In a switching circuit, the idea is to simulate, as near as possible, the ideal switch having the properties of open circuit when off, short circuit when on, and an instantaneous transition between the two states. Parameters are chosen such that the "off" output is limited to leakage currents too small to affect connected circuitry; the resistance of the transistor in the "on" state is too small to affect circuitry; and the transition between the two states is fast enough not to have a detrimental effect.

How are parameters chosen in a switching circuit?

the "off" output is limited to leakage currents too small to affect connected circuitry

What is a switching circuit trying to simulate when on?

short circuit

What is a switching circuit trying to simulate when off?

open circuit

How quickly does the change from open circuit to short circuit happen?

instantaneous

What might stop a switch from transitioning quickly?

I'm not sure.

What can help a switch work more efficiently?

I'm not sure.

What kind of circuit has the least amount of resistance?

I'm not sure.

What kind of circuit has the most resistance?

I'm not sure.

When is a circuit most likely to fail?

I'm not sure.


Bipolar transistors are so named because they conduct by using both majority and minority carriers. The bipolar junction transistor, the first type of transistor to be mass-produced, is a combination of two junction diodes, and is formed of either a thin layer of p-type semiconductor sandwiched between two n-type semiconductors (an n–p–n transistor), or a thin layer of n-type semiconductor sandwiched between two p-type semiconductors (a p–n–p transistor). This construction produces two p–n junctions: a base–emitter junction and a base–collector junction, separated by a thin region of semiconductor known as the base region (two junction diodes wired together without sharing an intervening semiconducting region will not make a transistor).

What gives bipolar transistors their name?

they conduct by using both majority and minority carriers

What was the first mass-produced transistor?

bipolar junction transistor

What is the bipolar junction transistor a combination of?

two junction diodes

What is the name for a layer of p-type semiconductor set between two n-type semiconductors?

n–p–n transistor

What is the name for a layer of n-type semiconductor set between two p-type semiconductors?

p–n–p transistor

What kind of transistor is used the most?

I'm not sure.

Where do junction diodes get their name?

I'm not sure.

What is the most common type of bipolar transistor?

I'm not sure.

How are bipolar transistors mass produced?

I'm not sure.


BJTs have three terminals, corresponding to the three layers of semiconductor—an emitter, a base, and a collector. They are useful in amplifiers because the currents at the emitter and collector are controllable by a relatively small base current. In an n–p–n transistor operating in the active region, the emitter–base junction is forward biased (electrons and holes recombine at the junction), and electrons are injected into the base region. Because the base is narrow, most of these electrons will diffuse into the reverse-biased (electrons and holes are formed at, and move away from the junction) base–collector junction and be swept into the collector; perhaps one-hundredth of the electrons will recombine in the base, which is the dominant mechanism in the base current. By controlling the number of electrons that can leave the base, the number of electrons entering the collector can be controlled. Collector current is approximately β (common-emitter current gain) times the base current. It is typically greater than 100 for small-signal transistors but can be smaller in transistors designed for high-power applications.

How many terminals do BJTs have?

three

How many layers of semiconductor do BJTs have?

three

What are the layers of semiconductor in a BJT?

an emitter, a base, and a collector

How can one find the amount of collector current?

β (common-emitter current gain) times the base current

What is the usual collector current for small-signal transistors?

greater than 100

Why is the base of a BJT narrow?

I'm not sure.

Where are BJT amplifiers most commonly used?

I'm not sure.

What controls how many electrons are injected into the base region?

I'm not sure.

How many electrons are injected into the base region?

I'm not sure.


In a FET, the drain-to-source current flows via a conducting channel that connects the source region to the drain region. The conductivity is varied by the electric field that is produced when a voltage is applied between the gate and source terminals; hence the current flowing between the drain and source is controlled by the voltage applied between the gate and source. As the gate–source voltage (VGS) is increased, the drain–source current (IDS) increases exponentially for VGS below threshold, and then at a roughly quadratic rate (IGS ∝ (VGS − VT)2) (where VT is the threshold voltage at which drain current begins) in the "space-charge-limited" region above threshold. A quadratic behavior is not observed in modern devices, for example, at the 65 nm technology node.

What determines the conductivity in a FET?

electric field that is produced when a voltage is applied between the gate and source terminals

What controls the current between the drain and source?

the voltage applied between the gate and source

At what rate is the drain-source current increased when the gate-source current is increased?

a roughly quadratic rate

Where is a quadratic behavior not observed?

in modern devices

What controls the voltage applied between the gate and the source terminals?

I'm not sure.

Why is quadratic behavior not observed in modern devices?

I'm not sure.

Where does current fluctuate the most?

I'm not sure.

How quickly does the voltage increase?

I'm not sure.


FETs are divided into two families: junction FET (JFET) and insulated gate FET (IGFET). The IGFET is more commonly known as a metal–oxide–semiconductor FET (MOSFET), reflecting its original construction from layers of metal (the gate), oxide (the insulation), and semiconductor. Unlike IGFETs, the JFET gate forms a p–n diode with the channel which lies between the source and drain. Functionally, this makes the n-channel JFET the solid-state equivalent of the vacuum tube triode which, similarly, forms a diode between its grid and cathode. Also, both devices operate in the depletion mode, they both have a high input impedance, and they both conduct current under the control of an input voltage.

How many groups are FETs split into?

two

What are the names of the groups of FETs

junction FET (JFET) and insulated gate FET (IGFET)

What is the common term for an IFGET?

a metal–oxide–semiconductor FET (MOSFET)

How is a JFET different from an IGFET?

the JFET gate forms a p–n diode with the channel

What mode do both JFET and IGFET operate in?

depletion mode

What is a vacuum tube triode made from?

I'm not sure.

What controls the amount of input voltage?

I'm not sure.

How many layers of metal are in the gate of an IGFET?

I'm not sure.

What kind of FET is mass produced?

I'm not sure.


FETs are further divided into depletion-mode and enhancement-mode types, depending on whether the channel is turned on or off with zero gate-to-source voltage. For enhancement mode, the channel is off at zero bias, and a gate potential can "enhance" the conduction. For the depletion mode, the channel is on at zero bias, and a gate potential (of the opposite polarity) can "deplete" the channel, reducing conduction. For either mode, a more positive gate voltage corresponds to a higher current for n-channel devices and a lower current for p-channel devices. Nearly all JFETs are depletion-mode because the diode junctions would forward bias and conduct if they were enhancement-mode devices; most IGFETs are enhancement-mode types.

How are FET's separated?

depletion-mode and enhancement-mode types

At what point is a channel off in enhancement-mode?

at zero bias

At what point is a channel on in depletion-mode?

at zero bias

What channel corresponds with high current?

n-channel devices

What channel corresponds with low current?

p-channel devices

What type of FET is more common?

I'm not sure.

What controls how positive the gate voltage is?

I'm not sure.

What controls the gate potential of a FET?

I'm not sure.

What type of FET usually has a higher voltage?

I'm not sure.


The bipolar junction transistor (BJT) was the most commonly used transistor in the 1960s and 70s. Even after MOSFETs became widely available, the BJT remained the transistor of choice for many analog circuits such as amplifiers because of their greater linearity and ease of manufacture. In integrated circuits, the desirable properties of MOSFETs allowed them to capture nearly all market share for digital circuits. Discrete MOSFETs can be applied in transistor applications, including analog circuits, voltage regulators, amplifiers, power transmitters and motor drivers.

What was the most frequently used transistor in the 1960s and 70s?

bipolar junction transistor

Why were BJTs so popular?

their greater linearity and ease of manufacture

What are some applications of discrete MOSFETs?

transistor applications, including analog circuits, voltage regulators, amplifiers, power transmitters and motor drivers

What were the most popular digital circuits of the time?

MOSFETs

When did MOSFETs become widely available?

I'm not sure.

What are the desirable properties of MOSFETs?

I'm not sure.

What was the most common application of MOSFETs?

I'm not sure.

Which type of circuit is older?

I'm not sure.

What kind of circuit is used more in the present?

I'm not sure.


The Pro Electron standard, the European Electronic Component Manufacturers Association part numbering scheme, begins with two letters: the first gives the semiconductor type (A for germanium, B for silicon, and C for materials like GaAs); the second letter denotes the intended use (A for diode, C for general-purpose transistor, etc.). A 3-digit sequence number (or one letter then 2 digits, for industrial types) follows. With early devices this indicated the case type. Suffixes may be used, with a letter (e.g. "C" often means high hFE, such as in: BC549C) or other codes may follow to show gain (e.g. BC327-25) or voltage rating (e.g. BUK854-800A). The more common prefixes are:

What is the Pro Electron standard?

European Electronic Component Manufacturers Association part numbering scheme

How many letters does the part numbering scheme begin with?

two letters

What is the first letter in the part numbering scheme?

the semiconductor type

What is the second letter in the part numbering scheme?

the intended use

What follows the 2 letters in the part numbering scheme?

A 3-digit sequence number

What is the most common semiconductor type?

I'm not sure.

What is the most common intended use for transistors?

I'm not sure.

What kinds of transistor are more likely to use a suffix?

I'm not sure.

What devices are more likely to have a code with a voltage rating?

I'm not sure.

What is the most common reason to have a suffix on a device's number?

I'm not sure.


The JEDEC EIA370 transistor device numbers usually start with "2N", indicating a three-terminal device (dual-gate field-effect transistors are four-terminal devices, so begin with 3N), then a 2, 3 or 4-digit sequential number with no significance as to device properties (although early devices with low numbers tend to be germanium). For example, 2N3055 is a silicon n–p–n power transistor, 2N1301 is a p–n–p germanium switching transistor. A letter suffix (such as "A") is sometimes used to indicate a newer variant, but rarely gain groupings.

What does the JEDEC EIA370 transistor number start with?

what does the 2N is the JEDEC EIA370 mean?

a three-terminal device

What follows the 2N in a JEDEC EIA370?

a 2, 3 or 4-digit sequential number with no significance as to device properties

What does a letter at the end of a device number mean?

a newer variant

What does the number 2N1301 indicate?

a p–n–p germanium switching transistor

What were most early devices made from?

I'm not sure.

What is the most common amount of extra digits in a device number?

I'm not sure.

Which devices usually have the shortest transistor device numbers?

I'm not sure.

What are most modern devices made from?

I'm not sure.

What is the most common letter suffix?

I'm not sure.


Manufacturers of devices may have their own proprietary numbering system, for example CK722. Since devices are second-sourced, a manufacturer's prefix (like "MPF" in MPF102, which originally would denote a Motorola FET) now is an unreliable indicator of who made the device. Some proprietary naming schemes adopt parts of other naming schemes, for example a PN2222A is a (possibly Fairchild Semiconductor) 2N2222A in a plastic case (but a PN108 is a plastic version of a BC108, not a 2N108, while the PN100 is unrelated to other xx100 devices).

What was once an indicator of the devices creator?

a manufacturer's prefix

What makes a manufacturer's prefix less reliable?

devices are second-sourced

What is the marking for a 2N2222A in a plastic case?

What is a plastic version of a BC108?

What manufacturer creates the most devices?

I'm not sure.

What is the marking for a 2N108 in a plastic case?

I'm not sure.

What kind of case is most common?

I'm not sure.

How many naming schemes use an accurate manufacturer's prefix?

I'm not sure.

Who decided what letters were in the manufacturer's prefixes?

I'm not sure.


The junction forward voltage is the voltage applied to the emitter–base junction of a BJT in order to make the base conduct a specified current. The current increases exponentially as the junction forward voltage is increased. The values given in the table are typical for a current of 1 mA (the same values apply to semiconductor diodes). The lower the junction forward voltage the better, as this means that less power is required to "drive" the transistor. The junction forward voltage for a given current decreases with increase in temperature. For a typical silicon junction the change is −2.1 mV/°C. In some circuits special compensating elements (sensistors) must be used to compensate for such changes.

What is the junction forward voltage?

the voltage applied to the emitter–base junction of a BJT

What is the purpose of a junction forward voltage?

to make the base conduct a specified current

What is the ideal junction forward voltage?

lower

Why is the ideal junction forward voltage lower?

less power is required to "drive" the transistor

When happens to the junction forward voltage when temperature is raised?

decreases

What applies voltage to the emitter-base junction?

I'm not sure.

What are most BJTs made of?

I'm not sure.

What are sensistors made of?

I'm not sure.

What kind of circuit needs special compensating elements the most?

I'm not sure.


Because the electron mobility is higher than the hole mobility for all semiconductor materials, a given bipolar n–p–n transistor tends to be swifter than an equivalent p–n–p transistor. GaAs has the highest electron mobility of the three semiconductors. It is for this reason that GaAs is used in high-frequency applications. A relatively recent FET development, the high-electron-mobility transistor (HEMT), has a heterostructure (junction between different semiconductor materials) of aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)-gallium arsenide (GaAs) which has twice the electron mobility of a GaAs-metal barrier junction. Because of their high speed and low noise, HEMTs are used in satellite receivers working at frequencies around 12 GHz. HEMTs based on gallium nitride and aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN/GaN HEMTs) provide a still higher electron mobility and are being developed for various applications.

What is quicker, a bipolar n-p-n transistor or a p-n-p transistor?

a given bipolar n–p–n transistor

What semiconductor has the highest electron mobility?

GaAs

What is the common application of GaAs?

high-frequency applications

What does HEMT stand for?

high-electron-mobility transistor

What are common applications of HEMT?

satellite receivers

What is the most common kind of semiconductor?

I'm not sure.

What causes HEMTs to have high speed and low noise?

I'm not sure.

Which material has the highest electron mobility?

I'm not sure.

Where are HEMTs most commonly used?

I'm not sure.


Discrete transistors are individually packaged transistors. Transistors come in many different semiconductor packages (see image). The two main categories are through-hole (or leaded), and surface-mount, also known as surface-mount device (SMD). The ball grid array (BGA) is the latest surface-mount package (currently only for large integrated circuits). It has solder "balls" on the underside in place of leads. Because they are smaller and have shorter interconnections, SMDs have better high-frequency characteristics but lower power rating.

What is a discrete transistor?

individually packaged transistors

What are the two most common types of transistor?

through-hole (or leaded), and surface-mount

What is another name for the surface-mount transistor?

surface-mount device (SMD)

What is the newest surface-mount transistor?

ball grid array (BGA)

What is a ball grid array composed of?

solder "balls" on the underside in place of leads

What is the most common type of transistor?

I'm not sure.

How many solder "balls" does a Ball Grid Array have?

I'm not sure.

What is the most common type of semiconductor package?

I'm not sure.

What is the most important attribute for a transistor to have?

I'm not sure.

What is the oldest type of semiconductor package?

I'm not sure.


In the Pre-Modern era, many people's sense of self and purpose was often expressed via a faith in some form of deity, be that in a single God or in many gods. Pre-modern cultures have not been thought of creating a sense of distinct individuality, though. Religious officials, who often held positions of power, were the spiritual intermediaries to the common person. It was only through these intermediaries that the general masses had access to the divine. Tradition was sacred to ancient cultures and was unchanging and the social order of ceremony and morals in a culture could be strictly enforced.

What did many people in the Pre-Modern era express their faith through?

via a faith in some form of deity

What were Religious officials perceived as in the Pre-Modern era?

spiritual intermediaries

Through whom did the general masses have access to the divine?

Religious officials

What belief did ancient cultures consider sacred?

Tradition

How were the moral standards of ancient cultures enforced?

strictly

Peoples sense of worth was expressed through what in the Pre-modern era?

via a faith in some form of deity

Who were spiritual intermediates?

Religious officials

Through who did the masses have access to the divine?

spiritual intermediaries

What belief was considered sacred by ancient civilizations?

Tradition

What did social order mandate be strictly enforced?

ceremony and morals


The term "modern" was coined in the 16th century to indicate present or recent times (ultimately derived from the Latin adverb modo, meaning "just now). The European Renaissance (about 1420–1630), which marked the transition between the Late Middle Ages and Early Modern times, started in Italy and was spurred in part by the rediscovery of classical art and literature, as well as the new perspectives gained from the Age of Discovery and the invention of the telescope and microscope, expanding the borders of thought and knowledge.

What term was coined in the 16th century to indicate present time?

modern

The term "modern" was derived from what Latin adverb?

modo

What caused the transition between the middle ages and early modern times?

The European Renaissance

In what country did The European Renaissance start?

Italy

What two instruments were invented during The European Renaissance?

telescope and microscope

What phrase was coined in the 16th century to reference recent times?

modern

The phrase modern originated form what?

Latin adverb modo

What did The European renaissance mark?

transition between the Late Middle Ages and Early Modern times

Through what time period did The European renaissance last?

In what country did The European renaissance begin?

Italy


The term "Early Modern" was introduced in the English language in the 1930s. to distinguish the time between what we call Middle Ages and time of the late Enlightenment (1800) (when the meaning of the term Modern Ages was developing its contemporary form). It is important to note that these terms stem from European history. In usage in other parts of the world, such as in Asia, and in Muslim countries, the terms are applied in a very different way, but often in the context with their contact with European culture in the Age of Discovery.

What term was created in the 1930's to separate the middle ages form the 1800's?

Early Modern

The 1800"s are referred to as?

time of the late Enlightenment

What do the terms "Early Modern" and  'Modern Ages" originate from?

European history

What are the terms "Early Modern" and "Modern Ages" used for i other countries?

in the context with their contact with European culture in the Age of Discovery.

When was the term "Early Modern" implemented into the English language?

What does the term "Early Modern" mean?

to distinguish the time between what we call Middle Ages and time of the late Enlightenment

What time period is referred to as The Late Enlightenment?

Where do the terms "Middle Ages" and "Modern Ages" originate from?

European history

What are the terms "Middle Ages" and "Modern Ages" used for in other countries?

in the context with their contact with European culture in the Age of Discovery.


In the Contemporary era, there were various socio-technological trends. Regarding the 21st century and the late modern world, the Information age and computers were forefront in use, not completely ubiquitous but often present in daily life. The development of Eastern powers was of note, with China and India becoming more powerful. In the Eurasian theater, the European Union and Russian Federation were two forces recently developed. A concern for Western world, if not the whole world, was the late modern form of terrorism and the warfare that has resulted from the contemporary terrorist acts.

In what era were there many socio-technological trends?

Contemporary era

The 21st century is refereed to as what?

the Information age

What device was used most during the The Information age?

computers

What was a major concern for Western civilization during the 21 century?

terrorist acts

In what time were there many socio-technological trends?

Contemporary era

What is the 21st century also known as?

the Information age

What device was used most during 21st century?

computers

What was considered a threat to Western civilization?

terrorist acts


In Asia, various Chinese dynasties and Japanese shogunates controlled the Asian sphere. In Japan, the Edo period from 1600 to 1868 is also referred to as the early modern period. And in Korea, from the rising of Joseon Dynasty to the enthronement of King Gojong is referred to as the early modern period. In the Americas, Native Americans had built a large and varied civilization, including the Aztec Empire and alliance, the Inca civilization, the Mayan Empire and cities, and the Chibcha Confederation. In the west, the European kingdoms and movements were in a movement of reformation and expansion. Russia reached the Pacific coast in 1647 and consolidated its control over the Russian Far East in the 19th century.

Who controlled the Asian Sphere during the period between 1600-1868?

Chinese dynasties and Japanese shogunates

What is the period between 1600-1868 referred to as?

the Edo period

What is the Edo period also known as?

the early modern period

What is time is considered the "Modern Period" in Korea?

from the rising of Joseon Dynasty to the enthronement of King Gojong

Name one of the tribes Native Americans established in the Americas.

Aztec Empire

What two groups controlled the Asian Sphere?

Chinese dynasties and Japanese shogunates

What time is referred to as the Edo period?

1600 to 1868

What is the 'Early Modern period" known as in Japan?

the rising of Joseon Dynasty to the enthronement of King Gojong

Name one of the tribes Native Americans formed in the Americas?

Aztec Empire


In China, urbanization increased as the population grew and as the division of labor grew more complex. Large urban centers, such as Nanjing and Beijing, also contributed to the growth of private industry. In particular, small-scale industries grew up, often specializing in paper, silk, cotton, and porcelain goods. For the most part, however, relatively small urban centers with markets proliferated around the country. Town markets mainly traded food, with some necessary manufactures such as pins or oil. Despite the xenophobia and intellectual introspection characteristic of the increasingly popular new school of neo-Confucianism, China under the early Ming dynasty was not isolated. Foreign trade and other contacts with the outside world, particularly Japan, increased considerably. Chinese merchants explored all of the Indian Ocean, reaching East Africa with the treasure voyages of Zheng He.

Name one of the reasons urbanization grew in China.

population grew

What did Nanjing and Beijing contribute to?

growth of private industry

What are Nanjing and Beijing?

Large urban centers

Under what rule was China not isolated?

the early Ming dynasty

During The Early MIng Dynasty Chinese merchants explored all of what?

Indian Ocean

What caused urbanization to increase in China?

the population grew

Where did Chinese merchants explore?

all of the Indian Ocean


The Qing dynasty (1644–1911) was founded after the fall of the Ming, the last Han Chinese dynasty, by the Manchus. The Manchus were formerly known as the Jurchens. When Beijing was captured by Li Zicheng's peasant rebels in 1644, the Chongzhen Emperor, the last Ming emperor, committed suicide. The Manchus then allied with former Ming general Wu Sangui and seized control of Beijing, which became the new capital of the Qing dynasty. The Mancus adopted the Confucian norms of traditional Chinese government in their rule of China proper. Schoppa, the editor of The Columbia Guide to Modern Chinese History argues, "A date around 1780 as the beginning of modern China is thus closer to what we know today as historical 'reality'. It also allows us to have a better baseline to understand the precipitous decline of the Chinese polity in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries."

What was founded after the fall of the Ming?

The Qing dynasty

The Qing dynasty lasted through what time period?

What were the Manchus originally known as?

the Jurchens

Why did the last Ming Emperor commit suicide?

Beijing was captured by Li Zicheng's peasant rebels

Who became allies with the Manchus to seize control over Beijing?

former Ming general Wu Sangui

The Qing dynasty formed after what event?

after the fall of the Ming

During what time period did the Qing dynasty rule?

What were the Manchus originally named?

Jurchens

Who was Beijing captured by in 1644?

Li Zicheng's peasant rebels

Who did the Manchus make an Ally with to seize control of Beijing?

former Ming general Wu Sangui


Society in the Japanese "Tokugawa period" (Edo society), unlike the shogunates before it, was based on the strict class hierarchy originally established by Toyotomi Hideyoshi. The daimyo, or lords, were at the top, followed by the warrior-caste of samurai, with the farmers, artisans, and traders ranking below. In some parts of the country, particularly smaller regions, daimyo and samurai were more or less identical, since daimyo might be trained as samurai, and samurai might act as local lords. Otherwise, the largely inflexible nature of this social stratification system unleashed disruptive forces over time. Taxes on the peasantry were set at fixed amounts which did not account for inflation or other changes in monetary value. As a result, the tax revenues collected by the samurai landowners were worth less and less over time. This often led to numerous confrontations between noble but impoverished samurai and well-to-do peasants, ranging from simple local disturbances to much bigger rebellions. None, however, proved compelling enough to seriously challenge the established order until the arrival of foreign powers.

What was society based on during the Tukugawa period?

strict class hierarchy

Strict class hierarchy was established by who?

Toyotomi Hideyoshi

What group were considered to be at the top of the Strict Class Hierarchy?

The daimyo, or lords

How were taxes charged during the Tukugawa period?

set at fixed amounts

What effect did  having taxes charged at a fixed amount have on it's revenue?

tax revenues collected by the samurai landowners were worth less and less over time.

What is the Tokugawa period also known as?

Edo society

What was society in  the Tokugawa period based in?

strict class hierarchy

What group was considered at the top of the Strict Class Society?

The daimyo, or lords,

How were taxes charged in the Tokugawa period?

set at fixed amounts

What effect did the way the taxes were charged have on it's revenue.

revenues collected by the samurai landowners were worth less and less over time.


On the Indian subcontinent, the Mughal Empire ruled most of India in the early 18th century. The "classic period" ended with the death and defeat of Emperor Aurangzeb in 1707 by the rising Hindu Maratha Empire, although the dynasty continued for another 150 years. During this period, the Empire was marked by a highly centralized administration connecting the different regions. All the significant monuments of the Mughals, their most visible legacy, date to this period which was characterised by the expansion of Persian cultural influence in the Indian subcontinent, with brilliant literary, artistic, and architectural results. The Maratha Empire was located in the south west of present-day India and expanded greatly under the rule of the Peshwas, the prime ministers of the Maratha empire. In 1761, the Maratha army lost the Third Battle of Panipat which halted imperial expansion and the empire was then divided into a confederacy of Maratha states.

Who ruled most of India in the early 18th century?

Mughal Empire

How did the "Classic Period" end?

the death and defeat of Emperor Aurangzeb in 1707

Who was behind the death off Emperor Aurangzeb?

Hindu Maratha Empire

Where was the The Maratha Empire centralized?

south west of present-day India

What happened when the  Maratha Army lost the third battle of Panipat?

the empire was then divided into a confederacy of Maratha states.

Who ruled most of India in the 18 century?

Mughal Empire

What event ended the "classic period"?

the death and defeat of Emperor Aurangzeb

What caused the death of Emperor Auranzeb?

the rising Hindu Maratha Empire,

Where was the Maratha Empire centralized?

south west of present-day India

What caused the Maratha Empire to split in 1761?

the Maratha army lost the Third Battle of Panipat


The development of New Imperialism saw the conquest of nearly all eastern hemisphere territories by colonial powers. The commercial colonization of India commenced in 1757, after the Battle of Plassey, when the Nawab of Bengal surrendered his dominions to the British East India Company, in 1765, when the Company was granted the diwani, or the right to collect revenue, in Bengal and Bihar, or in 1772, when the Company established a capital in Calcutta, appointed its first Governor-General, Warren Hastings, and became directly involved in governance.

What did the development of new imperialism cause?

the conquest of nearly all eastern hemisphere territories by colonial powers.

When did the commercial colonization of India begin?

What happened n the battle of Plassey?

Nawab of Bengal surrendered his dominions to the British East India Company

When was the British East Company given the right to collect revenue?

What is the term used to describe the "Right to collect revenue"?

diwani


The Maratha states, following the Anglo-Maratha wars, eventually lost to the British East India Company in 1818 with the Third Anglo-Maratha War. The rule lasted until 1858, when, after the Indian rebellion of 1857 and consequent of the Government of India Act 1858, the British government assumed the task of directly administering India in the new British Raj. In 1819 Stamford Raffles established Singapore as a key trading post for Britain in their rivalry with the Dutch. However, their rivalry cooled in 1824 when an Anglo-Dutch treaty demarcated their respective interests in Southeast Asia. From the 1850s onwards, the pace of colonization shifted to a significantly higher gear.

In what year did the Maratha states lose to the British East Company?

What was the name of the war lost by the Maratha states in 1818?

the Third Anglo-Maratha War

How long did the British east Indian Company rule last after the war?

What caused the British east Indian Company rule to end?

the Indian rebellion of 1857 and consequent of the Government of India Act 1858

What did Britain establish in 1824?

Singapore as a key trading post


The Dutch East India Company (1800) and British East India Company (1858) were dissolved by their respective governments, who took over the direct administration of the colonies. Only Thailand was spared the experience of foreign rule, although, Thailand itself was also greatly affected by the power politics of the Western powers. Colonial rule had a profound effect on Southeast Asia. While the colonial powers profited much from the region's vast resources and large market, colonial rule did develop the region to a varying extent.

What dispatched of The Dutch East India Company and the British East India Company?

their respective governments

What country did not have to succumb to forign rule?

Thailand

Who also profited from Southeast Asia resources?

colonial powers


Many major events caused Europe to change around the start of the 16th century, starting with the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, the fall of Muslim Spain and the discovery of the Americas in 1492, and Martin Luther's Protestant Reformation in 1517. In England the modern period is often dated to the start of the Tudor period with the victory of Henry VII over Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth in 1485. Early modern European history is usually seen to span from the start of the 15th century, through the Age of Reason and the Age of Enlightenment in the 17th and 18th centuries, until the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in the late 18th century.

In what year did the fall of Constantinople happen?

When is the modern period dated in England?

Battle of Bosworth in 1485

Who was defeated by Henry Vll at the battle of Bosworth?

Richard III


Russia experienced territorial growth through the 17th century, which was the age of Cossacks. Cossacks were warriors organized into military communities, resembling pirates and pioneers of the New World. In 1648, the peasants of Ukraine joined the Zaporozhian Cossacks in rebellion against Poland-Lithuania during the Khmelnytsky Uprising, because of the social and religious oppression they suffered under Polish rule. In 1654 the Ukrainian leader, Bohdan Khmelnytsky, offered to place Ukraine under the protection of the Russian Tsar, Aleksey I. Aleksey's acceptance of this offer led to another Russo-Polish War (1654–1667). Finally, Ukraine was split along the river Dnieper, leaving the western part (or Right-bank Ukraine) under Polish rule and eastern part (Left-bank Ukraine and Kiev) under Russian. Later, in 1670–71 the Don Cossacks led by Stenka Razin initiated a major uprising in the Volga region, but the Tsar's troops were successful in defeating the rebels. In the east, the rapid Russian exploration and colonisation of the huge territories of Siberia was led mostly by Cossacks hunting for valuable furs and ivory. Russian explorers pushed eastward primarily along the Siberian river routes, and by the mid-17th century there were Russian settlements in the Eastern Siberia, on the Chukchi Peninsula, along the Amur River, and on the Pacific coast. In 1648 the Bering Strait between Asia and North America was passed for the first time by Fedot Popov and Semyon Dezhnyov.

When did Russia experience territorial growth?

the 17th century

The 17th century is also known as?

age of Cossacks.

Who are Cossacks?

warriors organized into military communities

Who joined the Cossacks in 1648?

peasants of Ukraine

Why dd the Peasants of Ukraine join the Cossacks?

in rebellion against Poland-Lithuania


Traditionally, the European intellectual transformation of and after the Renaissance bridged the Middle Ages and the Modern era. The Age of Reason in the Western world is generally regarded as being the start of modern philosophy, and a departure from the medieval approach, especially Scholasticism. Early 17th-century philosophy is often called the Age of Rationalism and is considered to succeed Renaissance philosophy and precede the Age of Enlightenment, but some consider it as the earliest part of the Enlightenment era in philosophy, extending that era to two centuries. The 18th century saw the beginning of secularization in Europe, rising to notability in the wake of the French Revolution.

What bridged the middle ages to the modern era?

European intellectual transformation

What is regarded as the start of modern philosophy?

The Age of Reason

What is 17th century philosophy also referred to as?

the Age of Rationalism

What does the Age of Rationalism succeed?

Renaissance philosophy

What did the beginning of the 18th century mark the beginning of in Europe?

secularization


The Age of Enlightenment is a time in Western philosophy and cultural life centered upon the 18th century in which reason was advocated as the primary source and legitimacy for authority. Enlightenment gained momentum more or less simultaneously in many parts of Europe and America. Developing during the Enlightenment era, Renaissance humanism as an intellectual movement spread across Europe. The basic training of the humanist was to speak well and write (typically, in the form of a letter). The term umanista comes from the latter part of the 15th century. The people were associated with the studia humanitatis, a novel curriculum that was competing with the quadrivium and scholastic logic.

What was the age of Enlightenment centered on?

the 18th century in which reason was advocated as the primary source and legitimacy for authority.

Where did Enlightenment gain momentum?

Europe and America

What is the basic training of a humanist?

speak well and write

From where does the phrase humanist originate?

the 15th century

What were the studia humanitatis competing against?

quadrivium and scholastic logic.


Renaissance humanism took a close study of the Latin and Greek classical texts, and was antagonistic to the values of scholasticism with its emphasis on the accumulated commentaries; and humanists were involved in the sciences, philosophies, arts and poetry of classical antiquity. They self-consciously imitated classical Latin and deprecated the use of medieval Latin. By analogy with the perceived decline of Latin, they applied the principle of ad fontes, or back to the sources, across broad areas of learning.

What did renaissance humanism reference?

Latin and Greek classical texts

renaissance humanism was antagonistic to what?

scholasticism

What did renaissance humanism place an emphasis on?

accumulated commentaries


The quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns was a literary and artistic quarrel that heated up in the early 1690s and shook the Académie française. The opposing two sides were, the Ancients (Anciens) who constrain choice of subjects to those drawn from the literature of Antiquity and the Moderns (Modernes), who supported the merits of the authors of the century of Louis XIV. Fontenelle quickly followed with his Digression sur les anciens et les modernes (1688), in which he took the Modern side, pressing the argument that modern scholarship allowed modern man to surpass the ancients in knowledge.

What was the basis of the quarrel between the Ancients and the moderns?

literary and artistic

In what time period did the quarrel between the Ancients and the Moderns peak?

early 1690s

Moderns support the merits of whom?

authors of the century of Louis XIV. Fontenelle

What did Louis XIV believe about the modern man?

modern scholarship allowed modern man to surpass the ancients in knowledge.


The Scientific Revolution was a period when European ideas in classical physics, astronomy, biology, human anatomy, chemistry, and other classical sciences were rejected and led to doctrines supplanting those that had prevailed from Ancient Greece to the Middle Ages which would lead to a transition to modern science. This period saw a fundamental transformation in scientific ideas across physics, astronomy, and biology, in institutions supporting scientific investigation, and in the more widely held picture of the universe. Individuals started to question all manners of things and it was this questioning that led to the Scientific Revolution, which in turn formed the foundations of contemporary sciences and the establishment of several modern scientific fields.

What s the Scientific Revolution?

a period when European ideas in classical physics, astronomy, biology, human anatomy, chemistry, and other classical sciences were rejected

What did the Scientific Revolution cause?

a transition to modern science

What did the Scientific Revolution force people to do?

question all manners of things

What did Scientific Revolution form?

several modern scientific fields.


The changes were accompanied by violent turmoil which included the trial and execution of the king, vast bloodshed and repression during the Reign of Terror, and warfare involving every other major European power. Subsequent events that can be traced to the Revolution include the Napoleonic Wars, two separate restorations of the monarchy, and two additional revolutions as modern France took shape. In the following century, France would be governed at one point or another as a republic, constitutional monarchy, and two different empires.

What happened to the king after the trial?

execution of the king

Who else was involved in the warfare?

every other major European power.

name an event that can be contributed to the revolution.

the Napoleonic Wars


The campaigns of French Emperor and General Napoleon Bonaparte characterized the Napoleonic Era. Born on Corsica as the French invaded, and dying suspiciously on the tiny British Island of St. Helena, this brilliant commander, controlled a French Empire that, at its height, ruled a large portion of Europe directly from Paris, while many of his friends and family ruled countries such as Spain, Poland, several parts of Italy and many other Kingdoms Republics and dependencies. The Napoleonic Era changed the face of Europe forever, and old Empires and Kingdoms fell apart as a result of the mighty and "Glorious" surge of Republicanism.

What characterized the Napoleonic Era?

The campaigns of French Emperor and General Napoleon Bonaparte

Where was Napoleon Bonaparte born?

Corsica

Where was Napoleon Bonaparte die?

St. Helena

From where did the French empire rule a large portion of Europe?

Paris

Why were Europe's Empires and Kingdoms dispatched?

surge of Republicanism


Italian unification was the political and social movement that annexed different states of the Italian peninsula into the single state of Italy in the 19th century. There is a lack of consensus on the exact dates for the beginning and the end of this period, but many scholars agree that the process began with the end of Napoleonic rule and the Congress of Vienna in 1815, and approximately ended with the Franco-Prussian War in 1871, though the last città irredente did not join the Kingdom of Italy until after World War I.

What is Italian Unification?

social movement that annexed different states of the Italian peninsula into the single state of Italy

When did the Italian Unification occur?

in the 19th century

In what year do most  Scholars agree the Italian Unification began?

In what year do most  Scholars agree the Italian Unification ended?

After what event did the last citta irredente join Italy?

World War I.


Beginning the Age of Revolution, the American Revolution and the ensuing political upheaval during the last half of the 18th century saw the Thirteen Colonies of North America overthrow the governance of the Parliament of Great Britain, and then reject the British monarchy itself to become the sovereign United States of America. In this period the colonies first rejected the authority of the Parliament to govern them without representation, and formed self-governing independent states. The Second Continental Congress then joined together against the British to defend that self-governance in the armed conflict from 1775 to 1783 known as the American Revolutionary War (also called American War of Independence).

What event did the American revolution cause?

British monarchy itself to become the sovereign United States of America.

How did the Thirteen Colonies become The United States Of America?

overthrow the governance of the Parliament of Great Britain, and then reject the British monarchy

Why did the United States form independent states?

the colonies first rejected the authority of the Parliament to govern them without representation

Who did the Second Continental Congress join together against?

the British

What is the armed conflict form 1775 to 1783 is known as?

American Revolutionary War


The American Revolution begun with fighting at Lexington and Concord. On July 4, 1776, they issued the Declaration of Independence, which proclaimed their independence from Great Britain and their formation of a cooperative union. In June 1776, Benjamin Franklin was appointed a member of the Committee of Five that drafted the Declaration of Independence. Although he was temporarily disabled by gout and unable to attend most meetings of the Committee, Franklin made several small changes to the draft sent to him by Thomas Jefferson.

Where did the American Revolution start?

Lexington and Concord

What was issued on July 4, 1776?

Declaration of Independence

What did the Declaration Of Independence proclaim?

independence from Great Britain and their formation of a cooperative union.

What position was Ben Franklin appointed in 1776?

member of the Committee of Five that drafted the Declaration of Independence.

What was Ben Franklin disabled by?

gout


The decolonization of the Americas was the process by which the countries in the Americas gained their independence from European rule. Decolonization began with a series of revolutions in the late 18th and early-to-mid-19th centuries. The Spanish American wars of independence were the numerous wars against Spanish rule in Spanish America that took place during the early 19th century, from 1808 until 1829, directly related to the Napoleonic French invasion of Spain. The conflict started with short-lived governing juntas established in Chuquisaca and Quito opposing the composition of the Supreme Central Junta of Seville.

What is the decolonization of the Americas?

the process by which the countries in the Americas gained their independence from European rule.

When did the decolonization of the Americas begin?

18th and early-to-mid-19th centuries.

When did the wars against Spanish rule occur?

1808 until 1829

What were the Spanish wars directly linked to?

Napoleonic French invasion of Spain.

How did the Spanish conflict begin?

short-lived governing juntas established in Chuquisaca and Quito opposing the composition of the Supreme Central Junta of Seville.


When the Central Junta fell to the French, numerous new Juntas appeared all across the Americas, eventually resulting in a chain of newly independent countries stretching from Argentina and Chile in the south, to Mexico in the north. After the death of the king Ferdinand VII, in 1833, only Cuba and Puerto Rico remained under Spanish rule, until the Spanish–American War in 1898. Unlike the Spanish, the Portuguese did not divide their colonial territory in America. The captaincies they created were subdued to a centralized administration in Salvador (later relocated to Rio de Janeiro) which reported directly to the Portuguese Crown until its independence in 1822, becoming the Empire of Brazil.

Who did the central Junta fall to?

the French

What king died in 1833?

king Ferdinand VII

After King Ferdinand died, who remained under Spanish rule?

Cuba and Puerto Rico

When did the Spanish-American war occur?

in 1898

Where were the Portuguese capacities centralized?

Salvador


The first Industrial Revolution merged into the Second Industrial Revolution around 1850, when technological and economic progress gained momentum with the development of steam-powered ships and railways, and later in the 19th century with the internal combustion engine and electric power generation. The Second Industrial Revolution was a phase of the Industrial Revolution; labeled as the separate Technical Revolution. From a technological and a social point of view there is no clean break between the two. Major innovations during the period occurred in the chemical, electrical, petroleum, and steel industries. Specific advancements included the introduction of oil fired steam turbine and internal combustion driven steel ships, the development of the airplane, the practical commercialization of the automobile, mass production of consumer goods, the perfection of canning, mechanical refrigeration and other food preservation techniques, and the invention of the telephone.

When did the first industrial revolution merge into the second?

around 1850

What caused technological and economical progress?

development of steam-powered ships and railways

The 19th century was also known as?

the internal combustion engine and electric power generation.

What was the second industrial revolution was labeled?

separate Technical Revolution


Industrialization is the process of social and economic change whereby a human group is transformed from a pre-industrial society into an industrial one. It is a subdivision of a more general modernization process, where social change and economic development are closely related with technological innovation, particularly with the development of large-scale energy and metallurgy production. It is the extensive organization of an economy for the purpose of manufacturing. Industrialization also introduces a form of philosophical change, where people obtain a different attitude towards their perception of nature.

What is industrialization?

social and economic change

During industrialization a human group is turned into what?

from a pre-industrial society into an industrial one.

industrialization is a subdivision of what general process?

technological innovation


The modern petroleum industry started in 1846 with the discovery of the process of refining kerosene from coal by Nova Scotian Abraham Pineo Gesner. Ignacy Łukasiewicz improved Gesner's method to develop a means of refining kerosene from the more readily available "rock oil" ("petr-oleum") seeps in 1852 and the first rock oil mine was built in Bóbrka, near Krosno in Galicia in the following year. In 1854, Benjamin Silliman, a science professor at Yale University in New Haven, was the first to fractionate petroleum by distillation. These discoveries rapidly spread around the world.

When did the modern petroleum industry start?

What started the modern petroleum industry ?

the discovery of the process of refining kerosene from coal

Who discovered the process of refining kerosene from coal?

Nova Scotian Abraham Pineo Gesner

Who improved Gesner's  of refining kerosene from coal?

Ignacy Łukasiewicz

Where was the first Rock Oil mine built?

Bóbrka


Engineering achievements of the revolution ranged from electrification to developments in materials science. The advancements made a great contribution to the quality of life. In the first revolution, Lewis Paul was the original inventor of roller spinning, the basis of the water frame for spinning cotton in a cotton mill. Matthew Boulton and James Watt's improvements to the steam engine were fundamental to the changes brought by the Industrial Revolution in both the Kingdom of Great Britain and the world.

In what fields did achievements occur during the revolution?

electrification to developments in materials science.

What did the advancements during the revolution improve for people?

quality of life

What did Lewis Paul invent?

roller spinning, the basis of the water frame for spinning cotton in a cotton mill.

In what period did James Lewis invent the 'Roller Spinning"?

the first revolution

Who improved the steam engine?

Matthew Boulton and James Watt


In the latter part of the second revolution, Thomas Alva Edison developed many devices that greatly influenced life around the world and is often credited with the creation of the first industrial research laboratory. In 1882, Edison switched on the world's first large-scale electrical supply network that provided 110 volts direct current to fifty-nine customers in lower Manhattan. Also toward the end of the second industrial revolution, Nikola Tesla made many contributions in the field of electricity and magnetism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Thomas Edison is credited with?

the creation of the first industrial research laboratory

What Did Thomas Edison switch to in 1882?

the world's first large-scale electrical supply network

How many volts did Thomas Edison's electrical supply provide?

110 volts

How many customers were supplied by Thomas Edison's electrical supply network?

fifty-nine

Where was Thomas Edison's electrical supply network located?

lower Manhattan


The European Revolutions of 1848, known in some countries as the Spring of Nations or the Year of Revolution, were a series of political upheavals throughout the European continent. Described as a revolutionary wave, the period of unrest began in France and then, further propelled by the French Revolution of 1848, soon spread to the rest of Europe. Although most of the revolutions were quickly put down, there was a significant amount of violence in many areas, with tens of thousands of people tortured and killed. While the immediate political effects of the revolutions were reversed, the long-term reverberations of the events were far-reaching.

When did the European revolutions occur?

What are European revolutions known as in other countries?

Spring of Nations or the Year of Revolution

In what country did the revolutions begin?

France

How many people were estimated to be killed in the revolutions?

tens of thousands


Following the Enlightenment's ideas, the reformers looked to the Scientific Revolution and industrial progress to solve the social problems which arose with the Industrial Revolution. Newton's natural philosophy combined a mathematics of axiomatic proof with the mechanics of physical observation, yielding a coherent system of verifiable predictions and replacing a previous reliance on revelation and inspired truth. Applied to public life, this approach yielded several successful campaigns for changes in social policy.

What did the reformers look to to solve social problems?

Scientific Revolution and industrial progress

What is Newton Natural philosophy?

a coherent system of verifiable predictions

What did Newton's Nataural philosophy replace?

reliance on revelation and inspired truth.

What did Newton's philosophy do when applied to life,

yielded several successful campaigns for changes in social policy.


Under Peter I (the Great), Russia was proclaimed an Empire in 1721 and became recognized as a world power. Ruling from 1682 to 1725, Peter defeated Sweden in the Great Northern War, forcing it to cede West Karelia and Ingria (two regions lost by Russia in the Time of Troubles), as well as Estland and Livland, securing Russia's access to the sea and sea trade. On the Baltic Sea Peter founded a new capital called Saint Petersburg, later known as Russia's Window to Europe. Peter the Great's reforms brought considerable Western European cultural influences to Russia. Catherine II (the Great), who ruled in 1762–96, extended Russian political control over the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and incorporated most of its territories into Russia during the Partitions of Poland, pushing the Russian frontier westward into Central Europe. In the south, after successful Russo-Turkish Wars against the Ottoman Empire, Catherine advanced Russia's boundary to the Black Sea, defeating the Crimean khanate.

Under whom was Russia declared an empire?

Peter I

In what year was Russia declared an empire?

Through what period did Peter I rule?

1682 to 1725

Who did Peter I defeat in the Great Northern War?

Sweden

What did Peter I found on the Baltic Sea?

a new capital called Saint Petersburg


The Victorian era of the United Kingdom was the period of Queen Victoria's reign from June 1837 to January 1901. This was a long period of prosperity for the British people, as profits gained from the overseas British Empire, as well as from industrial improvements at home, allowed a large, educated middle class to develop. Some scholars would extend the beginning of the period—as defined by a variety of sensibilities and political games that have come to be associated with the Victorians—back five years to the passage of the Reform Act 1832.

What was the Victorian era of the United Kingdom?

the period of Queen Victoria's reign

Through what Period did Queen Victoria reign?

1837 to January 1901

What did the people consider Queen Victoria reign to be?

a long period of prosperity for the British people

How far back would some scholars extend Victoria's reign?

five years to the passage of the Reform Act 1832.


In Britain's "imperial century", victory over Napoleon left Britain without any serious international rival, other than Russia in central Asia. Unchallenged at sea, Britain adopted the role of global policeman, a state of affairs later known as the Pax Britannica, and a foreign policy of "splendid isolation". Alongside the formal control it exerted over its own colonies, Britain's dominant position in world trade meant that it effectively controlled the economies of many nominally independent countries, such as China, Argentina and Siam, which has been generally characterized as "informal empire". Of note during this time was the Anglo-Zulu War, which was fought in 1879 between the British Empire and the Zulu Empire.

What did defeating Napoleon leave Britain without?

any serious international rival

Why did Britain adopt the role of Global Policemen?

Unchallenged at sea

Britain adopting the role as global policeman is known as

Pax Britannica

What was Britain's foreign policy called?

splendid isolation

Britain's dominant position in the world trade allowed them to do what?

effectively controlled the economies of many nominally independent countries, such as China, Argentina and Siam


British imperial strength was underpinned by the steamship and the telegraph, new technologies invented in the second half of the 19th century, allowing it to control and defend the Empire. By 1902, the British Empire was linked together by a network of telegraph cables, the so-called All Red Line. Growing until 1922, around 13,000,000 square miles (34,000,000 km2) of territory and roughly 458 million people were added to the British Empire. The British established colonies in Australia in 1788, New Zealand in 1840 and Fiji in 1872, with much of Oceania becoming part of the British Empire.

What was British imperial strength replace by?

steamship and the telegraph

When were the steamship and the telegraph invented?

the second half of the 19th century

What was the British Empire linked by in 1982?

a network of telegraph cables

How many people were added to the British Empire by 1922?

458 million

When did the British establish colonies in Australia?


The Bourbon Restoration followed the ousting of Napoleon I of France in 1814. The Allies restored the Bourbon Dynasty to the French throne. The ensuing period is called the Restoration, following French usage, and is characterized by a sharp conservative reaction and the re-establishment of the Roman Catholic Church as a power in French politics. The July Monarchy was a period of liberal constitutional monarchy in France under King Louis-Philippe starting with the July Revolution (or Three Glorious Days) of 1830 and ending with the Revolution of 1848. The Second Empire was the Imperial Bonapartist regime of Napoleon III from 1852 to 1870, between the Second Republic and the Third Republic, in France.

The Bourbon Restoration followed what event?

Napoleon I of France

What is the Bourbon Restoration?

Allies restored the Bourbon Dynasty to the French throne.

What is the July Monarchy?

a period of liberal constitutional monarchy in France under King Louis-Philippe

What is the second empires?

the Imperial Bonapartist regime of Napoleon III

Through what period did the second empire last?

1852 to 1870


The Franco-Prussian War was a conflict between France and Prussia, while Prussia was backed up by the North German Confederation, of which it was a member, and the South German states of Baden, Württemberg and Bavaria. The complete Prussian and German victory brought about the final unification of Germany under King Wilhelm I of Prussia. It also marked the downfall of Napoleon III and the end of the Second French Empire, which was replaced by the Third Republic. As part of the settlement, almost all of the territory of Alsace-Lorraine was taken by Prussia to become a part of Germany, which it would retain until the end of World War I.

What countries were involved in the Franco-Russian war?

France and Prussia

Name one of the groups who backed Prussia in the Franco-Russian war?

North German Confederation

What did the Prussian and German victory mark?

final unification of Germany under King Wilhelm I of Prussia.

Prussia claimed almost all of what territory?

Alsace-Lorraine

Prussia retained most of Alsace-Lorraine up until what event?

World War I.


The major European powers laid claim to the areas of Africa where they could exhibit a sphere of influence over the area. These claims did not have to have any substantial land holdings or treaties to be legitimate. The European power that demonstrated its control over a territory accepted the mandate to rule that region as a national colony. The European nation that held the claim developed and benefited from their colony’s commercial interests without having to fear rival European competition. With the colonial claim came the underlying assumption that the European power that exerted control would use its mandate to offer protection and provide welfare for its colonial peoples, however, this principle remained more theory than practice. There were many documented instances of material and moral conditions deteriorating for native Africans in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries under European colonial rule, to the point where the colonial experience for them has been described as "hell on earth."

Why did European powers lay claim to areas Africa?

exhibit a sphere of influence over the area

What did the European powers need to make their claim over these areas legitimate?

These claims did not have to have any substantial land holdings or treaties to be legitimate.

What do European powers that exibit their control ovet an area accept?

mandate to rule that region as a national colony.

How did the claims on the areas in Africa benefit the European powers?

colony’s commercial interests without having to fear rival European competition.

What was the colonial experience for Africans described as?

hell on earth.


At the time of the Berlin Conference, Africa contained one-fifth of the world’s population living in one-quarter of the world’s land area. However, from Europe's perspective, they were dividing an unknown continent. European countries established a few coastal colonies in Africa by the mid-nineteenth century, which included Cape Colony (Great Britain), Angola (Portugal), and Algeria (France), but until the late nineteenth century Europe largely traded with free African states without feeling the need for territorial possession. Until the 1880s most of Africa remained unchartered, with western maps from the period generally showing blank spaces for the continent’s interior.

What percent of the worlds population did Africa posses at the Berlin Conference?

one-fifth

What was Europe's perspective o Africa containing one-fifth of the worlds population?

they were dividing an unknown continent.

When did European countries establish colonies in Africa?

the mid-nineteenth century,

Europe did not feel the need to posses territory in Africa until?

How did maps show Africa Before 1880?

generally showing blank spaces for the continent’s interior.


From the 1880s to 1914, the European powers expanded their control across the African continent, competing with each other for Africa’s land and resources. Great Britain controlled various colonial holdings in East Africa that spanned the length of the African continent from Egypt in the north to South Africa. The French gained major ground in West Africa, and the Portuguese held colonies in southern Africa. Germany, Italy, and Spain established a small number of colonies at various points throughout the continent, which included German East Africa (Tanganyika) and German Southwest Africa for Germany, Eritrea and Libya for Italy, and the Canary Islands and Rio de Oro in northwestern Africa for Spain. Finally, for King Leopold (ruled from 1865–1909), there was the large “piece of that great African cake” known as the Congo, which, unfortunately for the native Congolese, became his personal fiefdom to do with as he pleased in Central Africa. By 1914, almost the entire continent was under European control. Liberia, which was settled by freed American slaves in the 1820s, and Abyssinia (Ethiopia) in eastern Africa were the last remaining independent African states. (John Merriman, A History of Modern Europe, Volume Two: From the French Revolution to the Present, Third Edition (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2010), pp. 819–859).

Through what period did European powers expand control in Africa?

1880s to 1914

What was Europe competing for?

Africa’s land and resources.

What did Great Britain control?

various colonial holdings in East Africa

Where in Africa did the French have control?

West Africa

Where in Africa did Portuguese have control?

southern Africa


Around the end of the 19th century and into the 20th century, the Meiji era was marked by the reign of the Meiji Emperor. During this time, Japan started its modernization and rose to world power status. This era name means "Enlightened Rule". In Japan, the Meiji Restoration started in the 1860s, marking the rapid modernization by the Japanese themselves along European lines. Much research has focused on the issues of discontinuity versus continuity with the previous Tokugawa Period. In the 1960s younger Japanese scholars led by Irokawa Daikichi, reacted against the bureaucratic superstate, and began searching for the historic role of the common people . They avoided the elite, and focused not on political events but on social forces and attitudes. They rejected both Marxism and modernization theory as alien and confining. They stressed the importance of popular energies in the development of modern Japan. They enlarged history by using the methods of social history. It was not until the beginning of the Meiji Era that the Japanese government began taking modernization seriously. Japan expanded its military production base by opening arsenals in various locations. The hyobusho (war office) was replaced with a War Department and a Naval Department. The samurai class suffered great disappointment the following years.

What was the Meija era marked by?

the reign of the Meiji Emperor

How did Japan rise to be a world power during the Meja era?

modernization

What does "Meija era"

Enlightened Rule

When did the Meija restoration begin?

What did Irokawa Daikichi act out against?

bureaucratic superstate


Laws were instituted that required every able-bodied male Japanese citizen, regardless of class, to serve a mandatory term of three years with the first reserves and two additional years with the second reserves. This action, the deathblow for the samurai warriors and their daimyo feudal lords, initially met resistance from both the peasant and warrior alike. The peasant class interpreted the term for military service, ketsu-eki (blood tax) literally, and attempted to avoid service by any means necessary. The Japanese government began modelling their ground forces after the French military. The French government contributed greatly to the training of Japanese officers. Many were employed at the military academy in Kyoto, and many more still were feverishly translating French field manuals for use in the Japanese ranks.

Laws mandated that every able bodies Japanese citizen do what?

serve a mandatory term of three years with the first reserves and two additional years with the second reserves.

Who initially rejected the Japanese laws mandating military service?

peasant and warrior alike.

What did the peasant class name the mandatory military service law?

ketsu-eki

Who did the Japanese form their military  forces after?

French military

Where was the military academy located?

Kyoto


The Antebellum Age was a period of increasing division in the country based on the growth of slavery in the American South and in the western territories of Kansas and Nebraska that eventually lead to the Civil War in 1861. The Antebellum Period is often considered to have begun with the Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854,[citation needed] although it may have begun as early as 1812. This period is also significant because it marked the transition of American manufacturing to the industrial revolution.[citation needed]

What is the antebellum age?

a period of increasing division in the country based on the growth of slavery

When did the civil was begin?

When was the Antebellum age considered to have begun?

with the Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854

What did The Antebellum age mark?

the transition of American manufacturing to the industrial revolution.


Northern leaders agreed that victory would require more than the end of fighting. Secession and Confederate nationalism had to be totally repudiated and all forms of slavery or quasi-slavery had to be eliminated. Lincoln proved effective in mobilizing support for the war goals, raising large armies and supplying them, avoiding foreign interference, and making the end of slavery a war goal. The Confederacy had a larger area than it could defend, and it failed to keep its ports open and its rivers clear. The North kept up the pressure as the South could barely feed and clothe its soldiers. Its soldiers, especially those in the East under the command of General Robert E. Lee proved highly resourceful until they finally were overwhelmed by Generals Ulysses S. Grant and William T. Sherman in 1864–65, The Reconstruction Era (1863–77) began with the Emancipation proclamation in 1863, and included freedom, full citizenship and the vote for the Southern blacks. It was followed by a reaction that left the blacks in a second class status legally, politically, socially and economically until the 1960s.

What did northern leaders agree on about slavery?

all forms of slavery or quasi-slavery had to be eliminated.

What did Lincoln do well in the war?

mobilizing support for the war goals

Why couldn't the confederacy defend their ports?

The Confederacy had a larger area than it could defend

The south could barely do what for their souldiers?

feed and clothe

General Robert E. Lee controlled what sect of the confederacy?

the East


During the Gilded Age, there was substantial growth in population in the United States and extravagant displays of wealth and excess of America's upper-class during the post-Civil War and post-Reconstruction era, in the late 19th century. The wealth polarization derived primarily from industrial and population expansion. The businessmen of the Second Industrial Revolution created industrial towns and cities in the Northeast with new factories, and contributed to the creation of an ethnically diverse industrial working class which produced the wealth owned by rising super-rich industrialists and financiers called the "robber barons". An example is the company of John D. Rockefeller, who was an important figure in shaping the new oil industry. Using highly effective tactics and aggressive practices, later widely criticized, Standard Oil absorbed or destroyed most of its competition.

What happened in the Glided Age/

extravagant displays of wealth and excess of America's upper-class

In what time period did the Glided Age occur?

late 19th century

Where did the wealth of the Glided Age come form?

industrial and population expansion.

What did Financiers refer to rich industrialist as?

robber barons

What type of practices did John D. Rockefeller exhibit in the oil industry?

effective tactics and aggressive practices


The creation of a modern industrial economy took place. With the creation of a transportation and communication infrastructure, the corporation became the dominant form of business organization and a managerial revolution transformed business operations. In 1890, Congress passed the Sherman Antitrust Act—the source of all American anti-monopoly laws. The law forbade every contract, scheme, deal, or conspiracy to restrain trade, though the phrase "restraint of trade" remained subjective. By the beginning of the 20th century, per capita income and industrial production in the United States exceeded that of any other country except Britain. Long hours and hazardous working conditions led many workers to attempt to form labor unions despite strong opposition from industrialists and the courts. But the courts did protect the marketplace, declaring the Standard Oil group to be an "unreasonable" monopoly under the Sherman Antitrust Act in 1911. It ordered Standard to break up into 34 independent companies with different boards of directors.

What creations brought in the modern industrial economy?

transportation and communication infrastructure

What became the dominant form of business organization?

the corporation

What transformed business organization in 1890?

managerial revolution

The Sherman Antitrust Act is the source of what?

all American anti-monopoly laws.

What was he Standard Oil Group determined to be by the courts?

an "unreasonable" monopoly


Replacing the classical physics in use since the end of the scientific revolution, modern physics arose in the early 20th century with the advent of quantum physics, substituting mathematical studies for experimental studies and examining equations to build a theoretical structure.[citation needed] The old quantum theory was a collection of results which predate modern quantum mechanics, but were never complete or self-consistent. The collection of heuristic prescriptions for quantum mechanics were the first corrections to classical mechanics. Outside the realm of quantum physics, the various aether theories in classical physics, which supposed a "fifth element" such as the Luminiferous aether, were nullified by the Michelson-Morley experiment—an attempt to detect the motion of earth through the aether. In biology, Darwinism gained acceptance, promoting the concept of adaptation in the theory of natural selection. The fields of geology, astronomy and psychology also made strides and gained new insights. In medicine, there were advances in medical theory and treatments.

When did modern physics arise?

early 20th century

What is the old Quantum  theory?

a collection of results which predate modern quantum mechanics, but were never complete or self-consistent.

The "fifth element" was disproved by what?

Michelson-Morley experiment

What is the Michelson-Morley experiment?

an attempt to detect the motion of earth through the aether

What does Darwinism promote?

the theory of natural selection.


The assertions of Chinese philosophy began to integrate concepts of Western philosophy, as steps toward modernization. By the time of the Xinhai Revolution in 1911, there were many calls, such as the May Fourth Movement, to completely abolish the old imperial institutions and practices of China. There were attempts to incorporate democracy, republicanism, and industrialism into Chinese philosophy, notably by Sun Yat-Sen (Sūn yì xiān, in one Mandarin form of the name) at the beginning of the 20th century. Mao Zedong (Máo zé dōng) added Marxist-Leninist thought. When the Communist Party of China took over power, previous schools of thought, excepting notably Legalism, were denounced as backward, and later even purged during the Cultural Revolution.

Why did Chinese philosophy begin to mix with western concepts?

as steps toward modernization

When did the Xinhai Revolution begin?

What is the May Forth Movement?

to completely abolish the old imperial institutions and practices of China

What did Marxist-Leninst add to Chinese philosophy?

Marxist-Leninist thought

During what event was Legalism abolished?

the Cultural Revolution


Starting one-hundred years before the 20th century, the enlightenment spiritual philosophy was challenged in various quarters around the 1900s. Developed from earlier secular traditions, modern Humanist ethical philosophies affirmed the dignity and worth of all people, based on the ability to determine right and wrong by appealing to universal human qualities, particularly rationality, without resorting to the supernatural or alleged divine authority from religious texts. For liberal humanists such as Rousseau and Kant, the universal law of reason guided the way toward total emancipation from any kind of tyranny. These ideas were challenged, for example by the young Karl Marx, who criticized the project of political emancipation (embodied in the form of human rights), asserting it to be symptomatic of the very dehumanization it was supposed to oppose. For Friedrich Nietzsche, humanism was nothing more than a secular version of theism. In his Genealogy of Morals, he argues that human rights exist as a means for the weak to collectively constrain the strong. On this view, such rights do not facilitate emancipation of life, but rather deny it. In the 20th century, the notion that human beings are rationally autonomous was challenged by the concept that humans were driven by unconscious irrational desires.

When was the enlightenment of spiritual philosophy challenged?

in various quarters around the 1900s.

What were Humanist ethical philosophy's developed from?

earlier secular traditions

Why did Kari Marx criticize Humanist Philosophy's?

it to be symptomatic of the very dehumanization it was supposed to oppose

What did Friedrinch Netzsche consider Humanism to be?

a secular version of theism

Why does Friedrinch Netzsche believe human rights exist?

as a means for the weak to collectively constrain the strong.


Albert Einstein is known for his theories of special relativity and general relativity. He also made important contributions to statistical mechanics, especially his mathematical treatment of Brownian motion, his resolution of the paradox of specific heats, and his connection of fluctuations and dissipation. Despite his reservations about its interpretation, Einstein also made contributions to quantum mechanics and, indirectly, quantum field theory, primarily through his theoretical studies of the photon.

What is Albert Einstein known for?

his theories of special relativity and general relativity

What did Einstein add to the Brownman Motion?

mathematical treatment

What did Einstein discover a resolution to?

the paradox of specific heats

What theory  did Einstein have reservations about?

quantum field theory


In 1901, the Federation of Australia was the process by which the six separate British self-governing colonies of New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria and Western Australia formed one nation. They kept the systems of government that they had developed as separate colonies but also would have a federal government that was responsible for matters concerning the whole nation. When the Constitution of Australia came into force, the colonies collectively became states of the Commonwealth of Australia.

What is the federation of Australia?

six separate British self-governing colonies of New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria and Western Australia formed one nation.

What was the federal Government responsible for?

matters concerning the whole nation.

When did the colonies collectively become a part of the Commonwealth  of Australia?

When the Constitution of Australia came into force


The last days of the Qing Dynasty were marked by civil unrest and foreign invasions. Responding to these civil failures and discontent, the Qing Imperial Court did attempt to reform the government in various ways, such as the decision to draft a constitution in 1906, the establishment of provincial legislatures in 1909, and the preparation for a national parliament in 1910. However, many of these measures were opposed by the conservatives of the Qing Court, and many reformers were either imprisoned or executed outright. The failures of the Imperial Court to enact such reforming measures of political liberalization and modernization caused the reformists to steer toward the road of revolution.

What were the last days of the Qing dynasty marked by?

civil unrest and foreign invasions.

What did the Qing dynasty attempt to do n the face of civil unrest?

attempt to reform the government in various

What happened to The reformers in the Qing dynasty?

either imprisoned or executed outright.

What caused the revolution against the Qing dynasty?

failures of the Imperial Court to enact such reforming measures of political liberalization and modernization


In 1912, the Republic of China was established and Sun Yat-sen was inaugurated in Nanjing as the first Provisional President. But power in Beijing already had passed to Yuan Shikai, who had effective control of the Beiyang Army, the most powerful military force in China at the time. To prevent civil war and possible foreign intervention from undermining the infant republic, leaders agreed to Army's demand that China be united under a Beijing government. On March 10, in Beijing, Shikai was sworn in as the second Provisional President of the Republic of China.

When was the Republic of China established?

Who was Inaugurated in Nanjing as the first provisional president?

Sun Yat-sen

Who had control of the Beiyang army?

Yuan Shikai

What did China agree to avoid the undermining of the Republic?

agreed to Army's demand that China be united under a Beijing government.

Who was sworn in as the second provisional president of the republic of China?

Beijing, Shikai


After the early 20th century revolutions, shifting alliances of China's regional warlords waged war for control of the Beijing government. Despite the fact that various warlords gained control of the government in Beijing during the warlord era, this did not constitute a new era of control or governance, because other warlords did not acknowledge the transitory governments in this period and were a law unto themselves. These military-dominated governments were collectively known as the Beiyang government. The warlord era ended around 1927.

What happened to China after the 20th century revolutions?

shifting alliances of China's regional warlords waged war for control of the Beijing government.

Who ultimately gained control of the Beijing government?

various warlords

Why was there not a new era of governance in Beijing?

because other warlords did not acknowledge the transitory governments in this period and were a law unto themselves.

What were the military dominated governments known as?

the Beiyang government

When did the warlord era end?

around 1927


Four years into the 20th century saw the Russo-Japanese War with the Battle of Port Arthur establishing the Empire of Japan as a world power. The Russians were in constant pursuit of a warm water port on the Pacific Ocean, for their navy as well as for maritime trade. The Manchurian Campaign of the Russian Empire was fought against the Japanese over Manchuria and Korea. The major theatres of operations were Southern Manchuria, specifically the area around the Liaodong Peninsula and Mukden, and the seas around Korea, Japan, and the Yellow Sea. The resulting campaigns, in which the fledgling Japanese military consistently attained victory over the Russian forces arrayed against them, were unexpected by world observers. These victories, as time transpired, would dramatically transform the distribution of power in East Asia, resulting in a reassessment of Japan's recent entry onto the world stage. The embarrassing string of defeats increased Russian popular dissatisfaction with the inefficient and corrupt Tsarist government.

When dd the Russo-Japanese war take place?

Four years into the 20th century

What did the battle of Port Arthur establish?

the Empire of Japan as a world power.

What were the Russians hoping to find in the pacific ocean?

warm water port

Why did the Manchurian Campaign fight the Russians.

over Manchuria and Korea.

How were the Japanese victories over the Russians views around the world?

unexpected


The Edwardian era in the United Kingdom is the period spanning the reign of King Edward VII up to the end of the First World War, including the years surrounding the sinking of the RMS Titanic. In the early years of the period, the Second Boer War in South Africa split the country into anti- and pro-war factions. The imperial policies of the Conservatives eventually proved unpopular and in the general election of 1906 the Liberals won a huge landslide. The Liberal government was unable to proceed with all of its radical programme without the support of the House of Lords, which was largely Conservative. Conflict between the two Houses of Parliament over the People's Budget led to a reduction in the power of the peers in 1910. The general election in January that year returned a hung parliament with the balance of power held by Labour and Irish Nationalist members.

What is the Edwardian era?

the period spanning the reign of King Edward VII up to the end of the First World War,

What event split the United Kingdom into two groups?

Second Boer War

In what year did the Liberals win huge in the general election?

What led to a reduction in the power of the peers?

Conflict between the two Houses of Parliament over the People's Budget

Who held the balance of power in the 1910 election?

Labour and Irish Nationalist members.


The causes of World War I included many factors, including the conflicts and antagonisms of the four decades leading up to the war. The Triple Entente was the name given to the loose alignment between the United Kingdom, France, and Russia after the signing of the Anglo-Russian Entente in 1907. The alignment of the three powers, supplemented by various agreements with Japan, the United States, and Spain, constituted a powerful counterweight to the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, the third having concluded an additional secret agreement with France effectively nullifying her Alliance commitments. Militarism, alliances, imperialism, and nationalism played major roles in the conflict. The immediate origins of the war lay in the decisions taken by statesmen and generals during the July Crisis of 1914, the spark (or casus belli) for which was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria.

What is The Triple Entente?

the name given to the loose alignment between the United Kingdom, France, and Russia after the signing of the Anglo-Russian Entente in 1907.

When was the Anglo -Russia Entente signed?

The Triple Entente served as a counter to what agreement?

Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy,

What was the origin of the war?

the decisions taken by statesmen and generals during the July Crisis of 1914

Who was murdered in Austria?

Archduke Franz Ferdinand


However, the crisis did not exist in a void; it came after a long series of diplomatic clashes between the Great Powers over European and colonial issues in the decade prior to 1914 which had left tensions high. The diplomatic clashes can be traced to changes in the balance of power in Europe since 1870. An example is the Baghdad Railway which was planned to connect the Ottoman Empire cities of Konya and Baghdad with a line through modern-day Turkey, Syria and Iraq. The railway became a source of international disputes during the years immediately preceding World War I. Although it has been argued that they were resolved in 1914 before the war began, it has also been argued that the railroad was a cause of the First World War. Fundamentally the war was sparked by tensions over territory in the Balkans. Austria-Hungary competed with Serbia and Russia for territory and influence in the region and they pulled the rest of the great powers into the conflict through their various alliances and treaties. The Balkan Wars were two wars in South-eastern Europe in 1912–1913 in the course of which the Balkan League (Bulgaria, Montenegro, Greece, and Serbia) first captured Ottoman-held remaining part of Thessaly, Macedonia, Epirus, Albania and most of Thrace and then fell out over the division of the spoils, with incorporation of Romania this time.

Where was the Baghdad Railway Suppose to connect?

Ottoman Empire cities of Konya and Baghdad with a line through modern-day Turkey, Syria and Iraq

What fundamental cause started the war in 1914?

tensions over territory in the Balkans.

Who did Austria-Hungary war with over territory?

Serbia and Russia

Where did the Balkan wars take place?

South-eastern Europe

Why did Albania fall out with Thessaly, Macedonia and Epirus?

over the division of the spoils


The First World War began in 1914 and lasted to the final Armistice in 1918. The Allied Powers, led by the British Empire, France, Russia until March 1918, Japan and the United States after 1917, defeated the Central Powers, led by the German Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Ottoman Empire. The war caused the disintegration of four empires—the Austro-Hungarian, German, Ottoman, and Russian ones—as well as radical change in the European and West Asian maps. The Allied powers before 1917 are referred to as the Triple Entente, and the Central Powers are referred to as the Triple Alliance.

When did the first World War begin?

Who led the Allied powers?

British Empire, France, Russia

Who defeated the Central Powers led by the German Empire Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Ottoman Empire??

Japan and the United States

What were the Allied powers referred to before 1917?

Triple Entente

How many Empires did the war cause destruction to?

four empires


Much of the fighting in World War I took place along the Western Front, within a system of opposing manned trenches and fortifications (separated by a "No man's land") running from the North Sea to the border of Switzerland. On the Eastern Front, the vast eastern plains and limited rail network prevented a trench warfare stalemate from developing, although the scale of the conflict was just as large. Hostilities also occurred on and under the sea and—for the first time—from the air. More than 9 million soldiers died on the various battlefields, and nearly that many more in the participating countries' home fronts on account of food shortages and genocide committed under the cover of various civil wars and internal conflicts. Notably, more people died of the worldwide influenza outbreak at the end of the war and shortly after than died in the hostilities. The unsanitary conditions engendered by the war, severe overcrowding in barracks, wartime propaganda interfering with public health warnings, and migration of so many soldiers around the world helped the outbreak become a pandemic.

Where did most of the fighting in World War I take place?

along the Western Front

What is the Western Front?

a system of opposing manned trenches and fortifications (separated by a "No man's land") running from the North Sea to the border of Switzerland.

What prevented a trench warfare stalemate?

On the Eastern Front, the vast eastern plains and limited rail network

How many soldiers died? in World War I?

More than 9 million

Where did hostiles appear for the first time during the war?

from the air.


Ultimately, World War I created a decisive break with the old world order that had emerged after the Napoleonic Wars, which was modified by the mid-19th century's nationalistic revolutions. The results of World War I would be important factors in the development of World War II approximately 20 years later. More immediate to the time, the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire was a political event that redrew the political boundaries of West Asia. The huge conglomeration of territories and peoples formerly ruled by the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire was divided into several new nations. The partitioning brought the creation of the modern Arab world and the Republic of Turkey. The League of Nations granted France mandates over Syria and Lebanon and granted the United Kingdom mandates over Mesopotamia and Palestine (which was later divided into two regions: Palestine and Transjordan). Parts of the Ottoman Empire on the Arabian Peninsula became parts of what are today Saudi Arabia and Yemen.

In what century did the Nationalistic revolutions occur?

mid-19th century's

How many years after world war I did world war II start?

20 years later.

What withdrew the political boundaries of West Asia?

partitioning of the Ottoman Empire

What did the partitioning of the Otto Empire bring about?

the modern Arab world and the Republic of Turkey.

Who did The League of Nations grant  France mandates over?

Syria and Lebanon


The Russian Revolution is the series of revolutions in Russia in 1917, which destroyed the Tsarist autocracy and led to the creation of the Soviet Union. Following the abdication of Nicholas II of Russia, the Russian Provisional Government was established. In October 1917, a red faction revolution occurred in which the Red Guard, armed groups of workers and deserting soldiers directed by the Bolshevik Party, seized control of Saint Petersburg (then known as Petrograd) and began an immediate armed takeover of cities and villages throughout the former Russian Empire.

What is the Russian Revolution?

the series of revolutions in Russia in 1917, which destroyed the Tsarist autocracy and led to the creation of the Soviet Union.

What happened when Nicholas II was removed from power?

the Russian Provisional Government was established.

What event happened in October of 1917?

a red faction revolution

What happened during the red faction revolution?

armed groups of workers and deserting soldiers directed by the Bolshevik Party, seized control of Saint Petersburg


Another action in 1917 that is of note was the armistice signed between Russia and the Central Powers at Brest-Litovsk. As a condition for peace, the treaty by the Central Powers conceded huge portions of the former Russian Empire to Imperial Germany and the Ottoman Empire, greatly upsetting nationalists and conservatives. The Bolsheviks made peace with the German Empire and the Central Powers, as they had promised the Russian people prior to the Revolution. Vladimir Lenin's decision has been attributed to his sponsorship by the foreign office of Wilhelm II, German Emperor, offered by the latter in hopes that with a revolution, Russia would withdraw from World War I. This suspicion was bolstered by the German Foreign Ministry's sponsorship of Lenin's return to Petrograd. The Western Allies expressed their dismay at the Bolsheviks, upset at:

When was the armistice signed between Russia and Central powers?

What did Central powers concede in exchange for peace?

huge portions of the former Russian Empire to Imperial Germany and the Ottoman Empire

Who did the Bolsheviks make peace with?

the German Empire

What were Vladimir Lenin's decisions caused by?

his sponsorship by the foreign office of Wilhelm II

Who did the German sponsorship of Lenin's Petrograd upset?

Western Allies


The Russian Civil War was a multi-party war that occurred within the former Russian Empire after the Russian provisional government collapsed and the Soviets under the domination of the Bolshevik party assumed power, first in Petrograd (St. Petersburg) and then in other places. In the wake of the October Revolution, the old Russian Imperial Army had been demobilized; the volunteer-based Red Guard was the Bolsheviks' main military force, augmented by an armed military component of the Cheka, the Bolshevik state security apparatus. There was an instituted mandatory conscription of the rural peasantry into the Red Army. Opposition of rural Russians to Red Army conscription units was overcome by taking hostages and shooting them when necessary in order to force compliance. Former Tsarist officers were utilized as "military specialists" (voenspetsy), taking their families hostage in order to ensure loyalty. At the start of the war, three-fourths of the Red Army officer corps was composed of former Tsarist officers. By its end, 83% of all Red Army divisional and corps commanders were ex-Tsarist soldiers.

Where did Soviets under the rule of the  Bolshevik first assume power during the Russian Civil War?

Petrograd (St. Petersburg)

In the wake of the October resolution, what happened to the Russian Imperial Army?

demobilized

What was Bolshevik's main military force?

volunteer-based Red Guard

How did the Red red Army overcome their foes?

by taking hostages and shooting them when necessary in order to force compliance.

How were former Tsarist Officers utilized?

as "military specialists"