Hayek was not part of the economics department and did not influence the rebirth of neoclassical theory which took place there (see Chicago school of economics). When, in 1974, he shared the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with Gunnar Myrdal, the latter complained about being paired with an "ideologue". Milton Friedman declared himself "an enormous admirer of Hayek, but not for his economics. I think Prices and Production is a very flawed book. I think his [Pure Theory of Capital] is unreadable. On the other hand, The Road to Serfdom is one of the great books of our time."

What topic did Hayek never write a book about as he said he would?

the dynamics of capital

What topic did Hayek shy away from following Pure Theory of Capital?

macroeconomics

What did Gunnar Myrdal call Hayek?

an "ideologue"

Which of Hayeks books did Milton Friedman praise most?

The Road to Serfdom

Which whom did Hayek share a Nobel prize?

Gunnar Myrdal


Building on the earlier work of Ludwig von Mises and others, Hayek also argued that while in centrally planned economies an individual or a select group of individuals must determine the distribution of resources, these planners will never have enough information to carry out this allocation reliably. This argument, first proposed by Max Weber, says that the efficient exchange and use of resources can be maintained only through the price mechanism in free markets (see economic calculation problem).

What did Hayek claim those who must distribute resources would lack most?

enough information

Whose work most notably influenced Hayek's argument regarding resource distribution?

Max Weber

What is the one way Hayek argued that resource distribution could succeed?

through the price mechanism in free markets

Other than Max Weber, who was a notable influence to Hayek's statements regarding resource distribution?

Ludwig von Mises


Some socialists such as H. D. Dickinson and Oskar Lange, responded by invoking general equilibrium theory, which they argued disproved Mises's thesis. They noted that the difference between a planned and a free market system lay in who was responsible for solving the equations. They argued, if some of the prices chosen by socialist managers were wrong, gluts or shortages would appear, signalling them to adjust the prices up or down, just as in a free market. Through such a trial and error, a socialist economy could mimic the efficiency of a free market system, while avoiding its many problems.

What did some socialists bring up as a rebuttal to Hayek's resource distribution argument?

general equilibrium theory

What did socialists believe equilibrium theory invalidated?

Mises's thesis

According to those who argued against Hayek, what sets planned and free markets apart is what?

who was responsible for solving the equations

What type of economic system did the socialists want to avoid?

free market


In The Use of Knowledge in Society (1945), Hayek argued that the price mechanism serves to share and synchronise local and personal knowledge, allowing society's members to achieve diverse, complicated ends through a principle of spontaneous self-organization. He contrasted the use of the price mechanism with central planning, arguing that the former allows for more rapid adaptation to changes in particular circumstances of time and place. Thus, he set the stage for Oliver Williamson's later contrast between markets and hierarchies as alternative co-ordination mechanisms for economic transactions. He used the term catallaxy to describe a "self-organizing system of voluntary co-operation". Hayek's research into this argument was specifically cited by the Nobel Committee in its press release awarding Hayek the Nobel prize.

Which of Hayek's books argued against the socialist price mechanism?

The Use of Knowledge in Society

Which type of economy did Hayek believe the price mechanism to be less effective with?

central planning

The arguments presented in The Use of Knowledge in Society created an starting point for who?

Oliver Williamson

The arguments presented in Hayek's 1945 book were a large reason for being granted what award?

the Nobel prize


Hayek was one of the leading academic critics of collectivism in the 20th century. Hayek argued that all forms of collectivism (even those theoretically based on voluntary co-operation) could only be maintained by a central authority of some kind. In Hayek's view, the central role of the state should be to maintain the rule of law, with as little arbitrary intervention as possible. In his popular book, The Road to Serfdom (1944) and in subsequent academic works, Hayek argued that socialism required central economic planning and that such planning in turn leads towards totalitarianism.

What was the name of the ideology Hayek criticized?

collectivism

How did Hayek believe collectivism could be maintained?

a central authority

According to Hayek, what is necessary for the implementation of a socialist economy?

central economic planning

Hayek believed the requirements for a socialist economy would lead to what?

totalitarianism

What did Hayek believe was the core responsibility of the state?

maintain the rule of law


Hayek also wrote that the state can play a role in the economy, and specifically, in creating a "safety net". He wrote, "There is no reason why, in a society which has reached the general level of wealth ours has, the first kind of security should not be guaranteed to all without endangering general freedom; that is: some minimum of food, shelter and clothing, sufficient to preserve health. Nor is there any reason why the state should not help to organize a comprehensive system of social insurance in providing for those common hazards of life against which few can make adequate provision."

Hayek believed the state could aid the economy by doing what?

creating a "safety net"

Who did Hayek say economic security should be guaranteed to?

all

According to Hayek, clothing, food and shelter should be provided to what extent?

sufficient to preserve health

What sort of system did Hayek propose the government create?

social insurance


Hayek's work on the microeconomics of the choice theoretics of investment, non-permanent goods, potential permanent resources, and economically-adapted permanent resources mark a central dividing point between his work in areas of macroeconomics and that of almost all other economists. Hayek's work on the macroeconomic subjects of central planning, trade cycle theory, the division of knowledge, and entrepreneurial adaptation especially, differ greatly from the opinions of macroeconomic "Marshallian" economists in the tradition of John Maynard Keynes and the microeconomic "Walrasian" economists in the tradition of Abba Lerner.

In what economic field of study does Hayek's views differ from those in macroeconomics?

microeconomics

What is the term used to describe economists following Keynes school of thought?

"Marshallian"

Whose works inspire the term "Walrasian" in economics?

Abba Lerner


During World War II, Hayek began the ‘Abuse of Reason’ project. His goal was to show how a number of then-popular doctrines and beliefs had a common origin in some fundamental misconceptions about the social science. In his philosophy of science, which has much in common with that of his good friend Karl Popper, Hayek was highly critical of what he termed scientism: a false understanding of the methods of science that has been mistakenly forced upon the social sciences, but that is contrary to the practices of genuine science. Usually, scientism involves combining the philosophers' ancient demand for demonstrative justification with the associationists' false view that all scientific explanations are simple two-variable linear relationships.

When did Hayek start working on Abuse of Reason?

During World War II

What did Hayek specifically aim to expose in Abuse of Reason?

fundamental misconceptions about the social science

Whose beliefs in scientific philosophy were similar to Hayek's?

Karl Popper

What did Hayek use to refer to the spread of ignorance and misunderstanding within the social sciences?

scientism

In scientism, it is typically believed that explanations in science are what?

simple two-variable linear relationships


In The Sensory Order: An Inquiry into the Foundations of Theoretical Psychology (1952), Hayek independently developed a "Hebbian learning" model of learning and memory – an idea which he first conceived in 1920, prior to his study of economics. Hayek's expansion of the "Hebbian synapse" construction into a global brain theory has received continued attention in neuroscience, cognitive science, computer science, behavioural science, and evolutionary psychology, by scientists such as Gerald Edelman, and Joaquin Fuster.

In what year was the book published in which Hayek developed Hebbian learning?

Before he began studying economics, what concept did Hayek come up with that was later featured in his 1952 book?

Hebbian learning

What did Hayek present in his 1952 book that affected multiple areas of science?

"Hebbian synapse"

What is the name of the book in which Hayek presented the Hebbian Synapse?

The Sensory Order: An Inquiry into the Foundations of Theoretical Psychology


In the latter half of his career Hayek made a number of contributions to social and political philosophy, which he based on his views on the limits of human knowledge, and the idea of spontaneous order in social institutions. He argues in favour of a society organised around a market order, in which the apparatus of state is employed almost (though not entirely) exclusively to enforce the legal order (consisting of abstract rules, and not particular commands) necessary for a market of free individuals to function. These ideas were informed by a moral philosophy derived from epistemological concerns regarding the inherent limits of human knowledge. Hayek argued that his ideal individualistic, free-market polity would be self-regulating to such a degree that it would be 'a society which does not depend for its functioning on our finding good men for running it'.

When did Hayek begin presenting his ideas on the limits of human knowledge?

the latter half of his career

What did Hayek want society to function around?

a market order

What is the responsibility of government in Hayek's market order?

to enforce the legal order

What would be the cause of the success for the Hayek's ideal free-market?

would be self-regulating

What would Hayek's free-market not require in order to function properly?

good men


Hayek disapproved of the notion of 'social justice'. He compared the market to a game in which 'there is no point in calling the outcome just or unjust' and argued that 'social justice is an empty phrase with no determinable content'; likewise "the results of the individual's efforts are necessarily unpredictable, and the question as to whether the resulting distribution of incomes is just has no meaning". He generally regarded government redistribution of income or capital as an unacceptable intrusion upon individual freedom: "the principle of distributive justice, once introduced, would not be fulfilled until the whole of society was organized in accordance with it. This would produce a kind of society which in all essential respects would be the opposite of a free society."

What concept did Hayek dislike?

social justice

How did Hayek feel regarding income distribution?

there is no point in calling the outcome just or unjust

What reason does Hayek provide for differences in income distribution not being a matter of just or unjust?

the results of the individual's efforts are necessarily unpredictable

According to Hayek, a society in which income is redistributed is what?

the opposite of a free society


Hayek’s concept of the market as a spontaneous order has been recently applied to ecosystems to defend a broadly non-interventionist policy. Like the market, ecosystems contain complex networks of information, involve an ongoing dynamic process, contain orders within orders, and the entire system operates without being directed by a conscious mind. On this analysis, species takes the place of price as a visible element of the system formed by a complex set of largely unknowable elements. Human ignorance about the countless interactions between the organisms of an ecosystem limits our ability to manipulate nature. Since humans rely on the ecosystem to sustain themselves, we have a prima facie obligation to not disrupt such systems. This analysis of ecosystems as spontaneous orders does not rely on markets qualifying as spontaneous orders. As such, one need not endorse Hayek’s analysis of markets to endorse ecosystems as spontaneous orders.

What has Hayek's views on the market been used to defend?

non-interventionist policy

What is the term used to describe the obligation for humans to avoid disrupting the ecosystem?

prima facie

What are ecosystems views to be?

spontaneous orders

One might still support spontaneous orders without agreeing with which of Hayek's assessments?

analysis of markets

What is limited by the ignorance of humanity?

our ability to manipulate nature


With regard to a safety net, Hayek advocated "some provision for those threatened by the extremes of indigence or starvation, be if only in the interest of those who require protection against acts of desperation on the part of the needy." As referenced in the section on "The economic calculation problem," Hayek wrote that "there is no reason why... the state should not help to organize a comprehensive system of social insurance." Summarizing on this topic, Wapshott writes "[Hayek] advocated mandatory universal health care and unemployment insurance, enforced, if not directly provided, by the state." Bernard Harcourt says that "Hayek was adamant about this." In the 1973 Law, Legislation, and Liberty, Hayek wrote:

According to Wapshott, who was promoting the implementation of universal health care?

Hayek

Who did Hayek say should provide a safety net for society?

the state

In which of Hayek's works did he make his statements regarding social insurance?

The economic calculation problem

Who made the claim that Hayek was particularly determined regarding his beliefs on social insurance and a safety net?

Bernard Harcourt


Arthur M. Diamond argues Hayek's problems arise when he goes beyond claims that can be evaluated within economic science. Diamond argued that: “The human mind, Hayek says, is not just limited in its ability to synthesize a vast array of concrete facts, it is also limited in its ability to give a deductively sound ground to ethics. Here is where the tension develops, for he also wants to give a reasoned moral defense of the free market. He is an intellectual skeptic who wants to give political philosophy a secure intellectual foundation. It is thus not too surprising that what results is confused and contradictory.”

Who criticizes Hayek's ability to provide specific facts?

Arthur M. Diamond

Diamond believes Hayek's weaknesses come out when he steps beyond the bounds of what topic?

economic science

What term does Diamond use to refer to Hayek?

intellectual skeptic

Diamond states that the final result of Hayek's statements are what?

confused and contradictory


Asked about the liberal, non-democratic rule by a Chilean interviewer, Hayek is translated from German to Spanish to English as having said, "As long term institutions, I am totally against dictatorships. But a dictatorship may be a necessary system for a transitional period. [...] Personally I prefer a liberal dictatorship to democratic government devoid of liberalism. My personal impression – and this is valid for South America – is that in Chile, for example, we will witness a transition from a dictatorial government to a liberal government." In a letter to the London Times, he defended the Pinochet regime and said that he had "not been able to find a single person even in much maligned Chile who did not agree that personal freedom was much greater under Pinochet than it had been under Allende." Hayek admitted that "it is not very likely that this will succeed, even if, at a particular point in time, it may be the only hope there is.", he explained, however, "It is not certain hope, because it will always depend on the goodwill of an individual, and there are very few individuals one can trust. But if it is the sole opportunity which exists at a particular moment it may be the best solution despite this. And only if and when the dictatorial government is visibly directing its steps towards limited democracy".

At what point did Hayek claim dictatorships may be necessary?

a transitional period

What did Hayek claim to prefer over a democratic government in the absence of liberal ideals?

a liberal dictatorship

What did Hayek believe the Chilean government would become in the future?

a liberal government

As claimed by Hayek, Chilean citizens had more freedom under which ruler?

Pinochet


For Hayek, the supposedly stark difference between authoritarianism and totalitarianism has much importance and Hayek places heavy weight on this distinction in his defence of transitional dictatorship. For example, when Hayek visited Venezuela in May 1981, he was asked to comment on the prevalence of totalitarian regimes in Latin America. In reply, Hayek warned against confusing "totalitarianism with authoritarianism," and said that he was unaware of "any totalitarian governments in Latin America. The only one was Chile under Allende". For Hayek, however, the word 'totalitarian' signifies something very specific: the want to “organize the whole of society” to attain a “definite social goal” —which is stark in contrast to “liberalism and individualism”.

Hayek believed that authoritarianism was very different from what?

totalitarianism

What country did Hayek arrive in where he provided his disctinction between totalitarianism and authoritarianism?

Venezuela

What did Hayek believe to be absent from Latin America?

totalitarian governments

What is Hayek's definition of totalitarian?

the want to “organize the whole of society” to attain a “definite social goal”


In 1932, Hayek suggested that private investment in the public markets was a better road to wealth and economic co-ordination in Britain than government spending programs, as argued in a letter he co-signed with Lionel Robbins and others in an exchange of letters with John Maynard Keynes in The Times. The nearly decade long deflationary depression in Britain dating from Churchill's decision in 1925 to return Britain to the gold standard at the old pre-war, pre-inflationary par was the public policy backdrop for Hayek's single public engagement with Keynes over British monetary and fiscal policy, otherwise Hayek and Keynes agreed on many theoretical matters, and their economic disagreements were fundamentally theoretical, having to do almost exclusively with the relation of the economics of extending the length of production to the economics of labour inputs.

What did Hayek claim to be better than investing in government spending programs?

private investment in the public markets

What other notable figure signed the letter in which Hayek made his statement regarding private investment?

Lionel Robbins

Who was responsible for England's return to the use of gold as standard currency?

Churchill

With whom did Hayek disagree with publicly?

John Maynard Keynes


Hayek's influence on the development of economics is widely acknowledged. Hayek is the second-most frequently cited economist (after Kenneth Arrow) in the Nobel lectures of the prize winners in economics, which is particularly striking since his own lecture was critical of the field of orthodox economics and neo-classical modelisation. A number of Nobel Laureates in economics, such as Vernon Smith and Herbert A. Simon, recognise Hayek as the greatest modern economist. Another Nobel winner, Paul Samuelson, believed that Hayek was worthy of his award but nevertheless claimed that "there were good historical reasons for fading memories of Hayek within the mainstream last half of the twentieth century economist fraternity. In 1931, Hayek's Prices and Production had enjoyed an ultra-short Byronic success. In retrospect hindsight tells us that its mumbo-jumbo about the period of production grossly misdiagnosed the macroeconomics of the 1927–1931 (and the 1931–2007) historical scene". Despite this comment, Samuelson spent the last 50 years of his life obsessed with the problems of capital theory identified by Hayek and Böhm-Bawerk, and Samuelson flatly judged Hayek to have been right and his own teacher, Joseph Schumpeter, to have been wrong on the central economic question of the 20th century, the feasibility of socialist economic planning in a production goods dominated economy.

Which economist is cited the most by winners of the Nobel prize in that field?

Kenneth Arrow

What Nobel prize winner has spent most of his life studying Hayek's capital theory despite being critical of the man?

Paul Samuelson

On the topic of the practicality of a socialist economy, who does Samuelson believe was wrong?

Joseph Schumpeter

On the topic of mainstream economics, whose Nobel lecture was particularly critical?

Hayek's

Which of Hayek's works does Samuelson cite as being incorrect regarding macroeconomics?

Prices and Production


Hayek is widely recognised for having introduced the time dimension to the equilibrium construction and for his key role in helping inspire the fields of growth theory, information economics, and the theory of spontaneous order. The "informal" economics presented in Milton Friedman's massively influential popular work Free to Choose (1980), is explicitly Hayekian in its account of the price system as a system for transmitting and co-ordinating knowledge. This can be explained by the fact that Friedman taught Hayek's famous paper "The Use of Knowledge in Society" (1945) in his graduate seminars.

Whose 1980 book mentions "informal" economics?

Milton Friedman's

What is the name of the book Friedman released in 1980?

Free to Choose

How is Friedman's book described in regards to the price system?

Hayekian

Which of Hayek's works did Friedman once teach?

The Use of Knowledge in Society


Hayek had a long-standing and close friendship with philosopher of science Karl Popper, also from Vienna. In a letter to Hayek in 1944, Popper stated, "I think I have learnt more from you than from any other living thinker, except perhaps Alfred Tarski." (See Hacohen, 2000). Popper dedicated his Conjectures and Refutations to Hayek. For his part, Hayek dedicated a collection of papers, Studies in Philosophy, Politics, and Economics, to Popper and, in 1982, said that "ever since his Logik der Forschung first came out in 1934, I have been a complete adherent to his general theory of methodology". Popper also participated in the inaugural meeting of the Mont Pelerin Society. Their friendship and mutual admiration, however, do not change the fact that there are important differences between their ideas.

Which fellow Vienna native was Hayek friends with?

Karl Popper

Who is the only exception from whom Hayek claims to have learned more than he did from Popper?

Alfred Tarski

Hayek dedicated many of his papers to Popper based on a dedication Popper made to him in which of his work?

Conjectures and Refutations

Which of Popper's works was the first to grasp Hayek's attention?

Logik der Forschung

Popper was present for which notable Mont Pelerin Society event?

the inaugural meeting


Hayek's greatest intellectual debt was to Carl Menger, who pioneered an approach to social explanation similar to that developed in Britain by Bernard Mandeville and the Scottish moral philosophers in the Scottish Enlightenment. He had a wide-reaching influence on contemporary economics, politics, philosophy, sociology, psychology and anthropology. For example, Hayek's discussion in The Road to Serfdom (1944) about truth, falsehood and the use of language influenced some later opponents of postmodernism.

Which of Hayek's books had an impact on those against postmodernism?

The Road to Serfdom

To whom did Hayek owe his intellectual success?

Carl Menger

Carl Menger's work in social explanation was not too different from those in which Scottish period??

Scottish Enlightenment


Hayek received new attention in the 1980s and 1990s with the rise of conservative governments in the United States, United Kingdom, and Canada. After winning the United Kingdom general election, 1979, Margaret Thatcher appointed Keith Joseph, the director of the Hayekian Centre for Policy Studies, as her secretary of state for industry in an effort to redirect parliament's economic strategies. Likewise, David Stockman, Ronald Reagan's most influential financial official in 1981 was an acknowledged follower of Hayek.

In what year was Margaret Thatcher elected Prime Minister?

Whom did the Prime Minister of England choose as secretary of state?

Keith Joseph

During the 80s and 90s, three major English speaking nations experienced a political shift to to what?

conservative governments

What position did the British Prime Minister's secretary of state previously hold?

director of the Hayekian Centre for Policy Studies

One of Hayek's supporters served which US president?

Ronald Reagan's


Hayek wrote an essay, "Why I Am Not a Conservative" (included as an appendix to The Constitution of Liberty), in which he disparaged conservatism for its inability to adapt to changing human realities or to offer a positive political program, remarking, "Conservatism is only as good as what it conserves." Although he noted that modern day conservatism shares many opinions on economics with classical liberals, particularly a belief in the free market, he believed it's because conservatism wants to "stand still," whereas liberalism embraces the free market because it "wants to go somewhere." Hayek identified himself as a classical liberal, but noted that in the United States it had become almost impossible to use "liberal" in its original definition, and the term "libertarian" has been used instead. In this text, Hayek also opposed conservatism for "its hostility to internationalism and its proneness to a strident nationalism" and its frequent association with imperialism.

What ideology did Hayek not agree with in an essay appended to The Constitution of Liberty?

conservatism

What was Hayek's statement regarding conservatism?

"Conservatism is only as good as what it conserves."

What does conservatism have in common with classical liberalism?

belief in the free market

What word is used in the United States to identify Hayek's ideology?

libertarian

Which ideology did Hayek believe conservatism discouraged?

internationalism


However, for his part, Hayek found this term "singularly unattractive" and offered the term "Old Whig" (a phrase borrowed from Edmund Burke) instead. In his later life, he said, "I am becoming a Burkean Whig." However, Whiggery as a political doctrine had little affinity for classical political economy, the tabernacle of the Manchester School and William Gladstone. His essay has served as an inspiration to other liberal-minded economists wishing to distinguish themselves from conservative thinkers, for example James M. Buchanan's essay "Why I, Too, Am Not a Conservative: The Normative Vision of Classical Liberalism".

What did Hayek suggest as an alternative to being called a libertarian?

Old Whig

In opposition to conservatives, what group has Hayek's work influenced?

liberal-minded economists

Who wrote an essay as a result of Hayek's "Why I Am Not a Conservative"?

James M. Buchanan

From whom did Hayek acquire the term he proposed as an alternative to libertarian?

Edmund Burke

In his later years, what term did Hayek use to describe himself?

a Burkean Whig


His opponents have attacked Hayek as a leading promoter of "neoliberalism". A British scholar, Samuel Brittan, concluded in 2010, "Hayek's book [The Constitution of Liberty] is still probably the most comprehensive statement of the underlying ideas of the moderate free market philosophy espoused by neoliberals." Brittan adds that although Raymond Plant (2009) comes out in the end against Hayek's doctrines, Plant gives The Constitution of Liberty a "more thorough and fair-minded analysis than it has received even from its professed adherents".

What term do those who disagree with Hayek use to describe his ideals?

neoliberalism

Who was it that claimed Hayek's The Constitution of Liberty to be an thorough example of neoliberal philosophy?

Samuel Brittan

Whose ideals does Brittan believe to win out over Hayek's?

Raymond Plant


In Why F A Hayek is a Conservative, British policy analyst Madsen Pirie claims Hayek mistakes the nature of the conservative outlook. Conservatives, he says, are not averse to change – but like Hayek, they are highly averse to change being imposed on the social order by people in authority who think they know how to run things better. They wish to allow the market to function smoothly and give it the freedom to change and develop. It is an outlook, says Pirie, that Hayek and conservatives both share.

Who makes the claim that Hayek was actually a conservative?

Madsen Pirie

According to Pirie, conservatives dislike change only when its forced upon them by whom?

people in authority who think they know how to run things better

Pirie believes Hayek to be a conservative for what reason?

mistakes the nature of the conservative outlook

What does Pirie claim conservatives want for the free market?

to function smoothly


Diarrhea, also spelled diarrhoea, is the condition of having at least three loose or liquid bowel movements each day. It often lasts for a few days and can result in dehydration due to fluid loss. Signs of dehydration often begin with loss of the normal stretchiness of the skin and irritable behaviour. This can progress to decreased urination, loss of skin color, a fast heart rate, and a decrease in responsiveness as it becomes more severe. Loose but non-watery stools in babies who are breastfed, however, may be normal.

What is diarrhea?

the condition of having at least three loose or liquid bowel movements each day

What is one of the effects of diarrhea?

can result in dehydration due to fluid loss

What are the warning signs of dehydration?

loss of the normal stretchiness of the skin and irritable behaviour

What are other signs of dehydration?

decreased urination, loss of skin color, a fast heart rate, and a decrease in responsiveness

What condition is characterized by loose and watery stools in babies?

I'm not sure.

What sign begins with a loss of skin color and a fast heart rate?

I'm not sure.

What are the warning signs of diarrhea?

I'm not sure.

How long does dehydration last?

I'm not sure.

What are other signs of diarrhea?

I'm not sure.