The modern literary language is usually considered to date from the time of Alexander Pushkin (Алекса́ндр Пу́шкин) in the first third of the 19th century. Pushkin revolutionized Russian literature by rejecting archaic grammar and vocabulary (so-called "высо́кий стиль" — "high style") in favor of grammar and vocabulary found in the spoken language of the time. Even modern readers of younger age may only experience slight difficulties understanding some words in Pushkin's texts, since relatively few words used by Pushkin have become archaic or changed meaning. In fact, many expressions used by Russian writers of the early 19th century, in particular Pushkin, Mikhail Lermontov (Михаи́л Ле́рмонтов), Nikolai Gogol (Никола́й Го́голь), Aleksander Griboyedov (Алекса́ндр Грибое́дов), became proverbs or sayings which can be frequently found even in modern Russian colloquial speech.

Who revolutionized modern Russian?

Alexander Pushkin

What did Pushkin reject from older Russian?

archaic grammar and vocabulary

What was 'high style'?

archaic grammar and vocabulary

What happened to some expressions in Pushkin's writing?

became proverbs or sayings which can be frequently found even in modern Russian colloquial speech

What dates from the time of Lermontov?

I'm not sure.

How did Lermontov revolutionize Russian literature?

I'm not sure.

What did Lermontov favor instead of archaic grammar and vocabulary?

I'm not sure.

What kind of difficulties did Gogol have when reading Lermontov's texts?

I'm not sure.

How many words used by Lermontov have become archaic?

I'm not sure.


During the Soviet period, the policy toward the languages of the various other ethnic groups fluctuated in practice. Though each of the constituent republics had its own official language, the unifying role and superior status was reserved for Russian, although it was declared the official language only in 1990. Following the break-up of the USSR in 1991, several of the newly independent states have encouraged their native languages, which has partly reversed the privileged status of Russian, though its role as the language of post-Soviet national discourse throughout the region has continued.

When did the USSR dissolve?

When did the USSR make Russian the official language?

What unofficial status did Russian have in the USSR before 1990?

the unifying role and superior status

What was declared the official language of constituent republics in 1991?

I'm not sure.

What policy fluctuated in practice in 1991?

I'm not sure.

In what year did other ethnic groups discourage native language?

I'm not sure.

In what year did constituent republics not have an official language?

I'm not sure.

What was the national discourse about in 1990?

I'm not sure.


According to figures published in 2006 in the journal "Demoskop Weekly" research deputy director of Research Center for Sociological Research of the Ministry of Education and Science (Russia) Arefyev A. L., the Russian language is gradually losing its position in the world in general, and in Russia in particular. In 2012, A. L. Arefyev published a new study "Russian language at the turn of the 20th-21st centuries", in which he confirmed his conclusion about the trend of further weakening of the Russian language in all regions of the world (findings published in 2013 in the journal "Demoskop Weekly"). In the countries of the former Soviet Union the Russian language is gradually being replaced by local languages. Currently the number speakers of Russian language in the world depends on the number of Russians in the world (as the main sources distribution Russian language) and total population Russia (where Russian is an official language).

What department is the Research Center for Sociological Research part of?

Ministry of Education and Science (Russia)

Who wrote "Russian language at the turn of the 20th-21st centuries"?

A. L. Arefyev

When was "Russian language at the turn of the 20th-21st centuries" published?

What does Arefyev say is happening to Russian?

In the countries of the former Soviet Union the Russian language is gradually being replaced by local languages.

What study was published in 2006?

I'm not sure.

In what year did A. L. Arefyev work for Demoskop Weekly?

I'm not sure.

What are local languages losing in general?

I'm not sure.

What department is Demoskop Weekly a part of in Russia?

I'm not sure.

What has A. L. Arefyev's position been at Demoskop Weekly since 2012?

I'm not sure.


The United States Air Force (USAF) is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a separate branch of the military on 18 September 1947 under the National Security Act of 1947. It is the most recent branch of the U.S. military to be formed, and is the largest and one of the world's most technologically advanced air forces. The USAF articulates its core functions as Nuclear Deterrence Operations, Special Operations, Air Superiority, Global Integrated ISR, Space Superiority, Command and Control, Cyberspace Superiority, Personnel Recovery, Global Precision Attack, Building Partnerships, Rapid Global Mobility and Agile Combat Support.

What is the USAF?

the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces

How many uniformed services are there in the United States?

seven

When did the USAF split from the US Army?

18 September 1947

What act formed the USAF?

National Security Act of 1947

What is one of the functions of the USAF?

Nuclear Deterrence Operations


The U.S. Air Force is a military service organized within the Department of the Air Force, one of the three military departments of the Department of Defense. The Air Force is headed by the civilian Secretary of the Air Force, who reports to the Secretary of Defense, and is appointed by the President with Senate confirmation. The highest-ranking military officer in the Department of the Air Force is the Chief of Staff of the Air Force, who exercises supervision over Air Force units, and serves as a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Air Force combat and mobility forces are assigned, as directed by the Secretary of Defense, to the Combatant Commanders, and neither the Secretary of the Air Force nor the Chief of Staff have operational command authority over them.

How many departments are there in the Department of Defense?

three

Who does the Secretary of the Air Force currently report to?

Secretary of Defense

What branch of the government must confirm the President's appointment of the Secretary of the Air Force?

Senate

Who serves as a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff?

Chief of Staff of the Air Force

Who assigns combat missions to the Air Force?

Secretary of Defense


Recently, the Air Force refined its understanding of the core duties and responsibilities it performs as a Military Service Branch, streamlining what previously were six distinctive capabilities and seventeen operational functions into twelve core functions to be used across the doctrine, organization, training, equipment, leadership, and education, personnel, and facilities spectrum. These core functions express the ways in which the Air Force is particularly and appropriately suited to contribute to national security, but they do not necessarily express every aspect of what the Air Force contributes to the nation. It should be emphasized that the core functions, by themselves, are not doctrinal constructs.

How many core functions did the Air Force reduce its duties down to recently?

twelve

What do these core functions of the Air Force express?

contribute to national security

What are not considered doctrinal constructs of the Air Force?

core functions


Assure/Dissuade/Deter is a mission set derived from the Air Force's readiness to carry out the nuclear strike operations mission as well as from specific actions taken to assure allies as a part of extended deterrence. Dissuading others from acquiring or proliferating WMD, and the means to deliver them, contributes to promoting security and is also an integral part of this mission. Moreover, different deterrence strategies are required to deter various adversaries, whether they are a nation state, or non-state/transnational actor. The Air Force maintains and presents credible deterrent capabilities through successful visible demonstrations and exercises which assure allies, dissuade proliferation, deter potential adversaries from actions that threaten US national security or the populations and deployed military forces of the US, its allies and friends.

What is the mission set of the Air Force called that includes nuclear strike operations?

Assure/Dissuade/Deter

How does the Air Force promote security to its allies?

Dissuading others from acquiring or proliferating WMD

What do potential adversaries threaten that the US Air Force prevents?

US national security

What is the US Air Force prepared to do to support its allies?

carry out the nuclear strike operations mission


Nuclear strike is the ability of nuclear forces to rapidly and accurately strike targets which the enemy holds dear in a devastating manner. If a crisis occurs, rapid generation and, if necessary, deployment of nuclear strike capabilities will demonstrate US resolve and may prompt an adversary to alter the course of action deemed threatening to our national interest. Should deterrence fail, the President may authorize a precise, tailored response to terminate the conflict at the lowest possible level and lead to a rapid cessation of hostilities. Post-conflict, regeneration of a credible nuclear deterrent capability will deter further aggression. The Air Force may present a credible force posture in either the Continental United States, within a theater of operations, or both to effectively deter the range of potential adversaries envisioned in the 21st century. This requires the ability to engage targets globally using a variety of methods; therefore, the Air Force should possess the ability to induct, train, assign, educate and exercise individuals and units to rapidly and effectively execute missions that support US NDO objectives. Finally, the Air Force regularly exercises and evaluates all aspects of nuclear operations to ensure high levels of performance.

What is the definition of a nuclear strike?

the ability of nuclear forces to rapidly and accurately strike targets

What action by the US Air Force would deter adversaries from threatening US Security?

deployment of nuclear strike capabilities

Who has the authorization in the US to terminate a conflict?

President

What organization does the US Air Force support on its missions?

US NDO objectives

What is one of the areas where the US Air Force might operate its missions?

Continental United States


Nuclear surety ensures the safety, security and effectiveness of nuclear operations. Because of their political and military importance, destructive power, and the potential consequences of an accident or unauthorized act, nuclear weapons and nuclear weapon systems require special consideration and protection against risks and threats inherent in their peacetime and wartime environments. The Air Force, in conjunction with other entities within the Departments of Defense or Energy, achieves a high standard of protection through a stringent nuclear surety program. This program applies to materiel, personnel, and procedures that contribute to the safety, security, and control of nuclear weapons, thus assuring no nuclear accidents, incidents, loss, or unauthorized or accidental use (a Broken Arrow incident). The Air Force continues to pursue safe, secure and effective nuclear weapons consistent with operational requirements. Adversaries, allies, and the American people must be highly confident of the Air Force's ability to secure nuclear weapons from accidents, theft, loss, and accidental or unauthorized use. This day-to-day commitment to precise and reliable nuclear operations is the cornerstone of the credibility of the NDO mission. Positive nuclear command, control, communications; effective nuclear weapons security; and robust combat support are essential to the overall NDO function.

What ensures the safety of nuclear operations?

Nuclear surety

What is a Broken Arrow incident in nuclear security?

unauthorized or accidental use

What is the mission of the NDO in regards to nuclear security?

precise and reliable nuclear operations

What is one of the five functions of NDO support?

effective nuclear weapons security

What other US departments does the Air Force coordinate with for nuclear security?

Departments of Defense or Energy


Offensive Counterair (OCA) is defined as "offensive operations to destroy, disrupt, or neutralize enemy aircraft, missiles, launch platforms, and their supporting structures and systems both before and after launch, but as close to their source as possible" (JP 1-02). OCA is the preferred method of countering air and missile threats, since it attempts to defeat the enemy closer to its source and typically enjoys the initiative. OCA comprises attack operations, sweep, escort, and suppression/destruction of enemy air defense.

What does the abbreviation OCA stand for?

Offensive Counterair

What is the function or definition of the OCA according to JP 1-02?

offensive operations to destroy, disrupt, or neutralize enemy aircraft, missiles, launch platforms

OCA is the preferred method of defeating what kind of attacks?

air and missile threats

What is one of the important functions of the OCA in dealing with attacks?

suppression/destruction of enemy air defense


Defensive Counterair (DCA) is defined as "all the defensive measures designed to detect, identify, intercept, and destroy or negate enemy forces attempting to penetrate or attack through friendly airspace" (JP 1-02). A major goal of DCA operations, in concert with OCA operations, is to provide an area from which forces can operate, secure from air and missile threats. The DCA mission comprises both active and passive defense measures. Active defense is "the employment of limited offensive action and counterattacks to deny a contested area or position to the enemy" (JP 1-02). It includes both ballistic missile defense and air breathing threat defense, and encompasses point defense, area defense, and high value airborne asset defense. Passive defense is "measures taken to reduce the probability of and to minimize the effects of damage caused by hostile action without the intention of taking the initiative" (JP 1-02). It includes detection and warning; chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear defense; camouflage, concealment, and deception; hardening; reconstitution; dispersion; redundancy; and mobility, counter-measures, and stealth.

What does the abbreviation DCA stand for?

Defensive Counterair

What sort of airspace is the DCA designed to protect?

friendly

What is active defense, according to the functions of the DCA?

employment of limited offensive action and counterattacks

What kind of missile defense does active defense protect against, according to the DCA?

ballistic

What is one of the many ways the DCA utilizes passive defense to protect from enemy attacks?

counter-measures


Space superiority is "the degree of dominance in space of one force over another that permits the conduct of operations by the former and its related land, sea, air, space, and special operations forces at a given time and place without prohibitive interference by the opposing force" (JP 1-02). Space superiority may be localized in time and space, or it may be broad and enduring. Space superiority provides freedom of action in space for friendly forces and, when directed, denies the same freedom to the adversary.

What is the dominance in space of one force over another?

Space superiority

What does Space Superiority encompass?

localized in time and space, or it may be broad and enduring

Who does space superiority ensure freedom of action in space for?

friendly forces

What areas does Space Superiority operate in?

land, sea, air, space


Space Control is defined as "operations to ensure freedom of action in space for the US and its allies and, when directed, deny an adversary freedom of action in space. This mission area includes: operations conducted to protect friendly space capabilities from attack, interference, or unintentional hazards (defensive space control); operations to deny an adversary's use of space capabilities (offensive space control); and the requisite current and predictive knowledge of the space environment and the operational environment upon which space operations depend (space situational awareness)" (JP 1-02).

What is the definition of Space Control according to the US and its allies?

operations to ensure freedom of action in space

What is one of the areas of operation that space control serves to protect?

operations conducted to protect friendly space capabilities from attack

What is the operational environment that Space Control depends on?

space situational awareness


This is the passive, active, and dynamic employment of capabilities to respond to imminent or on-going actions against Air Force or Air Force-protected networks, the Air Force's portion of the Global Information Grid, or expeditionary communications assigned to the Air Force. Cyberspace defense incorporates CNE, computer network defense (CND), and CNA techniques and may be a contributor to influence operations. It is highly dependent upon ISR, fused all-source intelligence, automated indications and warning, sophisticated attribution/characterization, situational awareness, assessment, and responsive C2.

Who responds with the employment of capabilities where there is a threat?

Air Force

What is the definition of CND?

computer network defense

What does Cyberspace defense include?

CNE, computer network defense (CND), and CNA techniques

What is one of the things that Cyberspace defense highly dependent on?

fused all-source intelligence

What branch of the military is in charge of Cyberspace defense?

Air Force


Cyberspace Support is foundational, continuous, or responsive operations ensuring information integrity and availability in, through, and from Air Force-controlled infrastructure and its interconnected analog and digital portion of the battle space. Inherent in this mission is the ability to establish, extend, secure, protect, and defend in order to sustain assigned networks and missions. This includes protection measures against supply chain components plus critical C2 networks/communications links and nuclear C2 networks. The cyberspace support mission incorporates CNE and CND techniques. It incorporates all elements of Air Force Network Operations, information transport, enterprise management, and information assurance, and is dependent on ISR and all-source intelligence.

What division ensures the Air Force's information integrity and availability?

Cyberspace Support

What is ability is critical in Cyberspace Supports mission?

sustain assigned networks and missions

What important networks is it the function of Cyberspace support to protect?

C2 networks/communications links and nuclear C2 networks

What techniques does the Cyberspace Support branch of the Air Force use?

CNE and CND


Command and control is "the exercise of authority and direction by a properly designated commander over assigned and attached forces in the accomplishment of the mission. Command and control functions are performed through an arrangement of personnel, equipment, communications, facilities, and procedures employed by a commander in planning, directing, coordinating, and controlling forces and operations in the accomplishment of the mission" (JP 1-02). This core function includes all of the C2-related capabilities and activities associated with air, space, cyberspace, nuclear, and agile combat support operations to achieve strategic, operational, and tactical objectives.

What is the definition of Command and Control in the Air Force operations?

exercise of authority and direction by a properly designated commander over assigned and attached forces

Who is in charge of the Command and Control operations?

commander in planning

What is one of the C2 related functions that the Command and Control mission of the Air Force uses?

agile combat support operations

What are the main objectives of the Command and Control initiative?

achieve strategic, operational, and tactical objectives


Planning and Directing is "the determination of intelligence requirements, development of appropriate intelligence architecture, preparation of a collection plan, and issuance of orders and requests to information collection agencies" (JP 2-01, Joint and National Intelligence Support to Military Operations). These activities enable the synchronization and integration of collection, processing, exploitation, analysis, and dissemination activities/resources to meet information requirements of national and military decision makers.

What agency is in charge of intelligence requirements?

Joint and National Intelligence Support to Military Operations

What is one of the ways that the Air Force uses Planning and Directing in its operations?

development of appropriate intelligence architecture

Who benefits from the process analysis and dissemination of this information?

national and military decision makers


Special Operations are "operations conducted in hostile, denied, or politically sensitive environments to achieve military, diplomatic, informational, and/or economic objectives employing military capabilities for which there is no broad conventional force requirement. These operations may require covert, clandestine, or low-visibility capabilities. Special operations are applicable across the ROMO. They can be conducted independently or in conjunction with operations of conventional forces or other government agencies and may include operations through, with, or by indigenous or surrogate forces. Special operations differ from conventional operations in degree of physical and political risk, operational techniques, mode of employment, independence from friendly support, and dependence on detailed operational intelligence and indigenous assets" (JP 1-02).

What are Special Operations?

operations conducted in hostile, denied, or politically sensitive environments

What are the goals of Special Operations?

achieve military, diplomatic, informational, and/or economic objectives

What kind of forces can Special Operations missions employ?

indigenous or surrogate

What is one of the ways that Special Operations is different from conventional methods?

dependence on detailed operational intelligence


Airlift is "operations to transport and deliver forces and materiel through the air in support of strategic, operational, or tactical objectives" (AFDD 3–17, Air Mobility Operations). The rapid and flexible options afforded by airlift allow military forces and national leaders the ability to respond and operate in a variety of situations and time frames. The global reach capability of airlift provides the ability to apply US power worldwide by delivering forces to crisis locations. It serves as a US presence that demonstrates resolve and compassion in humanitarian crisis.

What is the definition of Airlift according to the Air Mobility Operations?

operations to transport and deliver forces and materiel through the air

What objectives does Airlift support?

strategic, operational, or tactical

How does the US employ the global reach capability of airlift?

delivering forces to crisis locations

What does this US presence represent during a humanitarian crisis?

resolve and compassion


Aeromedical Evacuation is "the movement of patients under medical supervision to and between medical treatment facilities by air transportation" (JP 1-02). JP 4-02, Health Service Support, further defines it as "the fixed wing movement of regulated casualties to and between medical treatment facilities, using organic and/or contracted mobility airframes, with aircrew trained explicitly for this mission." Aeromedical evacuation forces can operate as far forward as fixed-wing aircraft are able to conduct airland operations.

What is the movement of patients who need medical attention called?

Aeromedical Evacuation

Who coordinates the deployment of thee Aeromedical Evacuation?

Health Service Support

Where does the Aeromedical Evacuation team transport casualties?

to and between medical treatment facilities

Who operates and is able to conduct airland missions?

Aeromedical evacuation forces


Personnel Recovery (PR) is defined as "the sum of military, diplomatic, and civil efforts to prepare for and execute the recovery and reintegration of isolated personnel" (JP 1-02). It is the ability of the US government and its international partners to effect the recovery of isolated personnel across the ROMO and return those personnel to duty. PR also enhances the development of an effective, global capacity to protect and recover isolated personnel wherever they are placed at risk; deny an adversary's ability to exploit a nation through propaganda; and develop joint, interagency, and international capabilities that contribute to crisis response and regional stability.

What does the abbreviation PR stand for in terms of the US military?

Personnel Recovery

What is the definition of a Personnel Recovery mission?

military, diplomatic, and civil efforts to prepare for and execute the recovery and reintegration of isolated personnel

What is one of the ways that PR uses its capabilities in a crisis?

deny an adversary's ability to exploit a nation through propaganda

What are the types of international duties of the PR mission?

crisis response and regional stability


Humanitarian Assistance Operations are "programs conducted to relieve or reduce the results of natural or manmade disasters or other endemic conditions such as human pain, disease, hunger, or privation that might present a serious threat to life or that can result in great damage to or loss of property. Humanitarian assistance provided by US forces is limited in scope and duration. The assistance provided is designed to supplement or complement the efforts of the host nation civil authorities or agencies that may have the primary responsibility for providing humanitarian assistance" (JP 1-02).

What are programs that are designed to help with natural or manmade disaters?

Humanitarian Assistance Operations

What kinds of endemic conditions do the Human Assistance Operations entail?

human pain, disease, hunger, or privation that might present a serious threat to life

What kind of Humanitarian assistance is supplied by the US Forces?

limited

Who is the Humanitarian support intended to help?

host nation civil authorities or agencies


Building Partnerships is described as airmen interacting with international airmen and other relevant actors to develop, guide, and sustain relationships for mutual benefit and security. Building Partnerships is about interacting with others and is therefore an inherently inter-personal and cross-cultural undertaking. Through both words and deeds, the majority of interaction is devoted to building trust-based relationships for mutual benefit. It includes both foreign partners as well as domestic partners and emphasizes collaboration with foreign governments, militaries and populations as well as US government departments, agencies, industry, and NGOs. To better facilitate partnering efforts, Airmen should be competent in the relevant language, region, and culture.

What does Building Partnerships relate to in the Air Force?

airmen interacting with international airmen and other relevant actors

What are the goals of the Building Partnership interactions?

develop, guide, and sustain relationships for mutual benefit and security

What sort of inter-personal relationships does Building Partnerships encourage?

cross-cultural

What is the major goal of Building Partnerships in these deeds and actions?

building trust-based relationships for mutual benefit

What are Airmen expected to be competent in for these Building Partnerships missions?

relevant language, region, and culture


The U.S. War Department created the first antecedent of the U.S. Air Force in 1907, which through a succession of changes of organization, titles, and missions advanced toward eventual separation 40 years later. In World War II, almost 68,000 U.S airmen died helping to win the war; only the infantry suffered more enlisted casualties. In practice, the U.S. Army Air Forces (USAAF) was virtually independent of the Army during World War II, but officials wanted formal independence. The National Security Act of 1947 was signed on on 26 July 1947 by President Harry S Truman, which established the Department of the Air Force, but it was not not until 18 September 1947, when the first secretary of the Air Force, W. Stuart Symington was sworn into office that the Air Force was officially formed.

Who created the first version of the US Air Force in 1907?

U.S. War Department

When did the US Air Force separate from the War Department?

40 years later

How many causalities did the US Air Force suffer during WWII?

What does the USAAF stand for?

U.S. Army Air Forces

Who signed the National Security Act of 1947?

President Harry S Truman


The act created the National Military Establishment (renamed Department of Defense in 1949), which was composed of three subordinate Military Departments, namely the Department of the Army, the Department of the Navy, and the newly created Department of the Air Force. Prior to 1947, the responsibility for military aviation was shared between the Army (for land-based operations), the Navy (for sea-based operations from aircraft carriers and amphibious aircraft), and the Marine Corps (for close air support of infantry operations). The 1940s proved to be important in other ways as well. In 1947, Captain Chuck Yeager broke the sound barrier in his X-1 rocket-powered aircraft, beginning a new era of aeronautics in America.

What was the National Military Establishment renamed in 1949?

Department of Defense

How many subordinate divisions did the National Military Establishment contain?

three

What does the US Navy's responsibilities include?

sea-based operations from aircraft carriers and amphibious aircraft

Who is in charge of closed air support of infantry operations?

Marine Corps

What American broke the sound barrier in 1947?

Captain Chuck Yeager


During the early 2000s, the USAF fumbled several high profile aircraft procurement projects, such as the missteps on the KC-X program. Winslow Wheeler has written that this pattern represents "failures of intellect and – much more importantly – ethics." As a result, the USAF fleet is setting new records for average aircraft age and needs to replace its fleets of fighters, bombers, airborne tankers, and airborne warning aircraft, in an age of restrictive defense budgets. Finally in the midst of scandal and failure in maintaining its nuclear arsenal, the civilian and military leaders of the air force were replaced in 2008.

When did the USAF have several missteps of aircraft procurement projects?

early 2000s

Who wrote that these aircraft procurement projects were a failure of intellect and ethics?

Winslow Wheeler

When were the military leaders replaced after a scandal over failure to maintain its nuclear arsenal?


Since 2005, the USAF has placed a strong focus on the improvement of Basic Military Training (BMT) for enlisted personnel. While the intense training has become longer, it also has shifted to include a deployment phase. This deployment phase, now called the BEAST, places the trainees in a surreal environment that they may experience once they deploy. While the trainees do tackle the massive obstacle courses along with the BEAST, the other portions include defending and protecting their base of operations, forming a structure of leadership, directing search and recovery, and basic self aid buddy care. During this event, the Military Training Instructors (MTI) act as mentors and enemy forces in a deployment exercise.

What did the USAF strive to improve since 2005?

Basic Military Training

What is the deployment phase of BMT called?

BEAST

What other training do the US Air force Personnel get during BMT?

directing search and recovery

Who acts as a mentor during this deployment phase of the BMT?

Military Training Instructors


In 2007, the USAF undertook a Reduction-in-Force (RIF). Because of budget constraints, the USAF planned to reduce the service's size from 360,000 active duty personnel to 316,000. The size of the active duty force in 2007 was roughly 64% of that of what the USAF was at the end of the first Gulf War in 1991. However, the reduction was ended at approximately 330,000 personnel in 2008 in order to meet the demand signal of combatant commanders and associated mission requirements. These same constraints have seen a sharp reduction in flight hours for crew training since 2005 and the Deputy Chief of Staff for Manpower and Personnel directing Airmen's Time Assessments.

What year did the USAF take a Reduction-in-force?

Why did the USAF plan to take a reduction-in-force?

budget constraints

How many USAF personnel did the reduction end in during 2008?

What has there been a sharp reduction in during the years following 2005 in the USAF?

flight hours for crew training


On 5 June 2008, Secretary of Defense Robert Gates, accepted the resignations of both the Secretary of the Air Force, Michael Wynne, and the Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force, General T. Michael Moseley. Gates in effect fired both men for "systemic issues associated with declining Air Force nuclear mission focus and performance." This followed an investigation into two embarrassing incidents involving mishandling of nuclear weapons: specifically a nuclear weapons incident aboard a B-52 flight between Minot AFB and Barksdale AFB, and an accidental shipment of nuclear weapons components to Taiwan. The resignations were also the culmination of disputes between the Air Force leadership, populated primarily by non-nuclear background fighter pilots, versus Gates. To put more emphasis on nuclear assets, the USAF established the nuclear-focused Air Force Global Strike Command on 24 October 2008.

Who was Robert Gates?

Secretary of Defense

What Secretary of the Air Force resigned in 2008?

Michael Wynne

What US Chief of Staff of the US Air Force also resigned in June of 2008?

General T. Michael Moseley

Where did the US Air Force accidentally ship a component of Nuclear Weapons?

Taiwan

When was the Air Force Global Strike Command formed?

24 October 2008


Due to the Budget sequestration in 2013, the USAF was forced to ground many of its squadrons. The Commander of Air Combat Command, General Mike Hostage indicated that the USAF must reduce its F-15 and F-16 fleets and eliminate platforms like the A-10 in order to focus on a fifth-generation jet fighter future. In response to squadron groundings and flight time reductions, many Air Force pilots have opted to resign from active duty and enter the Air Force Reserve and Air National Guard while pursuing careers in the commercial airlines where they can find flight hours on more modern aircraft.

Why was the USAF forced to ground some of its squadrons in 2013?

Budget sequestration

Who was the Commander of Air Combat Command in 2013?

General Mike Hostage

Why have many US Air Force pilots opted to resign from active service?

squadron groundings and flight time reductions

Where have many of these US Air Force pilots chosen to find employment instead?

careers in the commercial airlines


Specific concerns include a compounded inability for the Air Force to replace its aging fleet, and an overall reduction of strength and readiness. The USAF attempted to make these adjustments by primarily cutting the Air National Guard and Air Force Reserve aircraft fleets and their associated manpower, but Congress reversed this initiative and the majority of the lost manpower will come from the active forces. However, Congress did allow for $208 million of reprogramming from fleet modernization to enable some portion of the third of the grounded fleet to resume operations.

What is one of the concerns of the Air Force?

replace its aging fleet

How did the USAF try to make these adjustments to help with strength and readiness of its fleet?

cutting the Air National Guard and Air Force Reserve aircraft fleets

How much money did Congress give to the USAF to enable them to replace some of the grounded fleet?

$208 million


The Department of the Air Force is one of three military departments within the Department of Defense, and is managed by the civilian Secretary of the Air Force, under the authority, direction, and control of the Secretary of Defense. The senior officials in the Office of the Secretary are the Under Secretary of the Air Force, four Assistant Secretaries of the Air Force and the General Counsel, all of whom are appointed by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate. The senior uniformed leadership in the Air Staff is made up of the Chief of Staff of the Air Force and the Vice Chief of Staff of the Air Force.

Who is the Department of the Air Force managed by?

Secretary of the Air Force

Who does the Secretary of the Air Force report to?

Secretary of Defense

Who appoints the top positions in the USAF, including the Assistant Secretaries and General Council?

President

Upon whom does the President call on for support in his appointments to the USAF?

Senate

Who does the senior leadership roles in the USAF include?

Chief of Staff of the Air Force and the Vice Chief of Staff of the Air Force


The organizational structure as shown above is responsible for the peacetime organization, equipping, and training of aerospace units for operational missions. When required to support operational missions, the Secretary of Defense (SECDEF) directs the Secretary of the Air Force (SECAF) to execute a Change in Operational Control (CHOP) of these units from their administrative alignment to the operational command of a Regional Combatant Commander (CCDR). In the case of AFSPC, AFSOC, PACAF, and USAFE units, forces are normally employed in-place under their existing CCDR. Likewise, AMC forces operating in support roles retain their componency to USTRANSCOM unless chopped to a Regional CCDR.

Who directs the Secretary of the Air Force during operational missions?

Secretary of Defense

What does the abbreviation CHOP stand for?

Change in Operational Control

Who is in charge of these Change in Operational Control missions?

Regional Combatant Commander

Who does the AMC forces usually retain their componency to?

USTRANSCOM


"Chopped" units are referred to as forces. The top-level structure of these forces is the Air and Space Expeditionary Task Force (AETF). The AETF is the Air Force presentation of forces to a CCDR for the employment of Air Power. Each CCDR is supported by a standing Component Numbered Air Force (C-NAF) to provide planning and execution of aerospace forces in support of CCDR requirements. Each C-NAF consists of a Commander, Air Force Forces (COMAFFOR) and AFFOR/A-staff, and an Air Operations Center (AOC). As needed to support multiple Joint Force Commanders (JFC) in the COCOM's Area of Responsibility (AOR), the C-NAF may deploy Air Component Coordinate Elements (ACCE) to liaise with the JFC. If the Air Force possesses the preponderance of air forces in a JFC's area of operations, the COMAFFOR will also serve as the Joint Forces Air Component Commander (JFACC).

What are "Chopped" units called in the USAF?

forces

What is the top level structure of these Chopped forces in the USAF?

Air and Space Expeditionary Task Force

What does the C-NAF provide support to?

planning and execution of aerospace forces

Who does the C-NAFF coordinate with on ACEE missions?

JFC


AFSCs range from officer specialties such as pilot, combat systems officer, missile launch officer, intelligence officer, aircraft maintenance officer, judge advocate general (JAG), medical doctor, nurse or other fields, to various enlisted specialties. The latter range from flight combat operations such as a gunner, to working in a dining facility to ensure that members are properly fed. There are additional occupational fields such as computer specialties, mechanic specialties, enlisted aircrew, communication systems, cyberspace operations, avionics technicians, medical specialties, civil engineering, public affairs, hospitality, law, drug counseling, mail operations, security forces, and search and rescue specialties.

What kind of AFSC is a JAG?

judge advocate general

What is one of the many types of AFSC employed by the USAF?

missile launch officer

What is an example of an occupational field position in the USAF?

computer specialties


Beyond combat flight crew personnel, perhaps the most dangerous USAF jobs are Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD), Combat rescue officer, Pararescue, Security Forces, Combat Control, Combat Weather, Tactical Air Control Party, and AFOSI agents, who deploy with infantry and special operations units who disarm bombs, rescue downed or isolated personnel, call in air strikes and set up landing zones in forward locations. Most of these are enlisted positions augmented by a smaller number of commissioned officers. Other career fields that have seen increasing exposure to combat include civil engineers, vehicle operators, and Air Force Office of Special Investigations (AFOSI) personnel.

What is one of the most dangerous jobs for USAF personnel?

Tactical Air Control Party

What does the abbreviation EOD stand for in the USAF?

Explosive Ordnance Disposal

What do some of these special missions in the USAF who deploy with the infantry do?

rescue downed or isolated personnel

What are these enlisted positions in the USAF complimented by?

commissioned officers

What other career fields have seen an increase in active combat missions?

Air Force Office of Special Investigations


Training programs vary in length; for example, 3M0X1 (Services) has 31 days of tech school training, while 3E8X1 (Explosive Ordnance Disposal) is one year of training with a preliminary school and a main school consisting of over 10 separate divisions, sometimes taking students close to two years to complete. Officer technical training conducted by Second Air Force can also vary by AFSC, while flight training for aeronautically-rated officers conducted by AETC's Nineteenth Air Force can last well in excess of one year.

What USAF tech school has 31 days of training?

3M0X1 (Services)

How long is the training for Explosive Ordnance Disposal in the USAF?

one year of training with a preliminary school

Who conducts the training for Technical Officers in the USAF?

Second Air Force

How long does the flight training for the AETC's Nineteenth Air Force last?

excess of one year


USAF rank is divided between enlisted airmen, non-commissioned officers, and commissioned officers, and ranges from the enlisted Airman Basic (E-1) to the commissioned officer rank of General (O-10). Enlisted promotions are granted based on a combination of test scores, years of experience, and selection board approval while officer promotions are based on time-in-grade and a promotion selection board. Promotions among enlisted personnel and non-commissioned officers are generally designated by increasing numbers of insignia chevrons. Commissioned officer rank is designated by bars, oak leaves, a silver eagle, and anywhere from one to four stars (one to five stars in war-time).[citation needed]

What groups is the USAF rank divided amoung?

enlisted airmen, non-commissioned officers, and commissioned officers

How are Enlisted promotions in the USAF decided?

based on a combination of test scores, years of experience, and selection board approval

How are Officer promotions within the USAF decided?

based on time-in-grade and a promotion selection board

How is a Commissioned Officer's rank shown?

designated by bars, oak leaves, a silver eagle, and anywhere from one to four stars


Air Force officer promotions are governed by the Defense Officer Personnel Management Act of 1980 and its companion Reserve Officer Personnel Management Act (ROPMA) for officers in the Air Force Reserve and the Air National Guard. DOPMA also establishes limits on the number of officers that can serve at any given time in the Air Force. Currently, promotion from second lieutenant to first lieutenant is virtually guaranteed after two years of satisfactory service. The promotion from first lieutenant to captain is competitive after successfully completing another two years of service, with a selection rate varying between 99% and 100%. Promotion to major through major general is through a formal selection board process, while promotions to lieutenant general and general are contingent upon nomination to specific general officer positions and subject to U.S. Senate approval.

What are Air Force Officer promotions overseen by?

Defense Officer Personnel Management Act of 1980

Was does ROPMA stand for in the USAF?

Reserve Officer Personnel Management Act

Who establishes limits on the amount of Air Force officers?

DOPMA

How long does it usually take to be promoted from second to first lieutenant in the USAF?

virtually guaranteed after two years

What promotion in the USAF is governed by a formal selection process?

Promotion to major through major general


During the board process an officer's record is reviewed by a selection board at the Air Force Personnel Center at Randolph Air Force Base in San Antonio, Texas. At the 10 to 11 year mark, captains will take part in a selection board to major. If not selected, they will meet a follow-on board to determine if they will be allowed to remain in the Air Force. Promotion from major to lieutenant colonel is similar and occurs approximately between the thirteen year (for officers who were promoted to major early "below the zone") and the fifteen year mark, where a certain percentage of majors will be selected below zone (i.e., "early"), in zone (i.e., "on time") or above zone (i.e., "late") for promotion to lieutenant colonel. This process will repeat at the 16 year mark (for officers previously promoted early to major and lieutenant colonel) to the 21 year mark for promotion to full colonel.

Where is an officer's record in the USAF reviewed for a promotion?

Air Force Personnel Center at Randolph Air Force Base

What state is the Randolph Air Force Base located in?

Texas

When does promotion from major to lieutenant colonel in the USAF typically occur?

thirteen year

The promotion process repeats when for officers promoted early in the USAF?

16 year mark


Although provision is made in Title 10 of the United States Code for the Secretary of the Air Force to appoint warrant officers, the Air Force does not currently use warrant officer grades, and is the only one of the U.S. Armed Services not to do so. The Air Force inherited warrant officer ranks from the Army at its inception in 1947, but their place in the Air Force structure was never made clear.[citation needed] When the Congress authorized the creation of two new senior enlisted ranks in 1958, Air Force officials privately concluded that these two new "super grades" could fill all Air Force needs then performed at the warrant officer level, although this was not publicly acknowledged until years later.[citation needed] The Air Force stopped appointing warrant officers in 1959, the same year the first promotions were made to the new top enlisted grade, Chief Master Sergeant. Most of the existing Air Force warrant officers entered the commissioned officer ranks during the 1960s, but small numbers continued to exist in the warrant officer grades for the next 21 years.

What section in the US Code for the Secretary of the Air Force allows for the appointment of warrant officers?

Title 10

When did the USAF inherit warrant officer ranks from the Army?

When did Congress authorize the creation of two new senior officer grades?

When did the USAF stop appointing warrant officers?

What is the newest top enlisted grade in the USAF?

Chief Master Sergeant


Enlisted members of the USAF have pay grades from E-1 (entry level) to E-9 (senior enlisted). While all USAF military personnel are referred to as Airmen, the term also refers to the pay grades of E-1 through E-4, which are below the level of non-commissioned officers (NCOs). Above the pay grade of E-4 (i.e., pay grades E-5 through E-9) all ranks fall into the category of NCO and are further subdivided into "NCOs" (pay grades E-5 and E-6) and "Senior NCOs" (pay grades E-7 through E-9); the term "Junior NCO" is sometimes used to refer to staff sergeants and technical sergeants (pay grades E-5 and E-6).

What is the lowest pay grade in the USAF?

E-1 (entry level)

What is the highest pay grade in the USAF?

E-9 (senior enlisted)

What pay grades are included in the USAF for Senior NCOs?

pay grades E-7 through E-9

What does junior NCO refer to in the USAF pay grade system?

staff sergeants and technical sergeants


The USAF is the only branch of the U.S. military where NCO status is achieved when an enlisted person reaches the pay grade of E-5. In all other branches, NCO status is generally achieved at the pay grade of E-4 (e.g., a Corporal in the Army and Marine Corps, Petty Officer Third Class in the Navy and Coast Guard). The Air Force mirrored the Army from 1976 to 1991 with an E-4 being either a Senior Airman wearing three stripes without a star or a Sergeant (referred to as "Buck Sergeant"), which was noted by the presence of the central star and considered an NCO. Despite not being an NCO, a Senior Airman who has completed Airman Leadership School can be a supervisor according to the AFI 36-2618.

When does NCO status occur in the USAF?

when an enlisted person reaches the pay grade of E-5

When does NCO status happen in all other branches of the US Military?

pay grade of E-4

What must a Senior Airman do to become a supervisor in the USAF?

completed Airman Leadership School

What rank is NCO status achieved in the US Army?

Corporal


The first USAF dress uniform, in 1947, was dubbed and patented "Uxbridge Blue" after "Uxbridge 1683 Blue", developed at the former Bachman-Uxbridge Worsted Company. The current Service Dress Uniform, which was adopted in 1993 and standardized in 1995, consists of a three-button, pocketless coat, similar to that of a men's "sport jacket" (with silver "U.S." pins on the lapels, with a silver ring surrounding on those of enlisted members), matching trousers, and either a service cap or flight cap, all in Shade 1620, "Air Force Blue" (a darker purplish-blue). This is worn with a light blue shirt (Shade 1550) and Shade 1620 herringbone patterned necktie. Enlisted members wear sleeve insignia on both the jacket and shirt, while officers wear metal rank insignia pinned onto the coat, and Air Force Blue slide-on epaulet loops on the shirt. USAF personnel assigned to Base Honor Guard duties wear, for certain occasions, a modified version of the standard service dress uniform, but with silver trim on the sleeves and trousers, with the addition of a ceremonial belt (if necessary), wheel cap with silver trim and Hap Arnold Device, and a silver aiguillette placed on the left shoulder seam and all devices and accoutrement.

When was the first USAF dress uniform introduced?

Where was the Uxbridge Blue dress uniform developed?

former Bachman-Uxbridge Worsted Company

When was the current USAF dress uniform standardized?

Where does an officer in the USAF wear their rank insignia?

pinned onto the coat


In addition to basic uniform clothing, various badges are used by the USAF to indicate a billet assignment or qualification-level for a given assignment. Badges can also be used as merit-based or service-based awards. Over time, various badges have been discontinued and are no longer distributed. Authorized badges include the Shields of USAF Fire Protection, and Security Forces, and the Missile Badge (or "pocket rocket"), which is earned after working in a missile system maintenance or missile operations capacity for at least one year.

What is worn by USAF members to indicate a billet assignment?

various badges

What else can Badges be used to designate in the USAF?

merit-based or service-based awards

What is one of the types of Authorized Badges in the USAF?

Shields of USAF Fire Protection

When is the special "pocket rocket" badge given to USAF personnel working in a missile system operation?

at least one year


Officers may be commissioned upon graduation from the United States Air Force Academy, upon graduation from another college or university through the Air Force Reserve Officer Training Corps (AFROTC) program, or through the Air Force Officer Training School (OTS). OTS, previously located at Lackland AFB, Texas until 1993 and located at Maxwell Air Force Base in Montgomery, Alabama since 1993, in turn encompasses two separate commissioning programs: Basic Officer Training (BOT), which is for line-officer candidates of the active-duty Air Force and the U.S. Air Force Reserve; and the Academy of Military Science (AMS), which is for line-officer candidates of the Air National Guard. (The term "line officer" derives from the concept of the line of battle and refers to an officer whose role falls somewhere within the "Line of the Air", meaning combat or combat-support operations within the scope of legitimate combatants as defined by the Geneva Conventions.)

USAF Officers can be commissioned after graduation from what school?

United States Air Force Academy

What is another program that allows officers to become commissioned in the USAF?

Air Force Officer Training School

Where is the OTS in the US currently located?

Maxwell Air Force Base in Montgomery, Alabama

How many commissioning programs does the OTS offer the USAF?

two

What is a line officer in the USAF?

concept of the line of battle and refers to an officer whose role falls somewhere within the "Line of the Air"


The Air Force also provides Commissioned Officer Training (COT) for officers of all three components who are direct-commissioned to non-line positions due to their credentials in medicine, law, religion, biological sciences, or healthcare administration. Originally viewed as a "knife and fork school" that covered little beyond basic wear of the uniform, COT in recent years has been fully integrated into the OTS program and today encompasses extensive coursework as well as field exercises in leadership, confidence, fitness, and deployed-environment operations.

What does the Air Force provide for officers of direct to non-line positions?

Commissioned Officer Training

What fields of study in the COT are included in this area of the USAF?

medicine, law, religion, biological sciences, or healthcare administration

What is an example of the coursework now offered in the COT in the USAF?

deployed-environment operations


The US Air Force Fitness Test (AFFT) is designed to test the abdominal circumference, muscular strength/endurance and cardiovascular respiratory fitness of airmen in the USAF. As part of the Fit to Fight program, the USAF adopted a more stringent physical fitness assessment; the new fitness program was put into effect on 1 June 2010. The annual ergo-cycle test which the USAF had used for several years had been replaced in 2004. In the AFFT, Airmen are given a score based on performance consisting of four components: waist circumference, the sit-up, the push-up, and a 1.5-mile (2.4 km) run. Airmen can potentially earn a score of 100, with the run counting as 60%, waist circumference as 20%, and both strength test counting as 10% each. A passing score is 75 points. Effective 1 July 2010, the AFFT is administered by the base Fitness Assessment Cell (FAC), and is required twice a year. Personnel may test once a year if he or she earns a score above a 90%. Additionally, only meeting the minimum standards on each one of these tests will not get you a passing score of 75%, and failing any one component will result in a failure for the entire test.

What test is designed to test the fitness of airmen in the USAF?

US Air Force Fitness Test

What is the more strict program that the USAF adopted in 2010 called?

Fit to Fight program

How long is the run that the USAF airmen are tested on for the fitness program?

What is a passing score on the US Air Force Fitness Test?

75 points

What score must an airman get on the US Air Force Fitness test to be able to opt out of one of the mandatory twice a year retests?


The ground-attack aircraft of the USAF are designed to attack targets on the ground and are often deployed as close air support for, and in proximity to, U.S. ground forces. The proximity to friendly forces require precision strikes from these aircraft that are not possible with bomber aircraft listed below. They are typically deployed as close air support to ground forces, their role is tactical rather than strategic, operating at the front of the battle rather than against targets deeper in the enemy's rear.

What are the ground-attack aircraft in the USAF usually deployed in support for?

U.S. ground forces

What does the closeness to friendly troops require of these US Air Force aircraft?

precision strikes

What part of a battle line are the precision strike aircraft of the USAF deployed?

front of the battle

What type of aircraft is not appropriate to be used in close proximity of US ground troops?

bomber aircraft


In the US Air Force, the distinction between bombers, fighters that are actually fighter-bombers, and attack aircraft has become blurred. Many attack aircraft, even ones that look like fighters, are optimized to drop bombs, with very little ability to engage in aerial combat. Many fighter aircraft, such as the F-16, are often used as 'bomb trucks', despite being designed for aerial combat. Perhaps the one meaningful distinction at present is the question of range: a bomber is generally a long-range aircraft capable of striking targets deep within enemy territory, whereas fighter bombers and attack aircraft are limited to 'theater' missions in and around the immediate area of battlefield combat. Even that distinction is muddied by the availability of aerial refueling, which greatly increases the potential radius of combat operations. The US, Russia, and the People's Republic of China operate strategic bombers.

What are most attack aircraft in the US Air Force designed to do?

drop bombs

What type of USAF aircraft is designed for long range airstrike attacks?

bomber

What types of aircraft are typically limited to close proximity of battlefield conflict by the USAF?

fighter bombers and attack aircraft

What increases the radius of combat missions by the US Air Force?

aerial refueling

What countries utilize strategic bomber aircraft in their missions?

US, Russia, and the People's Republic of China


The service's B-2A aircraft entered service in the 1990s, its B-1B aircraft in the 1980s and its current B-52H aircraft in the early 1960s. The B-52 Stratofortress airframe design is over 60 years old and the B-52H aircraft currently in the active inventory were all built between 1960 and 1962. The B-52H is scheduled to remain in service for another 30 years, which would keep the airframe in service for nearly 90 years, an unprecedented length of service for any aircraft. The B-21 is projected to replace the B-52 and parts of the B-1B force by the mid-2020s.

When did the B-2A aircraft enter into service of the US Air Force?

When did the USAF introduce the B-1B aircraft?

What aircraft in the USAF was introduced in the 1960s?

How long is the B-52H scheduled to remain in service of the USAF?

30 years

What aircraft is scheduled to replace the B-52 in the USAF?


Cargo and transport aircraft are typically used to deliver troops, weapons and other military equipment by a variety of methods to any area of military operations around the world, usually outside of the commercial flight routes in uncontrolled airspace. The workhorses of the USAF Air Mobility Command are the C-130 Hercules, C-17 Globemaster III, and C-5 Galaxy. These aircraft are largely defined in terms of their range capability as strategic airlift (C-5), strategic/tactical (C-17), and tactical (C-130) airlift to reflect the needs of the land forces they most often support. The CV-22 is used by the Air Force for the U.S. Special Operations Command (USSOCOM). It conducts long-range, special operations missions, and is equipped with extra fuel tanks and terrain-following radar. Some aircraft serve specialized transportation roles such as executive/embassy support (C-12), Antarctic Support (LC-130H), and USSOCOM support (C-27J, C-145A, and C-146A). The WC-130H aircraft are former weather reconnaissance aircraft, now reverted to the transport mission.

What type of aircraft is used to deliver troops and weapons to military operations?

Cargo and transport

What aircraft are considered the workhorses of the US Air Force?

C-130 Hercules, C-17 Globemaster III, and C-5 Galaxy

The CV-22 aircraft is used by what section of the USAF?

U.S. Special Operations Command

What aircraft offers Antarctic Support to the US Air Force?

What did the USAF use the WC-130H aircraft for before they converted them for transport missions?

weather reconnaissance aircraft


The purpose of electronic warfare is to deny the opponent an advantage in the EMS and ensure friendly, unimpeded access to the EM spectrum portion of the information environment. Electronic warfare aircraft are used to keep airspaces friendly, and send critical information to anyone who needs it. They are often called "The Eye in the Sky." The roles of the aircraft vary greatly among the different variants to include Electronic Warfare/Jamming (EC-130H), Psychological Operations/Communications (EC-130J), Airborne Early Warning and Control (E-3), Airborne Command Post (E-4B), ground targeting radar (E-8C), range control (E-9A), and communications relay (E-11A)

What is the purpose of electronic warfare?

deny the opponent an advantage in the EMS

What nickname is given to Electronic warfare aircraft?

The Eye in the Sky

What does the USAF use Electronic warfare aircraft for?

to keep airspaces friendly, and send critical information to anyone who needs it

What is the EC-130H used for by the US Air Force?

Electronic Warfare/Jamming

What does the USAF use the E-4B aircraft for?

Airborne Command Post


The fighter aircraft of the USAF are small, fast, and maneuverable military aircraft primarily used for air-to-air combat. Many of these fighters have secondary ground-attack capabilities, and some are dual-roled as fighter-bombers (e.g., the F-16 Fighting Falcon); the term "fighter" is also sometimes used colloquially for dedicated ground-attack aircraft. Other missions include interception of bombers and other fighters, reconnaissance, and patrol. The F-16 is currently used by the USAF Air Demonstration squadron, the Thunderbirds, while a small number of both man-rated and non-man-rated F-4 Phantom II are retained as QF-4 aircraft for use as Full Scale Aerial Targets (FSAT) or as part of the USAF Heritage Flight program. These extant QF-4 aircraft are being replaced in the FSAT role by early model F-16 aircraft converted to QF-16 configuration. The USAF has 2,025 fighters in service as of September 2012.

What is the primary function of the USAF fighter aircraft?

air-to-air combat

What is the name of a type of dual purpose fighter-bomber aircraft used by the US Air Force?

F-16 Fighting Falcon

What aircraft is used by the US Air Demonstration group The Thunderbirds?

What kind of aircraft is utilized by the USAF in Full Scale Aerial Targets?

F-4 Phantom II

What are the QF-4 aircraft being replaced by the US Air Force?

early model F-16 aircraft converted to QF-16 configuration


The USAF's KC-135 and KC-10 aerial refueling aircraft are based on civilian jets. The USAF aircraft are equipped primarily for providing the fuel via a tail-mounted refueling boom, and can be equipped with "probe and drogue" refueling systems. Air-to-air refueling is extensively used in large-scale operations and also used in normal operations; fighters, bombers, and cargo aircraft rely heavily on the lesser-known "tanker" aircraft. This makes these aircraft an essential part of the Air Force's global mobility and the U.S. force projection. The KC-46A Pegasus is undergoing testing and is projected to be delivered to USAF units starting in 2017.

What kind of aircraft is the USAF's KC-135?

aerial refueling aircraft

How does the aerial refueling aircraft supply fuel during flight?

tail-mounted refueling boom

When is air-to-air refueling primarily used by the US Air Force?

large-scale operations

What aircraft will be available for use by the US Air Force in 2017?

KC-46A Pegasus


In response to the 2007 United States Air Force nuclear weapons incident, Secretary of Defense Robert Gates accepted in June 2009 the resignations of Secretary of the Air Force Michael Wynne and the Chief of Staff of the Air Force General T. Michael Moseley. Moseley's successor, General Norton A. Schwartz, a former tactical airlift and special operations pilot was the first officer appointed to that position who did not have a background as a fighter or bomber pilot. The Washington Post reported in 2010 that General Schwartz began to dismantle the rigid class system of the USAF, particularly in the officer corps.

What US Secretary of Defense accepted resignations of top US Air Force officials in June of 2009?

Robert Gates

What US Secretary of the Air Force resigned following a nuclear weapons problem ?

Michael Wynne

Who was appointed to the Chief of Staff of the Air Force following Mosley's resignation?

General Norton A. Schwartz

What newspaper reported on Schwartz's dismantlement of the US Air Force's class system?

The Washington Post


Daniel L. Magruder, Jr defines USAF culture as a combination of the rigorous application of advanced technology, individualism and progressive airpower theory. Major General Charles J. Dunlap, Jr. adds that the U.S. Air Force's culture also includes an egalitarianism bred from officers perceiving themselves as their service's principal "warriors" working with small groups of enlisted airmen either as the service crew or the onboard crew of their aircraft. Air Force officers have never felt they needed the formal social "distance" from their enlisted force that is common in the other U.S. armed services. Although the paradigm is changing, for most of its history, the Air Force, completely unlike its sister services, has been an organization in which mostly its officers fought, not its enlisted force, the latter being primarily a rear echelon support force. When the enlisted force did go into harm's way, such as members of multi-crewed aircraft, the close comradeship of shared risk in tight quarters created traditions that shaped a somewhat different kind of officer/enlisted relationship than exists elsewhere in the military.

What author wrote about the US Air Force egalitarian culture?

Major General Charles J. Dunlap, Jr.

How does the US Air Force differ from other branches of the military?

an organization in which mostly its officers fought

How have the enlisted forces of the US Air Force been seen?

primarily a rear echelon support force


Cultural and career issues in the U.S. Air Force have been cited as one of the reasons for the shortfall in needed UAV operators. In spite of an urgent need for UAVs or drones to provide round the clock coverage for American troops during the Iraq War, the USAF did not establish a new career field for piloting them until the last year of that war and in 2014 changed its RPA training syllabus again, in the face of large aircraft losses in training, and in response to a GAO report critical of handling of drone programs. Paul Scharre has reported that the cultural divide between the USAF and US Army has kept both services from adopting each other's drone handing innovations.

What is the reason for the shortage of UAV operators in the US Air Force?

Cultural and career issues

During what war the the USAF establish a new career field for piloting UAVs and drones?

Iraq War

Why did the USAF change its training methods on UAVs in 2014?

large aircraft losses in training

What branch of the US Military does a cultural divide prevent the US Air Force from adopting their drone protocols?

US Army


Many of the U.S. Air Force's formal and informal traditions are an amalgamation of those taken from the Royal Air Force (e.g., dining-ins/mess nights) or the experiences of its predecessor organizations such as the U.S. Army Air Service, U.S. Army Air Corps and the U.S. Army Air Forces. Some of these traditions range from "Friday Name Tags" in flying units to an annual "Mustache Month." The use of "challenge coins" is a recent innovation that was adopted from the U.S. Army while another cultural tradition unique to the Air Force is the "roof stomp", practiced by Air Force members to welcome a new commander or to commemorate another event, such as a retirement.

Where did some of the US Air Force traditions come from?

Royal Air Force

What traditions does the US Air Force have?

"Friday Name Tags" in flying units

What organization did the US Air Force adopt "Challenge Coins" from?

U.S. Army

What does the roof stomp tradition signify in the US Air Force?

welcome a new commander or to commemorate another event, such as a retirement


The United States Air Force has had numerous recruiting slogans including "No One Comes Close" and Uno Ab Alto ("One From On High"). For many years, the U.S. Air Force used "Aim High" as its recruiting slogan; more recently, they have used "Cross into the Blue", "We've been waiting for you" and "Do Something Amazing", "Above All", and the newest one, as of 7 October 2010, considered a call and response, "Aim high" followed with the response, "Fly-Fight-Win" Each wing, group, or squadron usually has its own slogan(s). Information and logos can usually be found on the wing, group, or squadron websites.

What was a recent US Air Force recruiting slogan?

"No One Comes Close"

What does the USAF slogan Uno Ab Alto mean?

"One From On High"

What is the most recent US Air Force recruitment slogan in October 2010?

"Aim high" followed with the response, "Fly-Fight-Win"

Where can individual each USAF wing, group or squadrons individual motto be found?

wing, group, or squadron websites


Recent developments in LEDs permit them to be used in environmental and task lighting. LEDs have many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. Light-emitting diodes are now used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive headlamps, advertising, general lighting, traffic signals, camera flashes and lighted wallpaper. As of 2015[update], LEDs powerful enough for room lighting remain somewhat more expensive, and require more precise current and heat management, than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.

What type of atmosphere can LED lighting be used?

environmental

What is an advantage to using LED lighting over the normal light sources?

longer lifetime

What does LED stand for?

Light-emitting diodes

Why are some people hesitant to use LED lighting?

more expensive

What is a popular use for LED lighting?

traffic signals

What type of atmosphere can't LED lighting be used?

I'm not sure.

What is an advantage to using non-LED lighting over the normal light sources?

I'm not sure.

What does LEED stand for?

I'm not sure.

Why aren't some people hesitant to use LED lighting?

I'm not sure.

What is a popular use for non-LED lighting?

I'm not sure.


Electroluminescence as a phenomenon was discovered in 1907 by the British experimenter H. J. Round of Marconi Labs, using a crystal of silicon carbide and a cat's-whisker detector. Soviet inventor Oleg Losev reported creation of the first LED in 1927. His research was distributed in Soviet, German and British scientific journals, but no practical use was made of the discovery for several decades. Kurt Lehovec, Carl Accardo and Edward Jamgochian, explained these first light-emitting diodes in 1951 using an apparatus employing SiC crystals with a current source of battery or pulse generator and with a comparison to a variant, pure, crystal in 1953.

LED lighting is the end result of what phenomenon?

Electroluminescence

When was Electroluminescence discovered?

What was the nationality of the man who discovered Electroluminescence?

British

What type of detector did H.J. Round use to help him in his discovery?

cat's-whisker

Who is the Soviet man that created the first LED?

Oleg Losev

LED lighting is the beginning result of what phenomenon?

I'm not sure.

When was non-Electroluminescence discovered?

I'm not sure.

What was the nationality of the woman who discovered Electroluminescence?

I'm not sure.

What type of light did H.J. Round use to help him in his discovery?

I'm not sure.

Who is the Soviet man that created the second LED?

I'm not sure.


In 1957, Braunstein further demonstrated that the rudimentary devices could be used for non-radio communication across a short distance. As noted by Kroemer Braunstein".. had set up a simple optical communications link: Music emerging from a record player was used via suitable electronics to modulate the forward current of a GaAs diode. The emitted light was detected by a PbS diode some distance away. This signal was fed into an audio amplifier, and played back by a loudspeaker. Intercepting the beam stopped the music. We had a great deal of fun playing with this setup." This setup presaged the use of LEDs for optical communication applications.

What year was it discovered that early LED instruments could be used for non-radio communication?

Who discovered non-radio uses for early LED devices?

Kroemer Braunstein

The current in non-radio communication had to go through what type of component?

a GaAs diode

What other component was needed to detect the first current of a non-radio signal?

a PbS diode

What final device was needed to hear the signal from the initial GaAs diode?

audio amplifier

What year was it discovered that early LED instruments could be used for radio communication?

I'm not sure.

Who discovered radio uses for early LED devices?

I'm not sure.

The current in radio communication had to go through what type of component?

I'm not sure.

What other component was needed to detect the second current of a radio signal?

I'm not sure.

What first device was needed to hear the signal from the initial GaAs diode?

I'm not sure.


In September 1961, while working at Texas Instruments in Dallas, Texas, James R. Biard and Gary Pittman discovered near-infrared (900 nm) light emission from a tunnel diode they had constructed on a GaAs substrate. By October 1961, they had demonstrated efficient light emission and signal coupling between a GaAs p-n junction light emitter and an electrically-isolated semiconductor photodetector. On August 8, 1962, Biard and Pittman filed a patent titled "Semiconductor Radiant Diode" based on their findings, which described a zinc diffused p–n junction LED with a spaced cathode contact to allow for efficient emission of infrared light under forward bias. After establishing the priority of their work based on engineering notebooks predating submissions from G.E. Labs, RCA Research Labs, IBM Research Labs, Bell Labs, and Lincoln Lab at MIT, the U.S. patent office issued the two inventors the patent for the GaAs infrared (IR) light-emitting diode (U.S. Patent US3293513), the first practical LED. Immediately after filing the patent, Texas Instruments (TI) began a project to manufacture infrared diodes. In October 1962, TI announced the first LED commercial product (the SNX-100), which employed a pure GaAs crystal to emit a 890 nm light output. In October 1963, TI announced the first commercial hemispherical LED, the SNX-110.

In what state what near-infrared light emission discovered?

Texas

What type of diode was used to help discover near-infrared light emission?

tunnel

In what year was the patent filed for the Semiconductor Radiant Diode?

What was the first practical LED?

GaAs infrared (IR) light-emitting diode

The two inventors of the first practical diode were employed by what famous company?

Texas Instruments (TI)

In what state what not-infrared light emission discovered?

I'm not sure.

What type of diode was used to help discover non-infrared light emission?

I'm not sure.

In what year was the patent filed for the non-Semiconductor Radiant Diode?

I'm not sure.

What was the first non-practical LED?

I'm not sure.

The two inventors of the first practical non-diode were employed by what famous company?

I'm not sure.


The first visible-spectrum (red) LED was developed in 1962 by Nick Holonyak, Jr., while working at General Electric Company. Holonyak first reported his LED in the journal Applied Physics Letters on the December 1, 1962. M. George Craford, a former graduate student of Holonyak, invented the first yellow LED and improved the brightness of red and red-orange LEDs by a factor of ten in 1972. In 1976, T. P. Pearsall created the first high-brightness, high-efficiency LEDs for optical fiber telecommunications by inventing new semiconductor materials specifically adapted to optical fiber transmission wavelengths.

At what global company was the first visible-spectrum LED developed?

General Electric Company

What GE employee developed the visible-spectrum LED?

Nick Holonyak, Jr.

What color is associated with the visible-spectrum LED?

red

What color LED was later created in 1972?

yellow

What graduate student of Holonyak created the yellow LED?

M. George Craford

At what global company was the first non-visible-spectrum LED developed?

I'm not sure.

What GE employee developed the non-visible-spectrum LED?

I'm not sure.

What color is associated with the non-visible-spectrum LED?

I'm not sure.

What color non-LED was later created in 1972?

I'm not sure.

What graduate student of Holonyak created the yellow non-LED?

I'm not sure.


The first commercial LEDs were commonly used as replacements for incandescent and neon indicator lamps, and in seven-segment displays, first in expensive equipment such as laboratory and electronics test equipment, then later in such appliances as TVs, radios, telephones, calculators, as well as watches (see list of signal uses). Until 1968, visible and infrared LEDs were extremely costly, in the order of US$200 per unit, and so had little practical use. The Monsanto Company was the first organization to mass-produce visible LEDs, using gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) in 1968 to produce red LEDs suitable for indicators. Hewlett Packard (HP) introduced LEDs in 1968, initially using GaAsP supplied by Monsanto. These red LEDs were bright enough only for use as indicators, as the light output was not enough to illuminate an area. Readouts in calculators were so small that plastic lenses were built over each digit to make them legible. Later, other colors became widely available and appeared in appliances and equipment. In the 1970s commercially successful LED devices at less than five cents each were produced by Fairchild Optoelectronics. These devices employed compound semiconductor chips fabricated with the planar process invented by Dr. Jean Hoerni at Fairchild Semiconductor. The combination of planar processing for chip fabrication and innovative packaging methods enabled the team at Fairchild led by optoelectronics pioneer Thomas Brandt to achieve the needed cost reductions. These methods continue to be used by LED producers.

What was the first commercial uses of LEDs?

replacements for incandescent and neon indicator lamps

How much did the early LEDs cost?

US$200 per unit

What was one use of early LED light in products?

calculators

What modern company introduced LEDs in 1968?

Hewlett Packard (HP)

In what decade were production costs greatly reduced for LEDs to enable successful commercial uses?

What was the first commercial uses of non-LEDs?

I'm not sure.

How much did the early non-LEDs cost?

I'm not sure.

What was one use of early non-LED light in products?

I'm not sure.

What modern company introduced non-LEDs in 1968?

I'm not sure.

In what decade were production costs greatly reduced for non-LEDs to enable successful commercial uses?

I'm not sure.


The first high-brightness blue LED was demonstrated by Shuji Nakamura of Nichia Corporation in 1994 and was based on InGaN. In parallel, Isamu Akasaki and Hiroshi Amano in Nagoya were working on developing the important GaN nucleation on sapphire substrates and the demonstration of p-type doping of GaN. Nakamura, Akasaki and Amano were awarded the 2014 Nobel prize in physics for their work. In 1995, Alberto Barbieri at the Cardiff University Laboratory (GB) investigated the efficiency and reliability of high-brightness LEDs and demonstrated a "transparent contact" LED using indium tin oxide (ITO) on (AlGaInP/GaAs).

What color LED was demonstrated in 1994?

blue

Who demonstrated the first blue LED?

Shuji Nakamura

What did Nakamura, Akasaki, and Amano receive for their work?

2014 Nobel prize in physics

Who investigated the efficiency of high-brightness LED at Cardiff University in 1995?

Alberto Barbieri

What substance did Barbieri use in his work with high-brightness LED?

indium tin oxide

What color non-LED was demonstrated in 1994?

I'm not sure.

Who demonstrated the first red LED?

I'm not sure.

What did Nakamura, Akasaki, and Amano receive for their study?

I'm not sure.

Who investigated the efficiency of low-brightness LED at Cardiff University in 1995?

I'm not sure.

What substance did Barbieri use in his work with low-brightness LED?

I'm not sure.


The attainment of high efficiency in blue LEDs was quickly followed by the development of the first white LED. In this device a Y
3Al
5O
12:Ce (known as "YAG") phosphor coating on the emitter absorbs some of the blue emission and produces yellow light through fluorescence. The combination of that yellow with remaining blue light appears white to the eye. However using different phosphors (fluorescent materials) it also became possible to instead produce green and red light through fluorescence. The resulting mixture of red, green and blue is not only perceived by humans as white light but is superior for illumination in terms of color rendering, whereas one cannot appreciate the color of red or green objects illuminated only by the yellow (and remaining blue) wavelengths from the YAG phosphor.

What LED quickly followed the blue LEDs?

white

What does the YAG phosphor coating produce?

yellow light

What LED quickly followed the red LEDs?

I'm not sure.

What does the YAG phosphor coating not produce?

I'm not sure.


A P-N junction can convert absorbed light energy into a proportional electric current. The same process is reversed here (i.e. the P-N junction emits light when electrical energy is applied to it). This phenomenon is generally called electroluminescence, which can be defined as the emission of light from a semi-conductor under the influence of an electric field. The charge carriers recombine in a forward-biased P-N junction as the electrons cross from the N-region and recombine with the holes existing in the P-region. Free electrons are in the conduction band of energy levels, while holes are in the valence energy band. Thus the energy level of the holes will be lesser than the energy levels of the electrons. Some portion of the energy must be dissipated in order to recombine the electrons and the holes. This energy is emitted in the form of heat and light.

What converts absorbed light energy into an electric current?

P-N junction

What is the phenomenon where a P-N junction emits light when an electrical current is applied to it?

electroluminescence

Where are the free electrons located in the production of electroluminescence?

the conduction band

Whose energy levels are lower than the electrons in the electroluminescence process?

holes existing in the P-region

Why is some energy in the electroluminescence process emitted as heat and light?

to recombine the electrons and the holes

What converts absorbed light energy into an non-electric current?

I'm not sure.

What is the phenomenon where a P-N junction emits light when a non-electrical current is applied to it?

I'm not sure.

Where are the free electrons located in the production of non-electroluminescence?

I'm not sure.

Whose energy levels are lower than the non-electrons in the electroluminescence process?

I'm not sure.

Why is some energy in the electroluminescence process emitted as heat and darkness?

I'm not sure.


In September 2003, a new type of blue LED was demonstrated by Cree that consumes 24 mW at 20 milliamperes (mA). This produced a commercially packaged white light giving 65 lm/W at 20 mA, becoming the brightest white LED commercially available at the time, and more than four times as efficient as standard incandescents. In 2006, they demonstrated a prototype with a record white LED luminous efficacy of 131 lm/W at 20 mA. Nichia Corporation has developed a white LED with luminous efficacy of 150 lm/W at a forward current of 20 mA. Cree's XLamp XM-L LEDs, commercially available in 2011, produce 100 lm/W at their full power of 10 W, and up to 160 lm/W at around 2 W input power. In 2012, Cree announced a white LED giving 254 lm/W, and 303 lm/W in March 2014. Practical general lighting needs high-power LEDs, of one watt or more. Typical operating currents for such devices begin at 350 mA.

In what year was a new type of blue LED produced?

Who demonstrated in 2003 the new type of blue LED?

Cree

How much more efficient as standard incandescents was the white LED commercially available in 2003?

four times

What is the typical operating current for high-power LEDs?

350 mA

In what year was a new type of red LED produced?

I'm not sure.

Who demonstrated in 2003 the new type of red LED?

I'm not sure.

How much more efficient as standard incandescents was the red LED commercially available in 2003?

I'm not sure.

What is the typical operating current for low-power LEDs?

I'm not sure.


The most common symptom of LED (and diode laser) failure is the gradual lowering of light output and loss of efficiency. Sudden failures, although rare, can also occur. Early red LEDs were notable for their short service life. With the development of high-power LEDs the devices are subjected to higher junction temperatures and higher current densities than traditional devices. This causes stress on the material and may cause early light-output degradation. To quantitatively classify useful lifetime in a standardized manner it has been suggested to use L70 or L50, which are the runtimes (typically given in thousands of hours) at which a given LED reaches 70% and 50% of initial light output, respectively.

What is a symptom of LED failure?

loss of efficiency

What is rare in LED lighting?

Sudden failures

What was notable in early red LEDs?

their short service life

What could cause early light-output degradation in LEDs?

higher junction temperatures

What is a classification used in LED lighting to describe how much usefulness it will receive?

L70 or L50

What is a symptom of non-LED failure?

I'm not sure.

What is rare in non-LED lighting?

I'm not sure.

What was notable in early white LEDs?

I'm not sure.

What could cause early light-output degradation in non-LEDs?

I'm not sure.

What is a classification used in non-LED lighting to describe how much usefulness it will receive?

I'm not sure.


Since LED efficacy is inversely proportional to operating temperature, LED technology is well suited for supermarket freezer lighting. Because LEDs produce less waste heat than incandescent lamps, their use in freezers can save on refrigeration costs as well. However, they may be more susceptible to frost and snow buildup than incandescent lamps, so some LED lighting systems have been designed with an added heating circuit. Additionally, research has developed heat sink technologies that will transfer heat produced within the junction to appropriate areas of the light fixture.

LED efficacy is inversely proportional to what?

operating temperature

Where is LED lighting very well suited?

supermarket freezer

LEDs produce less waste heat than what other device?

incandescent lamps

What is LED lighting more susceptible to than incandescent light?

frost

LED efficacy is not inversely proportional to what?

I'm not sure.

Where is LED lighting not very well suited?

I'm not sure.

LEDs produce less waste cold than what other device?

I'm not sure.

What is non-LED lighting more susceptible to than incandescent light?

I'm not sure.


The first blue-violet LED using magnesium-doped gallium nitride was made at Stanford University in 1972 by Herb Maruska and Wally Rhines, doctoral students in materials science and engineering. At the time Maruska was on leave from RCA Laboratories, where he collaborated with Jacques Pankove on related work. In 1971, the year after Maruska left for Stanford, his RCA colleagues Pankove and Ed Miller demonstrated the first blue electroluminescence from zinc-doped gallium nitride, though the subsequent device Pankove and Miller built, the first actual gallium nitride light-emitting diode, emitted green light. In 1974 the U.S. Patent Office awarded Maruska, Rhines and Stanford professor David Stevenson a patent for their work in 1972 (U.S. Patent US3819974 A) and today magnesium-doping of gallium nitride continues to be the basis for all commercial blue LEDs and laser diodes. These devices built in the early 1970s had too little light output to be of practical use and research into gallium nitride devices slowed. In August 1989, Cree introduced the first commercially available blue LED based on the indirect bandgap semiconductor, silicon carbide (SiC). SiC LEDs had very low efficiency, no more than about 0.03%, but did emit in the blue portion of the visible light spectrum.[citation needed]

The first blue-violet LED was developed at what University?

Stanford

When was the first blue-violet LED developed?

What students developed the first blue-violet LED?

Herb Maruska and Wally Rhines

What substance helped demonstrate the first blue electroluminescence?

zinc-doped gallium nitride

The first red-violet LED was developed at what University?

I'm not sure.

When was the first red-violet LED developed?

I'm not sure.

What students developed the first red-violet LED?

I'm not sure.

What substance helped demonstrate the first red electroluminescence?

I'm not sure.


In the late 1980s, key breakthroughs in GaN epitaxial growth and p-type doping ushered in the modern era of GaN-based optoelectronic devices. Building upon this foundation, Dr. Moustakas at Boston University patented a method for producing high-brightness blue LEDs using a new two-step process. Two years later, in 1993, high-brightness blue LEDs were demonstrated again by Shuji Nakamura of Nichia Corporation using a gallium nitride growth process similar to Dr. Moustakas's. Both Dr. Moustakas and Mr. Nakamura were issued separate patents, which confused the issue of who was the original inventor (partly because although Dr. Moustakas invented his first, Dr. Nakamura filed first).[citation needed] This new development revolutionized LED lighting, making high-power blue light sources practical, leading to the development of technologies like BlueRay, as well as allowing the bright high resolution screens of modern tablets and phones.[citation needed]

In what decade were breakthroughs made that brought in the modern era of GaN-based optoelectronic devices?

Who first patented a method to produce high-brightness blue LEDs?

Shuji Nakamura

Who first invented a method to produce high-brightness blue LEDs?

Dr. Moustakas

What technology was made possible by high-power blue light sources?

BlueRay

What is one modern gadget that benefits from high-power blue LED lighting?

tablets

In what decade were breakthroughs made that brought in the ancient era of GaN-based optoelectronic devices?

I'm not sure.

Who first patented a method to produce high-brightness red LEDs?

I'm not sure.

Who first invented a method to produce high-brightness red LEDs?

I'm not sure.

What technology was made possible by low-power blue light sources?

I'm not sure.

What is one modern gadget that benefits from high-power red LED lighting?

I'm not sure.


Nakamura was awarded the 2006 Millennium Technology Prize for his invention. Nakamura, Hiroshi Amano and Isamu Akasaki were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2014 for the invention of the blue LED. In 2015, a US court ruled that three companies (i.e. the litigants who had not previously settled out of court) that had licensed Mr. Nakamura's patents for production in the United States had infringed Dr. Moustakas's prior patent, and order them to pay licensing fees of not less than 13 million USD.

What Nobel Prize did Nakamura, Amano, and Akasaki receive in 2014?

Physics

What award did Nakamura receive in 2006 for his invention?

Millennium Technology Prize

How many companies did a judge say infringed on Dr. Moustakas's prior blue light patent in 2015?

three

What was the fine given to the three companies?

not less than 13 million USD

What Nobel Prize did Nakamura, Amano, and Akasaki receive in 2013?

I'm not sure.

What award did Nakamura receive in 2016 for his invention?

I'm not sure.

How many companies did a judge say infringed on Dr. Moustakas's prior red light patent in 2015?

I'm not sure.

What was the fine given to the four companies?

I'm not sure.


By the late 1990s, blue LEDs became widely available. They have an active region consisting of one or more InGaN quantum wells sandwiched between thicker layers of GaN, called cladding layers. By varying the relative In/Ga fraction in the InGaN quantum wells, the light emission can in theory be varied from violet to amber. Aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN) of varying Al/Ga fraction can be used to manufacture the cladding and quantum well layers for ultraviolet LEDs, but these devices have not yet reached the level of efficiency and technological maturity of InGaN/GaN blue/green devices. If un-alloyed GaN is used in this case to form the active quantum well layers, the device will emit near-ultraviolet light with a peak wavelength centred around 365 nm. Green LEDs manufactured from the InGaN/GaN system are far more efficient and brighter than green LEDs produced with non-nitride material systems, but practical devices still exhibit efficiency too low for high-brightness applications.[citation needed]

What are cladding layers?

active region consisting of one or more InGaN quantum wells sandwiched between thicker layers of GaN

How can light emission be varied from violet to amber?

By varying the relative In/Ga fraction in the InGaN quantum wells

What does AlGaN stand for?

Aluminium gallium nitride

What LEDs are more efficient when produced from the InGaN/GaN systems than without?

Green

What are non-cladding layers?

I'm not sure.

How can light emission be varied from red to amber?

I'm not sure.

What does AlGEaN stand for?

I'm not sure.

What LEDs are more efficient when produced from the InEGaN/GaEN systems than without?

I'm not sure.


With nitrides containing aluminium, most often AlGaN and AlGaInN, even shorter wavelengths are achievable. Ultraviolet LEDs in a range of wavelengths are becoming available on the market. Near-UV emitters at wavelengths around 375–395 nm are already cheap and often encountered, for example, as black light lamp replacements for inspection of anti-counterfeiting UV watermarks in some documents and paper currencies. Shorter-wavelength diodes, while substantially more expensive, are commercially available for wavelengths down to 240 nm. As the photosensitivity of microorganisms approximately matches the absorption spectrum of DNA, with a peak at about 260 nm, UV LED emitting at 250–270 nm are to be expected in prospective disinfection and sterilization devices. Recent research has shown that commercially available UVA LEDs (365 nm) are already effective disinfection and sterilization devices. UV-C wavelengths were obtained in laboratories using aluminium nitride (210 nm), boron nitride (215 nm) and diamond (235 nm).

What substance does nitrides contain?

aluminium

What sort of LEDs are becoming more available on the market?

Ultraviolet

What is the range of wavelengths for cheap UV LEDs?

375–395 nm

Shorter wavelength diodes provide wavelengths as low as what?

240 nm

What UV wavelengths are found in sterilization devices?

250–270 nm

What substance does nitrides not contain?

I'm not sure.

What sort of non-LEDs are becoming more available on the market?

I'm not sure.

What is the range of wavelengths for cheap UV LEEDs?

I'm not sure.

Longer wavelength diodes provide wavelengths as low as what?

I'm not sure.

What UV wavelengths are found in non-sterilization devices?

I'm not sure.


White light can be formed by mixing differently colored lights; the most common method is to use red, green, and blue (RGB). Hence the method is called multi-color white LEDs (sometimes referred to as RGB LEDs). Because these need electronic circuits to control the blending and diffusion of different colors, and because the individual color LEDs typically have slightly different emission patterns (leading to variation of the color depending on direction) even if they are made as a single unit, these are seldom used to produce white lighting. Nonetheless, this method has many applications because of the flexibility of mixing different colors, and in principle, this mechanism also has higher quantum efficiency in producing white light.[citation needed]

What colors are used to form white light?

red, green, and blue

What is the method called that mixes red, green, and blue colors to form white light?

multi-color white LEDs

What does the multi-color white LED method need to produce the end result?

electronic circuits

What is another name to reference the multi-color white LED method?

RGB LEDs

What colors are used to form red light?

I'm not sure.

What is the method called that mixes red, green, and blue colors to form blue light?

I'm not sure.

What does the non-multi-color white LED method need to produce the end result?

I'm not sure.

What is another name to reference the solo-color white LED method?

I'm not sure.