Examples of energy transformation include generating electric energy from heat energy via a steam turbine, or lifting an object against gravity using electrical energy driving a crane motor. Lifting against gravity performs mechanical work on the object and stores gravitational potential energy in the object. If the object falls to the ground, gravity does mechanical work on the object which transforms the potential energy in the gravitational field to the kinetic energy released as heat on impact with the ground. Our Sun transforms nuclear potential energy to other forms of energy; its total mass does not decrease due to that in itself (since it still contains the same total energy even if in different forms), but its mass does decrease when the energy escapes out to its surroundings, largely as radiant energy.

Give one example of energy transformation.

generating electric energy from heat energy via a steam turbine

What transforms nuclear potential energy to other forms of energy?

Sun

What is another example of energy transformation?

lifting an object against gravity using electrical energy driving a crane motor

Give one example of linear transformation.

I'm not sure.

What transforms non-nuclear potential energy to other forms of energy?

I'm not sure.

What is another example of solar transformation?

I'm not sure.

What does pushing with gravity perform?

I'm not sure.

what type of energy escapes to its surroundings when mass increases?

I'm not sure.


The total energy of a system can be subdivided and classified in various ways. For example, classical mechanics distinguishes between kinetic energy, which is determined by an object's movement through space, and potential energy, which is a function of the position of an object within a field. It may also be convenient to distinguish gravitational energy, thermal energy, several types of nuclear energy (which utilize potentials from the nuclear force and the weak force), electric energy (from the electric field), and magnetic energy (from the magnetic field), among others. Many of these classifications overlap; for instance, thermal energy usually consists partly of kinetic and partly of potential energy.

What is determined by an object's movement through space?

kinetic energy

What usually consists partly of kinetic and partly of potential energy?

thermal energy

What is a function of the position of an object within a field?

potential energy

what is determined by an object's non-movement through space?

I'm not sure.

What usually consists completely of potential energy?

I'm not sure.

What is a function of the position of an object outside of a field?

I'm not sure.

what part of a system can be multiplied?

I'm not sure.

what classifications don't overlap?

I'm not sure.


Some types of energy are a varying mix of both potential and kinetic energy. An example is mechanical energy which is the sum of (usually macroscopic) kinetic and potential energy in a system. Elastic energy in materials is also dependent upon electrical potential energy (among atoms and molecules), as is chemical energy, which is stored and released from a reservoir of electrical potential energy between electrons, and the molecules or atomic nuclei that attract them.[need quotation to verify].The list is also not necessarily complete. Whenever physical scientists discover that a certain phenomenon appears to violate the law of energy conservation, new forms are typically added that account for the discrepancy.

What is dependent upon electrical potential energy?

Elastic energy in materials

Where is chemical energy stored and released?

from a reservoir of electrical potential energy between electrons

Some types of energy are a varying mix of potential and what other kind of energy?

kinetic

What is dependent upon hydro potential energy?

I'm not sure.

Where is biological energy stored and released?

I'm not sure.

All types of energy are a varying mix of potential and what other kind of energy?

I'm not sure.

what do chemical scientists discover about certain phenomenon?

I'm not sure.

old forms are typically added that account for what?

I'm not sure.


In the late 17th century, Gottfried Leibniz proposed the idea of the Latin: vis viva, or living force, which defined as the product of the mass of an object and its velocity squared; he believed that total vis viva was conserved. To account for slowing due to friction, Leibniz theorized that thermal energy consisted of the random motion of the constituent parts of matter, a view shared by Isaac Newton, although it would be more than a century until this was generally accepted. The modern analog of this property, kinetic energy, differs from vis viva only by a factor of two.

What is a term for living force?

vis viva

What is defined as the product of mass of an object and its velocity squared?

vis viva

Who proposed the idea of the Latin: vis viva?

Gottfried Leibniz

In what century did Leibniz propose the idea of Latin: vis viva?

late 17th century

Who shared Leibniz's view that thermal energy consisted of random motion of the constituent parts of matter?

Isaac Newton

What is a term for dying force?

I'm not sure.

What is defined as the product of mass of an object and its velocity cubed?

I'm not sure.

Who proposed the idea of the Italian: vis viva?

I'm not sure.

In what century did Newton propose the idea of Latin: vis viva?

I'm not sure.

Who rejected Leibniz's view that thermal energy consisted of random motion of the constituent parts of matter?

I'm not sure.


In 1807, Thomas Young was possibly the first to use the term "energy" instead of vis viva, in its modern sense. Gustave-Gaspard Coriolis described "kinetic energy" in 1829 in its modern sense, and in 1853, William Rankine coined the term "potential energy". The law of conservation of energy was also first postulated in the early 19th century, and applies to any isolated system. It was argued for some years whether heat was a physical substance, dubbed the caloric, or merely a physical quantity, such as momentum. In 1845 James Prescott Joule discovered the link between mechanical work and the generation of heat.

Who was possibly the first to use the term "energy" instead of vis viva?

Thomas Young

When did Thomas Young use the term "energy" instead of vis viva?

Who coined the term "potential energy?"

William Rankine

Who discovered the link between mechanical work and the generation of heat?

James Prescott Joule

When was the law of conservation of energy first postulated?

19th century

Who was definitely the first to use the term "energy" instead of vis viva?

I'm not sure.

When did Newton use the term "energy" instead of vis viva?

I'm not sure.

Who rejected the term "potential energy?"

I'm not sure.

Who discovered the link between mechanical work and the reduction of heat?

I'm not sure.

When was the law of conservation of physics first postulated?

I'm not sure.


These developments led to the theory of conservation of energy, formalized largely by William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) as the field of thermodynamics. Thermodynamics aided the rapid development of explanations of chemical processes by Rudolf Clausius, Josiah Willard Gibbs, and Walther Nernst. It also led to a mathematical formulation of the concept of entropy by Clausius and to the introduction of laws of radiant energy by Jožef Stefan. According to Noether's theorem, the conservation of energy is a consequence of the fact that the laws of physics do not change over time. Thus, since 1918, theorists have understood that the law of conservation of energy is the direct mathematical consequence of the translational symmetry of the quantity conjugate to energy, namely time.

Who largely formalized the developments that led to the theory of conservation of energy?

William Thomson

What aided the rapid development of explanations of chemical processes by Clausius, Gibbs and Nernst?

Thermodynamics

Who developed the concept of the introduction of laws of radiant energy?

Jožef Stefan

What states that the conservation of energy is a consequence of the fact that the laws of physics do not change over time?

Noether's theorem

Who largely rejected the developments that led to the theory of conservation of energy?

I'm not sure.

What hindered the rapid development of explanations of chemical processes by Clausius, Gibbs and Nernst?

I'm not sure.

Who developed the concept of the introduction of laws of stored energy?

I'm not sure.

What states that the conservation of energy is a consequence of the fact that the laws of physics change over time?

I'm not sure.

since 1819, theorists have understood that the law of conservation of energy is what?

I'm not sure.


Another energy-related concept is called the Lagrangian, after Joseph-Louis Lagrange. This formalism is as fundamental as the Hamiltonian, and both can be used to derive the equations of motion or be derived from them. It was invented in the context of classical mechanics, but is generally useful in modern physics. The Lagrangian is defined as the kinetic energy minus the potential energy. Usually, the Lagrange formalism is mathematically more convenient than the Hamiltonian for non-conservative systems (such as systems with friction).

What is another energy-related concept?

Lagrangian

Who is the Lagrangian named after?

Joseph-Louis Lagrange

What is defined as the kinetic energy minus the potential energy?

Lagrangian

Is the Lagrange formalism or the Hamiltonian more convenient for non-conservative systems?

Lagrange formalism

What is another non-energy-related concept?

I'm not sure.

Who is the Lestrangian named after?

I'm not sure.

What is defined as the potential energy minus the kinetic energy?

I'm not sure.

Is the Lagrange formalism or the Hamiltonian more convenient for conservative systems?

I'm not sure.

This non-formalism is as fundamental as what?

I'm not sure.


Noether's theorem (1918) states that any differentiable symmetry of the action of a physical system has a corresponding conservation law. Noether's theorem has become a fundamental tool of modern theoretical physics and the calculus of variations. A generalisation of the seminal formulations on constants of motion in Lagrangian and Hamiltonian mechanics (1788 and 1833, respectively), it does not apply to systems that cannot be modeled with a Lagrangian; for example, dissipative systems with continuous symmetries need not have a corresponding conservation law.

When was Noether's theorem created?

What states that any differentiable symmetry of the action of a physical system has a corresponding conservation law?

Noether's theorem

What has become a fundamental tool of modern theoretical physics and the calculus of variations?

Noether's theorem

When was Noether's theorem destroyed?

I'm not sure.

What states that any differentiable symmetry of the action of a non-physical system has a corresponding conservation law?

I'm not sure.

What has become a fundamental tool of modern theoretical chemistry and the calculus of variations?

I'm not sure.

What theorem was derived in 1819?

I'm not sure.

dissipative systems with non-continuous symmetries need not have what?

I'm not sure.


In the context of chemistry, energy is an attribute of a substance as a consequence of its atomic, molecular or aggregate structure. Since a chemical transformation is accompanied by a change in one or more of these kinds of structure, it is invariably accompanied by an increase or decrease of energy of the substances involved. Some energy is transferred between the surroundings and the reactants of the reaction in the form of heat or light; thus the products of a reaction may have more or less energy than the reactants. A reaction is said to be exergonic if the final state is lower on the energy scale than the initial state; in the case of endergonic reactions the situation is the reverse. Chemical reactions are invariably not possible unless the reactants surmount an energy barrier known as the activation energy. The speed of a chemical reaction (at given temperature T) is related to the activation energy E, by the Boltzmann's population factor e−E/kT – that is the probability of molecule to have energy greater than or equal to E at the given temperature T. This exponential dependence of a reaction rate on temperature is known as the Arrhenius equation.The activation energy necessary for a chemical reaction can be in the form of thermal energy.

In the context of chemistry, what is an attribute of a substance as a consequence of it's atomic, molecular or aggregate structure?

energy

What is not possible unless the reactants surmount an energy barrier known as the activation energy?

Chemical reactions

What is the probability of molecule to have energy greater than or equal to E at the given temperature T?

e−E/kT

Who created the population factor e-E/kT?

Boltzmann's

What is the exponential dependence of a reaction rate on temperature?

Arrhenius equation

In the context of biology, what is an attribute of a substance as a consequence of it's atomic, molecular or aggregate structure?

I'm not sure.

What is always possible except when the reactants surmount an energy barrier known as the activation energy?

I'm not sure.

What is the certainty of molecule to have energy greater than or equal to E at the given temperature T?

I'm not sure.

Who rejected the population factor e-E/kT?

I'm not sure.

What is the exponential independence of a reaction rate on temperature?

I'm not sure.


In biology, energy is an attribute of all biological systems from the biosphere to the smallest living organism. Within an organism it is responsible for growth and development of a biological cell or an organelle of a biological organism. Energy is thus often said to be stored by cells in the structures of molecules of substances such as carbohydrates (including sugars), lipids, and proteins, which release energy when reacted with oxygen in respiration. In human terms, the human equivalent (H-e) (Human energy conversion) indicates, for a given amount of energy expenditure, the relative quantity of energy needed for human metabolism, assuming an average human energy expenditure of 12,500 kJ per day and a basal metabolic rate of 80 watts. For example, if our bodies run (on average) at 80 watts, then a light bulb running at 100 watts is running at 1.25 human equivalents (100 ÷ 80) i.e. 1.25 H-e. For a difficult task of only a few seconds' duration, a person can put out thousands of watts, many times the 746 watts in one official horsepower. For tasks lasting a few minutes, a fit human can generate perhaps 1,000 watts. For an activity that must be sustained for an hour, output drops to around 300; for an activity kept up all day, 150 watts is about the maximum. The human equivalent assists understanding of energy flows in physical and biological systems by expressing energy units in human terms: it provides a "feel" for the use of a given amount of energy.

In biology, what is an attribute of all biological systems from the biosphere to the smallest living organism?

energy

What is often said to be stored by cells in the structures of molecules of substances such as carbohydrates, lipids and proteins?

Energy

What does H-e stand for?

Human energy conversion

How many watts is in one official horsepower?

746 watts

In chemistry, what is an attribute of all biological systems from the biosphere to the smallest living organism?

I'm not sure.

What is often said to be expelled by cells in the structures of molecules of substances such as carbohydrates, lipids and proteins?

I'm not sure.

What does E-h stand for?

I'm not sure.

How many watts is in half an official horsepower?

I'm not sure.

For tasks lasting a few minutes, an unfit human can generate how many watts?

I'm not sure.


Sunlight is also captured by plants as chemical potential energy in photosynthesis, when carbon dioxide and water (two low-energy compounds) are converted into the high-energy compounds carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. Plants also release oxygen during photosynthesis, which is utilized by living organisms as an electron acceptor, to release the energy of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. Release of the energy stored during photosynthesis as heat or light may be triggered suddenly by a spark, in a forest fire, or it may be made available more slowly for animal or human metabolism, when these molecules are ingested, and catabolism is triggered by enzyme action.

What is also captured by plants as chemical potential energy in photosynthesis?

Sunlight

What do plants release during photosynthesis?

oxygen

What may be triggered suddenly by a spark?

Release of the energy stored during photosynthesis

What are two low-energy compounds?

carbon dioxide and water

What isn't captured by plants as chemical potential energy in photosynthesis?

I'm not sure.

What do plants retain? during photosynthesis?

I'm not sure.

What may be triggered after a long time by a spark?

I'm not sure.

What are two high-energy compounds?

I'm not sure.

what is utilized by dead organisms as an electron acceptor?

I'm not sure.


Any living organism relies on an external source of energy—radiation from the Sun in the case of green plants, chemical energy in some form in the case of animals—to be able to grow and reproduce. The daily 1500–2000 Calories (6–8 MJ) recommended for a human adult are taken as a combination of oxygen and food molecules, the latter mostly carbohydrates and fats, of which glucose (C6H12O6) and stearin (C57H110O6) are convenient examples. The food molecules are oxidised to carbon dioxide and water in the mitochondria

What does any living organism rely on to be able to grow and reproduce?

an external source of energy

How many daily calories are recommended for a human adult?

Where are food molecules oxidised to carbon dioxide and water?

mitochondria

What does any dead organism rely on to be able to grow and reproduce?

I'm not sure.

How many weekly calories are recommended for a human adult?

I'm not sure.

Where are food molecules oxidised to oxygen and water?

I'm not sure.

what relies on an internal source of energy

I'm not sure.

radiation from the Sun in the case of red what?

I'm not sure.


It would appear that living organisms are remarkably inefficient (in the physical sense) in their use of the energy they receive (chemical energy or radiation), and it is true that most real machines manage higher efficiencies. In growing organisms the energy that is converted to heat serves a vital purpose, as it allows the organism tissue to be highly ordered with regard to the molecules it is built from. The second law of thermodynamics states that energy (and matter) tends to become more evenly spread out across the universe: to concentrate energy (or matter) in one specific place, it is necessary to spread out a greater amount of energy (as heat) across the remainder of the universe ("the surroundings").[note 3] Simpler organisms can achieve higher energy efficiencies than more complex ones, but the complex organisms can occupy ecological niches that are not available to their simpler brethren. The conversion of a portion of the chemical energy to heat at each step in a metabolic pathway is the physical reason behind the pyramid of biomass observed in ecology: to take just the first step in the food chain, of the estimated 124.7 Pg/a of carbon that is fixed by photosynthesis, 64.3 Pg/a (52%) are used for the metabolism of green plants, i.e. reconverted into carbon dioxide and heat.

What states that energy tends to become more evenly spread out across the universe?

The second law of thermodynamics

What are remarkably inefficient in their use of the energy they receive?

living organisms

Complex organisms can occupy this, that are not available to their simpler brethern?

ecological niches

What states that energy tends to become more grouped together across the universe?

I'm not sure.

What are remarkably efficient in their use of the energy they receive?

I'm not sure.

The conversion of a portion of the chemical energy to cool at each step in a what?

I'm not sure.

Where is the hypothetical reason behind the pyramid of biomass observed?

I'm not sure.

Simple organisms can occupy this, that are not available to their simpler brethern?

I'm not sure.


Sunlight may be stored as gravitational potential energy after it strikes the Earth, as (for example) water evaporates from oceans and is deposited upon mountains (where, after being released at a hydroelectric dam, it can be used to drive turbines or generators to produce electricity). Sunlight also drives many weather phenomena, save those generated by volcanic events. An example of a solar-mediated weather event is a hurricane, which occurs when large unstable areas of warm ocean, heated over months, give up some of their thermal energy suddenly to power a few days of violent air movement.

When may sunlight be stored as gravitational potential energy?

after it strikes the Earth

This drives many weather phenomena, save those generated by volcanic events.

Sunlight

What is an example of a solar-mediated weather event?

hurricane

What occurs when large unstable areas of warm ocean, heated over months, give up some of their thermal energy suddenly to power a few days of violent air movement?

hurricane

When may sunlight be stored as gravitational kinetic energy?

I'm not sure.

This drives no weather phenomena, save those generated by volcanic events.

I'm not sure.

What is an example of a water-mediated weather event?

I'm not sure.

after being released at a wind powered dam, it can be used to drive turbines or generators to produce what?

I'm not sure.

What occurs when large unstable areas of warm ocean, heated over months, give up some of their thermal energy suddenly to power a few days of violent air movement?

I'm not sure.


In a slower process, radioactive decay of atoms in the core of the Earth releases heat. This thermal energy drives plate tectonics and may lift mountains, via orogenesis. This slow lifting represents a kind of gravitational potential energy storage of the thermal energy, which may be later released to active kinetic energy in landslides, after a triggering event. Earthquakes also release stored elastic potential energy in rocks, a store that has been produced ultimately from the same radioactive heat sources. Thus, according to present understanding, familiar events such as landslides and earthquakes release energy that has been stored as potential energy in the Earth's gravitational field or elastic strain (mechanical potential energy) in rocks. Prior to this, they represent release of energy that has been stored in heavy atoms since the collapse of long-destroyed supernova stars created these atoms.

What releases stored elastic potential energy in rocks?

Earthquakes

What does radioactive decay of atoms in the core of the Earth release?

heat

What drives plate tectonics and may lift mountains via orogenesis?

thermal energy

What is mechanical potential energy?

elastic strain

What releases stored elastic kinetic energy in rocks?

I'm not sure.

What does radioactive decay of atoms in the core of Mars release?

I'm not sure.

What hinders plate tectonics and may lift mountains via orogenesis?

I'm not sure.

What is non-mechanical potential energy?

I'm not sure.

energy that has been stored in heavy atoms since the collapse of recently destroyed supernova stars created what?

I'm not sure.


In cosmology and astronomy the phenomena of stars, nova, supernova, quasars and gamma-ray bursts are the universe's highest-output energy transformations of matter. All stellar phenomena (including solar activity) are driven by various kinds of energy transformations. Energy in such transformations is either from gravitational collapse of matter (usually molecular hydrogen) into various classes of astronomical objects (stars, black holes, etc.), or from nuclear fusion (of lighter elements, primarily hydrogen). The nuclear fusion of hydrogen in the Sun also releases another store of potential energy which was created at the time of the Big Bang. At that time, according to theory, space expanded and the universe cooled too rapidly for hydrogen to completely fuse into heavier elements. This meant that hydrogen represents a store of potential energy that can be released by fusion. Such a fusion process is triggered by heat and pressure generated from gravitational collapse of hydrogen clouds when they produce stars, and some of the fusion energy is then transformed into sunlight.

What is driven by various kinds of energy transformations?

stellar phenomena

What releases another store of potential energy which was created at the time of the Big Bang?

nuclear fusion of hydrogen in the Sun

What theory states that space expanded and the universe cooled too rapidly for hydrogen to completely fuse into heavier elements?

Big Bang

Hydrogen represents a store of potential energy that can be released by what?

fusion

What is driven by various kinds of energy transfusions?

I'm not sure.

What retains another store of potential energy which was created at the time of the Big Bang?

I'm not sure.

What theory states that space expanded and the universe cooled very slowly for hydrogen to completely fuse into heavier elements?

I'm not sure.

Oxygen represents a store of potential energy that can be released by what?

I'm not sure.

What process is triggered by heat and pressure generated from gravitational collapse of nitrogen clouds?

I'm not sure.


In quantum mechanics, energy is defined in terms of the energy operator as a time derivative of the wave function. The Schrödinger equation equates the energy operator to the full energy of a particle or a system. Its results can be considered as a definition of measurement of energy in quantum mechanics. The Schrödinger equation describes the space- and time-dependence of a slowly changing (non-relativistic) wave function of quantum systems. The solution of this equation for a bound system is discrete (a set of permitted states, each characterized by an energy level) which results in the concept of quanta. In the solution of the Schrödinger equation for any oscillator (vibrator) and for electromagnetic waves in a vacuum, the resulting energy states are related to the frequency by Planck's relation:  (where  is Planck's constant and  the frequency). In the case of an electromagnetic wave these energy states are called quanta of light or photons.

In quantum mechanics, what is defined in terms of the energy operator as a time derivative of the wave function?

energy

What equates the energy operator to the full energy of a particle or a system?

The Schrödinger equation

What describes the space-and-time dependence of a slowly changing wave function of quantum systems?

The Schrödinger equation

In quantum mechanics, what is defined in terms of the energy operator as a time derivative of the sine function?

I'm not sure.

What equates the energy operator to the partial energy of a particle or a system?

I'm not sure.

What describes the space-and-time dependence of a rapidly changing wave function of quantum systems?

I'm not sure.

what is a set of permitted states, none of which are characterized by an energy level?

I'm not sure.

In the case of an electromagnetic wave these are called quanta of light or protons

I'm not sure.


For example, consider electron–positron annihilation, in which the rest mass of individual particles is destroyed, but the inertia equivalent of the system of the two particles (its invariant mass) remains (since all energy is associated with mass), and this inertia and invariant mass is carried off by photons which individually are massless, but as a system retain their mass. This is a reversible process – the inverse process is called pair creation – in which the rest mass of particles is created from energy of two (or more) annihilating photons. In this system the matter (electrons and positrons) is destroyed and changed to non-matter energy (the photons). However, the total system mass and energy do not change during this interaction.

What is it called when the rest mass of individual particles is destroyed but the inertia equivalent of the system of the two particles remains?

electron–positron annihilation

What is the inverse process called?

pair creation

What is the process in which the rest mass of particles is created from energy of two or more annihilating photons?

pair creation

What is it called when the rest mass of individual particles is destroyed but the inertia equivalent of the system of the three particles remains?

I'm not sure.

What is the converse process called?

I'm not sure.

What is the process in which the rest mass of particles is destroyed from energy of two or more annihilating photons?

I'm not sure.

what is created and changed to non-matter energy?

I'm not sure.

What is matter energy?

I'm not sure.


There are strict limits to how efficiently heat can be converted into work in a cyclic process, e.g. in a heat engine, as described by Carnot's theorem and the second law of thermodynamics. However, some energy transformations can be quite efficient. The direction of transformations in energy (what kind of energy is transformed to what other kind) is often determined by entropy (equal energy spread among all available degrees of freedom) considerations. In practice all energy transformations are permitted on a small scale, but certain larger transformations are not permitted because it is statistically unlikely that energy or matter will randomly move into more concentrated forms or smaller spaces.

What states that there are strict limits to how efficiently heat can be converted into a work in a cyclic process?

Carnot's theorem

What is the direction of transformations in energy?

what kind of energy is transformed to what other kind

What is often determined by entropy considerations?

direction of transformations in energy

Why are certain larger transformations not permitted?

because it is statistically unlikely that energy or matter will randomly move into more concentrated forms or smaller spaces

What states that there are no limits to how efficiently heat can be converted into a work in a cyclic process?

I'm not sure.

What is the direction of translations in energy?

I'm not sure.

What is never determined by entropy considerations?

I'm not sure.

Why are certain larger transformations permitted?

I'm not sure.

what is non-equal energy spread among all available degrees of freedom

I'm not sure.


Energy transformations in the universe over time are characterized by various kinds of potential energy that has been available since the Big Bang later being "released" (transformed to more active types of energy such as kinetic or radiant energy) when a triggering mechanism is available. Familiar examples of such processes include nuclear decay, in which energy is released that was originally "stored" in heavy isotopes (such as uranium and thorium), by nucleosynthesis, a process ultimately using the gravitational potential energy released from the gravitational collapse of supernovae, to store energy in the creation of these heavy elements before they were incorporated into the solar system and the Earth. This energy is triggered and released in nuclear fission bombs or in civil nuclear power generation. Similarly, in the case of a chemical explosion, chemical potential energy is transformed to kinetic energy and thermal energy in a very short time. Yet another example is that of a pendulum. At its highest points the kinetic energy is zero and the gravitational potential energy is at maximum. At its lowest point the kinetic energy is at maximum and is equal to the decrease of potential energy. If one (unrealistically) assumes that there is no friction or other losses, the conversion of energy between these processes would be perfect, and the pendulum would continue swinging forever.

Name an example of a heavy isotope?

uranium

Name another example of a heavy isotope.

thorium

What is a process ultimately using the gravitational potential energy in the creation of these heavy elements before they were incorporated into the solar system and the Earth?

nucleosynthesis

In the case of a chemical explosion, what is transformed to kinetic energy and thermal energy in a short time?

chemical potential energy

Name an example of a heavy transitope?

I'm not sure.

Name another example of a heavy transitope.

I'm not sure.

What is a process ultimately using the gravitational potential energy in the creation of these heavy elements before they were incorporated into the lunar system and the Earth?

I'm not sure.

In the case of a chemical explosion, what is transformed to kinetic energy and wind energy in a short time?

I'm not sure.

what active types of energy can be transformed?

I'm not sure.


Energy gives rise to weight when it is trapped in a system with zero momentum, where it can be weighed. It is also equivalent to mass, and this mass is always associated with it. Mass is also equivalent to a certain amount of energy, and likewise always appears associated with it, as described in mass-energy equivalence. The formula E = mc², derived by Albert Einstein (1905) quantifies the relationship between rest-mass and rest-energy within the concept of special relativity. In different theoretical frameworks, similar formulas were derived by J. J. Thomson (1881), Henri Poincaré (1900), Friedrich Hasenöhrl (1904) and others (see Mass-energy equivalence#History for further information).

When does energy give rise to weight?

when it is trapped in a system with zero momentum

Mass is also equivalent to what?

certain amount of energy

Who created the formula E = mc2?

Albert Einstein

In what year did Einstein create E = mc2?

What quantifies the relationship between rest-mass and rest-energy within the concept of special relativity?

E = mc²

When does energy give rise to height?

I'm not sure.

Mass is not equivalent to what?

I'm not sure.

Who created the formula E = nc2?

I'm not sure.

In what year did Weinstein create E = mc2?

I'm not sure.

What quantifies the relationship between rest-mass and rest-energy outside of the concept of special relativity?

I'm not sure.


Matter may be converted to energy (and vice versa), but mass cannot ever be destroyed; rather, mass/energy equivalence remains a constant for both the matter and the energy, during any process when they are converted into each other. However, since  is extremely large relative to ordinary human scales, the conversion of ordinary amount of matter (for example, 1 kg) to other forms of energy (such as heat, light, and other radiation) can liberate tremendous amounts of energy (~ joules = 21 megatons of TNT), as can be seen in nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons. Conversely, the mass equivalent of a unit of energy is minuscule, which is why a loss of energy (loss of mass) from most systems is difficult to measure by weight, unless the energy loss is very large. Examples of energy transformation into matter (i.e., kinetic energy into particles with rest mass) are found in high-energy nuclear physics.

Matter may be converted to what?

energy

Energy may be converted to what?

Matter

Why is a loss of energy difficult to measure by weight?

mass equivalent of a unit of energy is minuscule

Where are examples of energy transformation into matter found?

high-energy nuclear physics

Matter can't be converted to what?

I'm not sure.

Energy can't be converted to what?

I'm not sure.

Why is a gain of energy difficult to measure by weight?

I'm not sure.

Where are examples of energy transformation into matter not found?

I'm not sure.

what equals 12 megatons of TNT

I'm not sure.


Thermodynamics divides energy transformation into two kinds: reversible processes and irreversible processes. An irreversible process is one in which energy is dissipated (spread) into empty energy states available in a volume, from which it cannot be recovered into more concentrated forms (fewer quantum states), without degradation of even more energy. A reversible process is one in which this sort of dissipation does not happen. For example, conversion of energy from one type of potential field to another, is reversible, as in the pendulum system described above. In processes where heat is generated, quantum states of lower energy, present as possible excitations in fields between atoms, act as a reservoir for part of the energy, from which it cannot be recovered, in order to be converted with 100% efficiency into other forms of energy. In this case, the energy must partly stay as heat, and cannot be completely recovered as usable energy, except at the price of an increase in some other kind of heat-like increase in disorder in quantum states, in the universe (such as an expansion of matter, or a randomisation in a crystal).

Thermodynamics divides energy information into what two kinds?

reversible processes and irreversible processes

What divides energy transformation into two kinds reversible processes and irreversible processes?

Thermodynamics

A reversible process is one in which this does not happen.

dissipation

Thermodynamics multiplies energy information into what two kinds?

I'm not sure.

What doesn't divides energy transformation into two kinds reversible processes and irreversible processes?

I'm not sure.

A reversible process is one in which this happens.

I'm not sure.

What isn't reversible?

I'm not sure.

What must not stay partly as heat?

I'm not sure.


As the universe evolves in time, more and more of its energy becomes trapped in irreversible states (i.e., as heat or other kinds of increases in disorder). This has been referred to as the inevitable thermodynamic heat death of the universe. In this heat death the energy of the universe does not change, but the fraction of energy which is available to do work through a heat engine, or be transformed to other usable forms of energy (through the use of generators attached to heat engines), grows less and less.

As the universe evolves in time, more and more of its energy becomes trapped in what?

irreversible states

What is it referred to when more and more of energy becomes trapped in irreversible states?

inevitable thermodynamic heat death of the universe

In this heat death of energy, what does not change?

energy of the universe

As the universe evolves in time, less and less of its energy becomes trapped in what?

I'm not sure.

What is it referred to when more and more of energy becomes freed from irreversible states?

I'm not sure.

In this heat death of energy, what changes?

I'm not sure.

how much energy is not available to do work through a heat engine?

I'm not sure.

what is not attached to heat engines?

I'm not sure.


According to conservation of energy, energy can neither be created (produced) nor destroyed by itself. It can only be transformed. The total inflow of energy into a system must equal the total outflow of energy from the system, plus the change in the energy contained within the system. Energy is subject to a strict global conservation law; that is, whenever one measures (or calculates) the total energy of a system of particles whose interactions do not depend explicitly on time, it is found that the total energy of the system always remains constant.

According to what, energy can neither be created nor destroyed by itself?

conservation of energy

The total inflow of energy into a system must equal what?

total outflow of energy from the system, plus the change in the energy contained within the system

What can neither be created nor destroyed by itself; it can only be transformed?

energy

According to what, energy can either be created or destroyed by itself?

I'm not sure.

The total inflow of energy into a system must not equal what?

I'm not sure.

What can neither be created nor destroyed by itself and can't be transformed?

I'm not sure.

whose interactions depend explicitly on time?

I'm not sure.

total energy of the system never remains what?

I'm not sure.


This law is a fundamental principle of physics. As shown rigorously by Noether's theorem, the conservation of energy is a mathematical consequence of translational symmetry of time, a property of most phenomena below the cosmic scale that makes them independent of their locations on the time coordinate. Put differently, yesterday, today, and tomorrow are physically indistinguishable. This is because energy is the quantity which is canonical conjugate to time. This mathematical entanglement of energy and time also results in the uncertainty principle - it is impossible to define the exact amount of energy during any definite time interval. The uncertainty principle should not be confused with energy conservation - rather it provides mathematical limits to which energy can in principle be defined and measured.

What shows that the conservation of energy is a mathematical consequence of translational symmetry of time?

Noether's theorem

What is the quantity which is canonical conjugate to time?

energy

This mathematical entanglement of energy and time results in what?

the uncertainty principle

What states it is impossible to define the exact amount of energy during any definite time interval?

uncertainty principle

What shows that the conservation of energy is a mathematical consequence of translational asymmetry of time?

I'm not sure.

What is the quality which is canonical conjugate to time?

I'm not sure.

This mathematical entanglement of energy and space results in what?

I'm not sure.

What states it is possible to define the exact amount of energy during any definite time interval?

I'm not sure.

what should be confused with the uncertainty principle?

I'm not sure.


In particle physics, this inequality permits a qualitative understanding of virtual particles which carry momentum, exchange by which and with real particles, is responsible for the creation of all known fundamental forces (more accurately known as fundamental interactions). Virtual photons (which are simply lowest quantum mechanical energy state of photons) are also responsible for electrostatic interaction between electric charges (which results in Coulomb law), for spontaneous radiative decay of exited atomic and nuclear states, for the Casimir force, for van der Waals bond forces and some other observable phenomena.

What are simply lowest quantum mechanical energy state of photons?

Virtual photons

What is responsible for electrostatic interaction between electric charges?

Virtual photons

What results in Coulomb law?

electrostatic interaction between electric charges

What are simply highest quantum mechanical energy state of photons?

I'm not sure.

What is responsible for non-electrostatic interaction between electric charges?

I'm not sure.

What results in Casimir law?

I'm not sure.

In what type of physics, does this equality permit a qualitative understanding of virtual particles which carry momentum?

I'm not sure.

what is not known as fundamental forces?

I'm not sure.


Energy transfer can be considered for the special case of systems which are closed to transfers of matter. The portion of the energy which is transferred by conservative forces over a distance is measured as the work the source system does on the receiving system. The portion of the energy which does not do work during the transfer is called heat.[note 4] Energy can be transferred between systems in a variety of ways. Examples include the transmission of electromagnetic energy via photons, physical collisions which transfer kinetic energy,[note 5] and the conductive transfer of thermal energy.

What can be considered for the special case of systems which are closed to transfers of matter?

Energy transfer

The portion of energy which does not do work during the transfer is called what?

heat

Give one example of how energy can be transferred between systems?

transmission of electromagnetic energy via photons

What can be considered for the typical case of systems which are opened to transfers of matter?

I'm not sure.

The portion of energy which works during the transfer is called what?

I'm not sure.

Give one example of how energy cannot be transferred between systems?

I'm not sure.

the inductive transer of what kind of energy?

I'm not sure.

what are physical collisions which don't transfer kinetic energy?

I'm not sure.


The first law of thermodynamics asserts that energy (but not necessarily thermodynamic free energy) is always conserved and that heat flow is a form of energy transfer. For homogeneous systems, with a well-defined temperature and pressure, a commonly used corollary of the first law is that, for a system subject only to pressure forces and heat transfer (e.g., a cylinder-full of gas) without chemical changes, the differential change in the internal energy of the system (with a gain in energy signified by a positive quantity) is given as

What asserts that energy is always conserved and that heat flow is a form of energy transfer.

first law of thermodynamics

The first law of thermodynamics asserts that what is always conserved and that heat flow is a form of energy transfer?

energy

What is a commonly used corollary of the first law?

for a system subject only to pressure forces and heat transfer (e.g., a cylinder-full of gas) without chemical changes

What asserts that energy is always conserved and that cool flow is a form of energy transfer.

I'm not sure.

The first law of thermodynamics asserts that what is never conserved and that heat flow is a form of energy transfer?

I'm not sure.

What is a never used corollary of the first law?

I'm not sure.

what is an example of a pyramid-full of gas

I'm not sure.

What type of system has a poorly defined temperature and pressure

I'm not sure.


This principle is vitally important to understanding the behaviour of a quantity closely related to energy, called entropy. Entropy is a measure of evenness of a distribution of energy between parts of a system. When an isolated system is given more degrees of freedom (i.e., given new available energy states that are the same as existing states), then total energy spreads over all available degrees equally without distinction between "new" and "old" degrees. This mathematical result is called the second law of thermodynamics.

What is the principle that is vitally important to understanding the behaviour of a quantity closely related to energy?

entropy

What is entropy?

measure of evenness of a distribution of energy between parts of a system

What is the mathematical result when an isolated system is given more degrees of freedom?

second law of thermodynamics

What is the principle that is vitally important to understanding the behaviour of a quantity unrelated to energy?

I'm not sure.

What is dystropy?

I'm not sure.

What is the non-mathematical result when an isolated system is given more degrees of freedom?

I'm not sure.

When an isolated system is given less degrees of freedom, what happens to total energy?

I'm not sure.

what is a measure of oddness of a distribution of energy between parts of a system?

I'm not sure.


East Prussia enclosed the bulk of the ancestral lands of the Baltic Old Prussians. During the 13th century, the native Prussians were conquered by the crusading Teutonic Knights. The indigenous Balts who survived the conquest were gradually converted to Christianity. Because of Germanization and colonisation over the following centuries, Germans became the dominant ethnic group, while Poles and Lithuanians formed minorities. From the 13th century, East Prussia was part of the monastic state of the Teutonic Knights. After the Second Peace of Thorn in 1466 it became a fief of the Kingdom of Poland. In 1525, with the Prussian Homage, the province became the Duchy of Prussia. The Old Prussian language had become extinct by the 17th or early 18th century.

Who defeated the native Prussians during the 13 century?

Teutonic Knights

The Balts were gradually converted into which religion?

Christianity

Which ethnic group become dominant following the 13 century just a few hundred years later?

Germans

What other groups during this period for form minorities?

Poles and Lithuanians

Around when did the Old Prussian language become extinct?

17th or early 18th century

In what century did the Teutonic Knights originate?

I'm not sure.

What country did the Teutonic Knights come from?

I'm not sure.

In what year was the First Peace of Thorn?

I'm not sure.

What ethnic group dominated the Kingdom of Poland?

I'm not sure.

What language did the Teutonic Knights speak?

I'm not sure.


Because the duchy was outside of the core Holy Roman Empire, the prince-electors of Brandenburg were able to proclaim themselves King of Prussia beginning in 1701. After the annexation of most of western Royal Prussia in the First Partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1772, eastern (ducal) Prussia was connected by land with the rest of the Prussian state and was reorganized as a province the following year (1773). Between 1829 and 1878, the Province of East Prussia was joined with West Prussia to form the Province of Prussia.

Why were the prince electors able to proclaim themselves King of Prussia?

Because the duchy was outside of the core Holy Roman Empire

In what year were the prince electors elect them selves as King?

What time period did East Prussia and West Prussia join to become Prussia?

Prussia

In what year was the Holy Roman Empire founded?

I'm not sure.

What type of government entity was Prussia prior to 1773?

I'm not sure.

How could those in eastern Prussia get to the rest of the Prussian State prior to 1772?

I'm not sure.

How was the Holy Roman Empire connected to Brandenburg?

I'm not sure.


The Kingdom of Prussia became the leading state of the German Empire after its creation in 1871. However, the Treaty of Versailles following World War I granted West Prussia to Poland and made East Prussia an exclave of Weimar Germany (the new Polish Corridor separating East Prussia from the rest of Germany), while the Memel Territory was detached and was annexed by Lithuania in 1923. Following Nazi Germany's defeat in World War II in 1945, war-torn East Prussia was divided at Joseph Stalin's insistence between the Soviet Union (the Kaliningrad Oblast in the Russian SFSR and the constituent counties of the Klaipėda Region in the Lithuanian SSR) and the People's Republic of Poland (the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship). The capital city Königsberg was renamed Kaliningrad in 1946. The German population of the province was largely evacuated during the war or expelled shortly thereafter in the expulsion of Germans after World War II. An estimated 300,000 (around one fifth of the population) died either in war time bombings raids or in the battles to defend the province.[citation needed]

What year did the Kingdom of Prussia become the leading state of the German Empire?

What well known treaty would eventually would grant West Prussia to Poland?

Versailles

What year did the Nazi's fall in World War II?

How many died trying to defend the province in Kaliningrad?

How many people lived in Kaliningrad in 1946?

I'm not sure.

In what year was the Kingdom of Prussia founded?

I'm not sure.

In what year did Joseph Stalin come to power?

I'm not sure.


Upon the invitation of Duke Konrad I of Masovia, the Teutonic Knights took possession of Prussia in the 13th century and created a monastic state to administer the conquered Old Prussians. Local Old-Prussian (north) and Polish (south) toponyms were gradually Germanised. The Knights' expansionist policies, including occupation of Polish Pomerania with Gdańsk/Danzig and western Lithuania, brought them into conflict with the Kingdom of Poland and embroiled them in several wars, culminating in the Polish-Lithuanian-Teutonic War, whereby the united armies of Poland and Lithuania, defeated the Teutonic Order at the Battle of Grunwald (Tannenberg) in 1410. Its defeat was formalised in the Second Treaty of Thorn in 1466 ending the Thirteen Years' War, and leaving the former Polish region Pomerania/Pomerelia under Polish control. Together with Warmia it formed the province of Royal Prussia. Eastern Prussia remained under the Knights, but as a fief of Poland. 1466 and 1525 arrangements by kings of Poland were not verified by the Holy Roman Empire as well as the previous gains of the Teutonic Knights were not verified.

Which group took possession of Prussia in the 13th century?

Teutonic Knights

Which two areas were slowly Germanized during the 13th century?

Old-Prussian (north) and Polish (south) toponyms

What did the knights of expansionist polices eventually lead to?

several wars

What year was the Second Treaty of Thorn enacted?

In what year was the Kingdom of Poland founded?

I'm not sure.

Where did the Teutonic Knights originate?

I'm not sure.

What was the name of the first war between the Teutonic Knights and the Kingdom of Poland?

I'm not sure.

In what year was Warmia established?

I'm not sure.

Who led the Kingdom of Poland?

I'm not sure.


The Teutonic Order lost eastern Prussia when Grand Master Albert of Brandenburg-Ansbach converted to Lutheranism and secularized the Prussian branch of the Teutonic Order in 1525. Albert established himself as the first duke of the Duchy of Prussia and a vassal of the Polish crown by the Prussian Homage. Walter von Cronberg, the next Grand Master, was enfeoffed with the title to Prussia after the Diet of Augsburg in 1530, but the Order never regained possession of the territory. In 1569 the Hohenzollern prince-electors of the Margraviate of Brandenburg became co-regents with Albert's son, the feeble-minded Albert Frederick.

Who converted to Lutheranism and secularized the Prussian branch of the Teutonic Order?

Albert of Brandenburg-Ansbach

In what year did The Teutonic Order lose Eastern Prussia?

What did Albert establish himself as?

first duke of the Duchy of Prussia

Who led the Teutonic Order?

I'm not sure.

In what year was Albert Frederick born?

I'm not sure.

In what year was the Teutonic Order established?

I'm not sure.

Who was the Polish crown?

I'm not sure.

In what year did the Teutonic Order begin to rule eastern Prussia?

I'm not sure.


The Administrator of Prussia, the grandmaster of the Teutonic Order Maximilian III, son of emperor Maximilian II died in 1618. When Maximilian died, Albert's line died out, and the Duchy of Prussia passed to the Electors of Brandenburg, forming Brandenburg-Prussia. Taking advantage of the Swedish invasion of Poland in 1655, and instead of fulfilling his vassal's duties towards the Polish Kingdom, by joining forces with the Swedes and subsequent treaties of Wehlau, Labiau, and Oliva, Elector and Duke Frederick William succeeded in revoking king of Poland's sovereignty over the Duchy of Prussia in 1660. The absolutist elector also subdued the noble estates of Prussia.

In what year did Maximilian III die?

What happened as a result of Maximilian's death?

Albert's line died out

Who revoked the King of Poland's sovereignty over Prussia in 1660?

Frederick William

In what year was Maximilian III born?

I'm not sure.

In what year was the treaty of Wehlau signed?

I'm not sure.

In what year did Poland attain sovereignty over the Duchy of Prussia?

I'm not sure.

In what year was the treaty of Oliva signed?

I'm not sure.

Who was the king of Poland?

I'm not sure.


Although Brandenburg was a part of the Holy Roman Empire, the Prussian lands were not within the Holy Roman Empire and were with the administration by the Teutonic Order grandmasters under jurisdiction of the Emperor. In return for supporting Emperor Leopold I in the War of the Spanish Succession, Elector Frederick III was allowed to crown himself "King in Prussia" in 1701. The new kingdom ruled by the Hohenzollern dynasty became known as the Kingdom of Prussia. The designation "Kingdom of Prussia" was gradually applied to the various lands of Brandenburg-Prussia. To differentiate from the larger entity, the former Duchy of Prussia became known as Altpreußen ("Old Prussia"), the province of Prussia, or "East Prussia".

Brandenburg was part of what dominating force?

Holy Roman Empire

What jurisdiction was the Prussian lands under?

Teutonic Order

Who elected there self as King of Prussia in 1701?

Frederick III

What did the former Duchy of Prussia become known as?

Altpreußen ("Old Prussia")

In what year was Emperor Leopold I crowned?

I'm not sure.

In what year was the War of the Spanish Succession?

I'm not sure.

Who had been the last leader of the Duchy of Prussia?

I'm not sure.

In what year did the Duchy of Prussia become known as East Prussia?

I'm not sure.

Who was one of the Teutonic Order grandmasters?

I'm not sure.


Approximately one-third of East Prussia's population died in the plague and famine of 1709–1711, including the last speakers of Old Prussian. The plague, probably brought by foreign troops during the Great Northern War, killed 250,000 East Prussians, especially in the province's eastern regions. Crown Prince Frederick William I led the rebuilding of East Prussia, founding numerous towns. Thousands of Protestants expelled from the Archbishopric of Salzburg were allowed to settle in depleted East Prussia. The province was overrun by Imperial Russian troops during the Seven Years' War.

What wiped out one third of East Prussia's population during the early 1700's?

the plague and famine

What was lost in Prussia's history during the Plague?

speakers of Old Prussian

What military overran much of East Prussia?

Russian troops


In the 1772 First Partition of Poland, the Prussian king Frederick the Great annexed neighboring Royal Prussia, i.e. the Polish voivodeships of Pomerania (Gdańsk Pomerania or Pomerelia), Malbork, Chełmno and the Prince-Bishopric of Warmia, thereby bridging the "Polish Corridor" between his Prussian and Farther Pomeranian lands and cutting remaining Poland off the Baltic Coast. The territory of Warmia was incorporated into the lands of former Ducal Prussia, which, by administrative deed of 31 January 1773 were named East Prussia. The former Polish Pomerelian lands beyond the Vistula River together with Malbork and Chełmno Land formed the Province of West Prussia with its capital at Marienwerder (Kwidzyn). The Polish Partition Sejm ratified the cession on 30 September 1773, whereafter Frederick officially went on to call himself a King "of" Prussia.

In what year was Royal Prussia annexed?

In what year was the territory of Warmia incorporated?

31 January 1773

What was ratified in 1773 in Prussia?

The Polish Partition Sejm

In what year was Marienwerder founded?

I'm not sure.

What was the capital of Royal Prussia?

I'm not sure.

What was capital of Poland?

I'm not sure.

Who was the king of Poland?

I'm not sure.

In what year did Ducal Prussia cease to exist?

I'm not sure.


After the disastrous defeat of the Prussian Army at the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt in 1806, Napoleon occupied Berlin and had the officials of the Prussian General Directory swear an oath of allegiance to him, while King Frederick William III and his consort Louise fled via Königsberg and the Curonian Spit to Memel. The French troops immediately took up pursuit but were delayed in the Battle of Eylau on 9 February 1807 by an East Prussian contingent under General Anton Wilhelm von L'Estocq. Napoleon had to stay at the Finckenstein Palace, but in May, after a siege of 75 days, his troops led by Marshal François Joseph Lefebvre were able to capture the city Danzig, which had been tenaciously defended by General Count Friedrich Adolf von Kalkreuth. On 14 June, Napoleon ended the War of the Fourth Coalition with his victory at the Battle of Friedland. Frederick William and Queen Louise met with Napoleon for peace negotiations, and on 9 July the Prussian king signed the Treaty of Tilsit.

What defeat led to Prussia having to swear its allegiance to Napoleon?

Battle of Jena-Auerstedt

What city did King Frederick William use to flee Prussia?

Königsberg

What year did Napoleon end of the War of the Fourth Coalition?

In what country is Konigsberg?

I'm not sure.

Who was the leader of the army Napoleon beat at the Battle of Friedland?

I'm not sure.

What military leader did Napoleon beat at the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt?

I'm not sure.

In what country was Memel?

I'm not sure.


The succeeding Prussian reforms instigated by Heinrich Friedrich Karl vom und zum Stein and Karl August von Hardenberg included the implementation of an Oberlandesgericht appellation court at Königsberg, a municipal corporation, economic freedom as well as emancipation of the serfs and Jews. In the course of the Prussian restoration by the 1815 Congress of Vienna, the East Prussian territories were re-arranged in the Regierungsbezirke of Gumbinnen and Königsberg. From 1905, the southern districts of East Prussia formed the separate Regierungsbezirk of Allenstein. East and West Prussia were first united in personal union in 1824, and then merged in a real union in 1829 to form the Province of Prussia. The united province was again split into separate East and West Prussian provinces in 1878.

Who instigated the Prussian reforms?

Heinrich Friedrich Karl vom und zum Stein and Karl August von Hardenberg

What was included in the reform?

emancipation of the serfs and Jews

In what year was East and West Prussia first united?

When did East and West Prussia split again?

Who was the leader of the Province of Prussia?

I'm not sure.

Who was the first leader of the Regierungsbezrik of Allenstein?

I'm not sure.

Who led the East Prussian province in 1878?

I'm not sure.

Who led the West Prussian province in 1878?

I'm not sure.

What did the northern districts of East Prussia form in 1905?

I'm not sure.


The population of the province in 1900 was 1,996,626 people, with a religious makeup of 1,698,465 Protestants, 269,196 Roman Catholics, and 13,877 Jews. The Low Prussian dialect predominated in East Prussia, although High Prussian was spoken in Warmia. The numbers of Masurians, Kursenieki and Prussian Lithuanians decreased over time due to the process of Germanization. The Polish-speaking population concentrated in the south of the province (Masuria and Warmia) and all German geographic atlases at the start of 20th century showed the southern part of East Prussia as Polish with the number of Poles estimated at the time to be 300,000. Kursenieki inhabited the areas around the Curonian lagoon, while Lithuanian-speaking Prussians concentrated in the northeast in (Lithuania Minor). The Old Prussian ethnic group became completely Germanized over time and the Old Prussian language died out in the 18th century.

Was the population of the Prussian province in 1900?

1,996,626 people

Which religious group made up the majority of the population in Prussia?

Protestants

Due to Germanization which three groups saw a decrease in Prussia?

Masurians, Kursenieki and Prussian Lithuanians

How many people spoke the Low Prussian dialect in East Prussia?

I'm not sure.

What religion were most Prussian Lithuanians?

I'm not sure.

How many Kursenieki were there in the areas around the Curonian lagoon?

I'm not sure.

What language did most of the Jews speak?

I'm not sure.

What religion were the Kursenieki?

I'm not sure.


At the beginning of World War I, East Prussia became a theatre of war when the Russian Empire invaded the country. The Russian Army encountered at first little resistance because the bulk of the German Army had been directed towards the Western Front according to the Schlieffen Plan. Despite early success and the capture of the towns of Rastenburg and Gumbinnen, in the Battle of Tannenberg in 1914 and the Second Battle of the Masurian Lakes in 1915, the Russians were decisively defeated and forced to retreat. The Russians were followed by the German Army advancing into Russian territory.

Which country invaded east Prussia in World War I?

Russian Empire

Why did the Russian army face such little resistance when moving through Prussia?

German Army had been directed towards the Western Front

In what year did the battle of Tannenberg take place?

In what year did World War I start?

I'm not sure.

Who was the German Army fighting on the Western Front?

I'm not sure.

In what year was the First Battle of the Masurian Lakes?

I'm not sure.

In what year did World War I end?

I'm not sure.


With the forced abdication of Emperor William II in 1918, Germany became a republic. Most of West Prussia and the former Prussian Province of Posen, territories annexed by Prussia in the 18th century Partitions of Poland, were ceded to the Second Polish Republic according to the Treaty of Versailles. East Prussia became an exclave, being separated from mainland Germany. After the Treaty of Versailles, East Prussia was separated from Germany as an exclave; the Memelland was also separated from the province. Because most of West Prussia became part of the Second Polish Republic as the Polish Corridor, the formerly West Prussian Marienwerder region became part of East Prussia (as Regierungsbezirk Westpreußen). Also Soldau district in Allenstein region was part of Second Polish Republic. The Seedienst Ostpreußen was established to provide an independent transport service to East Prussia.

In what year did Germany become a republic?

What was implemented that separated East Prussia from Germany?

Treaty of Versailles

What was implemented to provide transport to East Prussia?

The Seedienst Ostpreußen

In what year was William II crowned as Emperor?

I'm not sure.

In what year was the Second Polish Republic established?

I'm not sure.

In what year was the Treaty of Versailles signed?

I'm not sure.

Who was the first leader of the Second Polish Republic?

I'm not sure.

What was one of the countries that forced Emperor William II to abdicate?

I'm not sure.


Erich Koch headed the East Prussian Nazi party from 1928. He led the district from 1932. This period was characterized by efforts to collectivize the local agriculture and ruthlessness in dealing with his critics inside and outside the Party. He also had long-term plans for mass-scale industrialization of the largely agricultural province. These actions made him unpopular among the local peasants. In 1932 the local paramilitary SA had already started to terrorise their political opponents. On the night of 31 July 1932 there was a bomb attack on the headquarters of the Social Democrats in Königsberg, the Otto-Braun-House. The Communist politician Gustav Sauf was killed; the executive editor of the Social Democrat "Königsberger Volkszeitung", Otto Wyrgatsch, and the German People's Party politician Max von Bahrfeldt were severely injured. Members of the Reichsbanner were attacked and the local Reichsbanner Chairman of Lötzen, Kurt Kotzan, was murdered on 6 August 1932.

Who was the leader of the East Prussian Nazi Party?

Erich Koch

What large plans did Koch have?

mass-scale industrialization of the largely agricultural province

What even occurred during the summer of 1932 in Konigsberg?

attack on the headquarters of the Social Democrats

Who was killed in the attack of the Social Democrats?

Gustav Sauf

In what year did Konigsberger Volkszeitung become an executive editor?

I'm not sure.

In what year did Kurt Kotzan become the Reichsbanner Chairman of Lotzen?

I'm not sure.

Who was the local Reichsbanner Chairman of Konigsberg?

I'm not sure.

In what year did Max von Bahrfeldt become a politician for the German People's Party?

I'm not sure.

In what year did the East Prussian Nazi party form?

I'm not sure.


Through publicly funded emergency relief programs concentrating on agricultural land-improvement projects and road construction, the "Erich Koch Plan" for East Prussia allegedly made the province free of unemployment; on August 16, 1933 Koch reported to Hitler that unemployment had been banished entirely from East Prussia, a feat that gained admiration throughout the Reich. Koch's industrialization plans led him into conflict with R. Walther Darré, who held the office of the Reich Peasant Leader (Reichsbauernführer) and Minister of Agriculture. Darré, a neopaganist rural romantic, wanted to enforce his vision of an agricultural East Prussia. When his "Land" representatives challenged Koch's plans, Koch had them arrested.

How were East Prussians able to pay for land improvements and road construction?

publicly funded emergency relief programs

What was the name of the initiative to help with the new projects in East Prussia?

Erich Koch Plan

What did Koch report to Hitler in 1933?

that unemployment had been banished entirely

On what date did R. Walther Darre become the Reich Peasant Leader?

I'm not sure.

What religion was Erich Koch?

I'm not sure.

On what date were Koch's "Land" representative arrested?

I'm not sure.

What position did Hitler have?

I'm not sure.

How much unemployment was there throughout the Reich?

I'm not sure.


In 1938 the Nazis altered about one-third of the toponyms of the area, eliminating, Germanizing, or simplifying a number of Old Prussian names, as well as those Polish or Lithuanian names originating from colonists and refugees to Prussia during and after the Protestant Reformation. More than 1,500 places were ordered to be renamed by 16 July 1938 following a decree issued by Gauleiter and Oberpräsident Erich Koch and initiated by Adolf Hitler. Many who would not cooperate with the rulers of Nazi Germany were sent to concentration camps and held prisoner there until their death or liberation.

In what year did the Nazi's alter around one-third of the toponyms of the area?

Around how many places were renamed when the Nazis entered Prussia?

What would happen if some didn't comply with the Nazi's with their demands?

sent to concentration camps

In what year was the Protestant Reformation started?

I'm not sure.

What position did Adolf Hitler have in 1938?

I'm not sure.

In what year did Adolf Hitler rise to power?

I'm not sure.

How many Polish places were there ordered to be renamed?

I'm not sure.

How many Lithuanian places were ordered to be renamed?

I'm not sure.


In 1939 East Prussia had 2.49 million inhabitants, 85% of them ethnic Germans, the others Poles in the south who, according to Polish estimates numbered in the interwar period around 300,000-350,000, the Latvian speaking Kursenieki, and Lietuvininkai who spoke Lithuanian in the northeast. Most German East Prussians, Masurians, Kursieniki, and Lietuvininkai were Lutheran, while the population of Ermland was mainly Roman Catholic due to the history of its bishopric. The East Prussian Jewish Congregation declined from about 9,000 in 1933 to 3,000 in 1939, as most fled from Nazi rule. Those who remained were later deported and killed in the Holocaust.

How many people lived in Easy Prussia in 1939?

2.49 million

Of the population in East Prussia, what percentage of those were German?

How many East Prussian Jews were around in 1939?

What happened to those Jews who remained?

deported and killed in the Holocaust.

How many Latvian speaking Kursenieki were there?

I'm not sure.

How many Lietuvininkai were there?

I'm not sure.

Where did the Kursenieki live?

I'm not sure.

What language did ethnic Germans mostly speak?

I'm not sure.

How many Masurians were there?

I'm not sure.


In 1939 the Regierungsbezirk Zichenau was annexed by Germany and incorporated into East Prussia. Parts of it were transferred to other regions, e.g. Suwałki to Regierungsbezirk Gumbinnen and Soldau to Regierungsbezirk Allenstein. Despite Nazi propaganda presenting all of the regions annexed as possessing significant German populations that wanted reunification with Germany, the Reich's statistics of late 1939 show that only 31,000 out of 994,092 people in this territory were ethnic Germans.[citation needed]

In what year was the Regierungsbezirk Zichenau annexed?

What other parts of East Prussia were transferred after the annexation of Zichenau?

Suwałki to Regierungsbezirk Gumbinnen and Soldau to Regierungsbezirk Allenstein

Despite all the propaganda that ws presented to the East Prussians what did German populations want within the country?

reunification with Germany

In what year was the Regierungsbezirk Zichenau established?

I'm not sure.

What ethnicity were most people in East Prussia in late 1939?

I'm not sure.

What did most people in East Prussia want in regards to Germany in 1939?

I'm not sure.

How many Germans were Nazis in 1939?

I'm not sure.


Following Nazi Germany's defeat in World War II in 1945, East Prussia was partitioned between Poland and the Soviet Union according to the Potsdam Conference. Southern East Prussia was placed under Polish administration, while northern East Prussia was divided between the Soviet republics of Russia (the Kaliningrad Oblast) and Lithuania (the constituent counties of the Klaipėda Region). The city of Königsberg was renamed Kaliningrad in 1946. The German population of the province largely evacuated during the war, but several hundreds of thousands died during the years 1944–46 and the remainder were subsequently expelled.

What two countries were East Prussia partitioned into after World Was II?

Poland and the Soviet Union

What was the city of Konigsberg renamed in to in 1946?

Kaliningrad

What happened to most of the German population during the war in what is current day Kaliningrad?

evacuated during the war

In what year did the Potsdam Conference occur?

I'm not sure.

In what country was Kaliningrad in 1946?

I'm not sure.

In what year did World War II start?

I'm not sure.

What was one of the countries that defeated Nazi Germany?

I'm not sure.

To what country were the German population expelled?

I'm not sure.


Shortly after the end of the war in May 1945, Germans who had fled in early 1945 tried to return to their homes in East Prussia. An estimated number of 800,000 Germans were living in East Prussia during the summer of 1945. Many more were prevented from returning,[citation needed] and the German population of East Prussia was almost completely expelled by the communist regimes. During the war and for some time thereafter 45 camps were established for about 200,000-250,000 forced labourers, the vast majority of whom were deported to the Soviet Union, including the Gulag camp system. The largest camp with about 48,000 inmates was established at Deutsch Eylau (Iława). Orphaned children who were left behind in the zone occupied by the Soviet Union were referred to as Wolf children.

How many Germans were living in East Prussia in 1945?

Around how many camps were set up by the Germans during the way?

45 camps

How many forced labourers were in the largest camp?

What were the children that were left behind in East Prussia that was occupied by the Russians referred to as?

Wolf children

How many Germans were prevented from returning to East Prussia?

I'm not sure.

How many Wolf children were there?

I'm not sure.

How many forced labourers were there in the smallest camp?

I'm not sure.

Where was the smallest camp established?

I'm not sure.

In what year was the first forced labour camp established?

I'm not sure.


Representatives of the Polish government officially took over the civilian administration of the southern part of East Prussia on 23 May 1945. Subsequently Polish expatriates from Polish lands annexed by the Soviet Union as well as Ukrainians and Lemkos from southern Poland, expelled in Operation Vistula in 1947, were settled in the southern part of East Prussia, now the Polish Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship. In 1950 the Olsztyn Voivodeship counted 689,000 inhabitants, 22.6% of them coming from areas annexed by the Soviet Union, 10% Ukrainians, and 18.5% of them pre-war inhabitants. The remaining pre-war population was treated as Germanized Poles and a policy of re-Polonization was pursued throughout the country Most of these "Autochthones" chose to emigrate to West Germany from the 1950s through 1970s (between 1970 and 1988 55,227 persons from Warmia and Masuria moved to Western Germany). Local toponyms were Polonised by the Polish Commission for the Determination of Place Names.

In what year did the Polish government officially take over the administration in East Prussia?

How was the pre-war population in East Prussia referred to as?

Germanized Poles

How much did the Ukrainians make up in population as a percentage in East Prussia?

How many were expelled in Operation Vistula in 1947?

I'm not sure.

How many chose to emigrate to West Germany in the 1950s?

I'm not sure.

In what year was the Polish Commission for the Determination of Place Names established?

I'm not sure.

How many Lemkos were expelled in Operation Vistula?

I'm not sure.

How many Ukrainians were expelled in Operation Vistula?

I'm not sure.


In April 1946, northern East Prussia became an official province of the Russian SFSR as the "Kyonigsbergskaya Oblast", with the Memel Territory becoming part of the Lithuanian SSR. In June 1946 114,070 German and 41,029 Soviet citizens were registered in the Oblast, with an unknown number of disregarded unregistered persons. In July of that year, the historic city of Königsberg was renamed Kaliningrad to honour Mikhail Kalinin and the area named the Kaliningrad Oblast. Between 24 August and 26 October 1948 21 transports with in total 42,094 Germans left the Oblast to the Soviet Occupation Zone (which became East Germany). The last remaining Germans left in November 1949 (1,401 persons) and January 1950 (7 persons).

What year did East Prussia become an official province of Russia?

In who's honor was the city named Kaliningrad from  Konigsberg?

Mikhail Kalinin

Between August 24th and October 26th how many German's left the Oblast to the Soviet Occupation zone?

How many unregistered persons were there in the Oblast?

I'm not sure.

How many people lived in Kaliningrad?

I'm not sure.

In what year was the Memel Territory established?

I'm not sure.

What had Konigsberg been named after?

I'm not sure.

How many people had lived in the Memel Territory?

I'm not sure.


A similar fate befell the Curonians who lived in the area around the Curonian Lagoon. While many fled from the Red Army during the evacuation of East Prussia, Curonians that remained behind were subsequently expelled by the Soviet Union. Only 219 lived along the Curonian Spit in 1955. Many had German names such as Fritz or Hans, a cause for anti-German discrimination. The Soviet authorities considered the Curonians fascists. Because of this discrimination, many immigrated to West Germany in 1958, where the majority of Curonians now live.

What happened to the Curonians who lived in the area in East Prussia?

expelled by the Soviet Union

What did the Russians consider Curonians?

fascists

Where did most of the Curonians flee to in 1958?

West Germany

In what year did the evacuation of East Prussia occur?

I'm not sure.

How many Curonians immigrated to West Germany in 1958?

I'm not sure.

How many Curonians had German names?

I'm not sure.

How many Curonians fled from the Red Army?

I'm not sure.

How many Curonians were left behind after many immigrated to West Germany in 1958?

I'm not sure.


After the expulsion of the German population ethnic Russians, Belarusians, and Ukrainians were settled in the northern part. In the Soviet part of the region, a policy of eliminating all remnants of German history was pursued. All German place names were replaced by new Russian names. The exclave was a military zone, which was closed to foreigners; Soviet citizens could only enter with special permission. In 1967 the remnants of Königsberg Castle were demolished on the orders of Leonid Brezhnev to make way for a new "House of the Soviets".

Once the German populations was removed, what three groups  settled into the nothern area?

ethnic Russians, Belarusians, and Ukrainians

In the Soviet section to the north, what did they want to expel from their land?

eliminating all remnants of German history

What else happened in the northern part of East Prussia in the now Russian area?

names were replaced by new Russian names

In what year was the military zone created?

I'm not sure.

In what year did Leonid Brezhnev come to power?

I'm not sure.

In what year did Russia star settling ethnic Russians in the northern part?

I'm not sure.

In what year was the new "House of the Soviets" completed?

I'm not sure.


Although the 1945–1949 expulsion of Germans from the northern part of former East Prussia was often conducted in a violent and aggressive way by Soviet officials, the present Russian inhabitants of the Kaliningrad Oblast have much less animosity towards Germans. German names have been revived in commercial Russian trade and there is sometimes talk of reverting Kaliningrad's name to its historic name of Königsberg. The city centre of Kaliningrad was completely rebuilt, as British bombs in 1944 and the Soviet siege in 1945 had left it in nothing but ruins.

What has since been considered in Kalinigrad?

reverting Kaliningrad's name to its historic name of Königsberg

What city was completely rebuilt after the Russians and Germans had bombed it?

Kaliningrad

How was the removal of the Germans in East Prussia usually handled by the Russians?

violent and aggressive

In what year was Konigsberg renamed as Kaliningrad?

I'm not sure.

What are examples of how the present Russian inhabitants of the Kaliningrad Oblast treatment of Germans?

I'm not sure.

In what year did the city centre of Kaliningrad start to be rebuilt?

I'm not sure.

In which year did  the present Russian inhabitants of the Kaliningrad Oblast start to emigrate there?

I'm not sure.


Since 1875, with the strengthening of self-rule, the urban and rural districts (Kreise) within each province (sometimes within each governorate) formed a corporation with common tasks and assets (schools, traffic installations, hospitals, cultural institutions, jails etc.) called the Provinzialverband (provincial association). Initially the assemblies of the urban and rural districts elected representatives for the provincial diets (Provinziallandtage), which were thus indirectly elected. As of 1919 the provincial diets (or as to governorate diets, the so-called Kommunallandtage) were directly elected by the citizens of the provinces (or governorates, respectively). These parliaments legislated within the competences transferred to the provincial associations. The provincial diet of East Prussia elected a provincial executive body (government), the provincial committee (Provinzialausschuss), and a head of province, the Landeshauptmann ("Land Captain"; till the 1880s titled Landdirektor, land director).

What were common task of the corporation formed by the urban and rural districts?

schools, traffic installations, hospitals, cultural institutions, jails

What was the name of the corporation that looked over common task?

Provinzialverband

What has since happened from 1919 that involve the provincial diets?

elected by the citizens of the provinces

How many representatives serve in each provincial diet?

I'm not sure.

How many Landeshauptmann are there in total?

I'm not sure.

In what specific year in the 1880s did the Landdirektor position get renamed as Landeshauptmann?

I'm not sure.

How are the assemblies of the urban and rural district positions filled from 1875 to 1919?

I'm not sure.


The Ottoman Empire (/ˈɒtəmən/; Ottoman Turkish: دَوْلَتِ عَلِيّهٔ عُثمَانِیّه Devlet-i Aliyye-i Osmâniyye, Modern Turkish: Osmanlı İmparatorluğu or Osmanlı Devleti), also known as the Turkish Empire, Ottoman Turkey or Turkey, was an empire founded in 1299 by Oghuz Turks under Osman I in northwestern Anatolia. After conquests in the Balkans by Murad I between 1362 and 1389, the Ottoman sultanate was transformed into a transcontinental empire and claimant to the caliphate. The Ottomans ended the Byzantine Empire with the 1453 conquest of Constantinople by Mehmed the Conqueror.

The Ottoman Empire is also known as what three other names?

Turkish Empire, Ottoman Turkey or Turkey

When was the Ottoman empire founded?

Who founded the Ottoman empire?

Oghuz Turks

Where was the Ottoman empire founded?

northwestern Anatolia

Conquests by who began the transformation of the Ottoman sultanate into an Empire?

Murad I


During the 16th and 17th centuries, in particular at the height of its power under the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, the Ottoman Empire was a multinational, multilingual empire controlling much of Southeast Europe, Western Asia, the Caucasus, North Africa, and the Horn of Africa. At the beginning of the 17th century the empire contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal states. Some of these were later absorbed into the Ottoman Empire, while others were granted various types of autonomy during the course of centuries.[dn 4]

Under the reign of who did the Ottoman empire control much of Southeastern Europe?

Suleiman the Magnificent

During what centuries was the Ottoman empire in control of much of Southeast Europe?

16th and 17th centuries

How many provinces did the Ottoman empire control at the start of the 17th century?

32 provinces

Along with provinces what type of states did the Ottoman empire have control over?

vassal states

What regions of Africa were under control of the Ottoman empire?

North Africa, and the Horn of Africa


With Constantinople as its capital and control of lands around the Mediterranean basin, the Ottoman Empire was at the centre of interactions between the Eastern and Western worlds for six centuries. Following a long period of military setbacks against European powers, the Ottoman Empire gradually declined into the late nineteenth century. The empire allied with Germany in the early 20th century, with the imperial ambition of recovering its lost territories, joining in World War I to achieve this ambition on the side of Germany and the Central Powers. While the Empire was able to largely hold its own during the conflict, it was struggling with internal dissent, especially with the Arab Revolt in its Arabian holdings. Starting before the war, but growing increasingly common and violent during it, major atrocities were committed by the Ottoman government against the Armenians, Assyrians and Pontic Greeks. The Empire's defeat and the occupation of part of its territory by the Allied Powers in the aftermath of World War I resulted in the emergence of a new state, Turkey, in the Ottoman Anatolian heartland following the Turkish War of Independence, as well as the founding of modern Balkan and Middle Eastern states and the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire.

What was the capital of the Ottoman empire?

Constantinople

What Ottoman empire controlled lands contributed to the centre of transactions between East and West ?

lands around the Mediterranean basin

When did the Ottoman empire decline?

into the late nineteenth century

What nation did the Ottoman empire align with in the 20th century?

Germany

What led to the decline of the Ottoman empire?

military setbacks against European powers


The word Ottoman is a historical anglicisation of the name of Osman I, the founder of the Empire and of the ruling House of Osman (also known as the Ottoman dynasty). Osman's name in turn was derived from the Persian form of the name ʿUthmān عثمان of ultimately Arabic origin. In Ottoman Turkish, the empire was referred to as Devlet-i ʿAliyye-yi ʿOsmâniyye (دَوْلَتِ عَلِيّهٔ عُثمَانِیّه), (literally "The Supreme State of the Ottomans") or alternatively Osmanlı Devleti (عثمانلى دولتى).[dn 5] In Modern Turkish, it is known as Osmanlı İmparatorluğu ("Ottoman Empire") or Osmanlı Devleti ("The Ottoman State").

An anglicization of the name Osman I results in what word?

Ottoman

What house was the founder of the Ottoman empire?

House of Osman

What was another name for the Ottoman Dynasty?

House of Osman

What is the origin of Osman's name?

Arabic

In a literal sense what was the Ottoman empire referred to as?

The Supreme State of the Ottomans


Ertuğrul, the father of Osman I (founder of the Ottoman Empire), arrived in Anatolia from Merv (Turkmenistan) with 400 horsemen to aid the Seljuks of Rum against the Byzantines. After the demise of the Turkish Seljuk Sultanate of Rum in the 14th century, Anatolia was divided into a patchwork of independent, mostly Turkish states, the so-called Ghazi emirates. One of the emirates was led by Osman I (1258–1326), from whom the name Ottoman is derived. Osman I extended the frontiers of Turkish settlement toward the edge of the Byzantine Empire. It is not well understood how the early Ottomans came to dominate their neighbours, as the history of medieval Anatolia is still little known.

Who was the father of Osman I?

Ertuğrul

How many horsemen did Osman I's father bring to aid the Seljuks of Rum?

400 horsemen

When did the Turkish Seljuk Sultanate of Rum reach its demise?

14th century

What did the divided Anatolia end up being referred to as?

Ghazi emirates

To the edge of what empire did Osman I push Turkish settlements?

Byzantine Empire


In the century after the death of Osman I, Ottoman rule began to extend over the Eastern Mediterranean and the Balkans. Osman's son, Orhan, captured the northwestern Anatolian city of Bursa in 1324, and made it the new capital of the Ottoman state. This Ottoman conquest meant the loss of Byzantine control over northwestern Anatolia. The important city of Thessaloniki was captured from the Venetians in 1387. The Ottoman victory at Kosovo in 1389 effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, paving the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe. The Battle of Nicopolis in 1396, widely regarded as the last large-scale crusade of the Middle Ages, failed to stop the advance of the victorious Ottoman Turks.

Which city did Osman's son capture?

Bursa

In what year did Osman's son capture an Anatolian city?

What was the name of the son of Osman that captured an Anatolian city?

Orhan

What city was captured from the Venetians in 1387?

Thessaloniki

In what year did the Ottoman's have a victory at Kosovo?


With the extension of Turkish dominion into the Balkans, the strategic conquest of Constantinople became a crucial objective. The empire had managed to control nearly all former Byzantine lands surrounding the city, but in 1402 the Byzantines were temporarily relieved when the Turco-Mongol leader Timur, founder of the Timurid Empire, invaded Anatolia from the east. In the Battle of Ankara in 1402, Timur defeated the Ottoman forces and took Sultan Bayezid I as a prisoner, throwing the empire into disorder. The ensuing civil war lasted from 1402 to 1413 as Bayezid's sons fought over succession. It ended when Mehmed I emerged as the sultan and restored Ottoman power, bringing an end to the Interregnum, also known as the Fetret Devri.

What was an objective of Turkey after its expansion into the Balkans?

conquest of Constantinople

What empire were the controlled lands surrounding Constantinople formerly controlled by?

Byzantine

What leader invaded Anatolia from the east?

Timur

Timur was the founder of what?

Timurid Empire

What battle between Timur and the Ottoman empire took place in 1402?

Battle of Ankara


Part of the Ottoman territories in the Balkans (such as Thessaloniki, Macedonia and Kosovo) were temporarily lost after 1402 but were later recovered by Murad II between the 1430s and 1450s. On 10 November 1444, Murad II defeated the Hungarian, Polish, and Wallachian armies under Władysław III of Poland (also King of Hungary) and John Hunyadi at the Battle of Varna, the final battle of the Crusade of Varna, although Albanians under Skanderbeg continued to resist. Four years later, John Hunyadi prepared another army (of Hungarian and Wallachian forces) to attack the Turks but was again defeated by Murad II at the Second Battle of Kosovo in 1448.

Who recovered Ottoman empire territories in the Balkans in the 1430s to the 1450s?

Murad II

On what date were the armies under Władysław III defeated by Murad II?

10 November 1444

Władysław III of Poland was also the king of what?

Hungary

What battle took place on 10 November 1444?

Battle of Varna

In what battle did Murad II leave as the victory in 1448?

Second Battle of Kosovo


The son of Murad II, Mehmed the Conqueror, reorganized the state and the military, and conquered Constantinople on 29 May 1453. Mehmed allowed the Orthodox Church to maintain its autonomy and land in exchange for accepting Ottoman authority. Because of bad relations between the states of western Europe and the later Byzantine Empire, the majority of the Orthodox population accepted Ottoman rule as preferable to Venetian rule. Albanian resistance was a major obstacle to Ottoman expansion on the Italian peninsula.

Who was the son of Murad II?

Mehmed the Conqueror

What city was conquered on 29 May 1453?

Constantinople

What did the Orthodox Church get to keep in exchange for accepting the authority of the Ottoman empire?

its autonomy and land

The Orthodox population of Constantinople preferred Ottoman rule instead of what?

Venetian rule

What was the main obstacle to the expansion of the Ottoman empire into the peninsula of Italy??

Albanian resistance


Suleiman the Magnificent (1520–1566) captured Belgrade in 1521, conquered the southern and central parts of the Kingdom of Hungary as part of the Ottoman–Hungarian Wars,[not in citation given] and, after his historical victory in the Battle of Mohács in 1526, he established Turkish rule in the territory of present-day Hungary (except the western part) and other Central European territories. He then laid siege to Vienna in 1529, but failed to take the city. In 1532, he made another attack on Vienna, but was repulsed in the Siege of Güns. Transylvania, Wallachia and, intermittently, Moldavia, became tributary principalities of the Ottoman Empire. In the east, the Ottoman Turks took Baghdad from the Persians in 1535, gaining control of Mesopotamia and naval access to the Persian Gulf. In 1555, the Caucasus became officially partitioned for the first time between the Safavids and the Ottomans, a status quo that would remain until the end of the Russo-Turkish War (1768–74). By this partitioning of the Caucasus as signed in the Peace of Amasya, Western Armenia, and Western Georgia fell into Ottoman hands, while Dagestan, Eastern Armenia, Eastern Georgia, and Azerbaijan remained Persian.

During what years was Suleiman the Magnificent alive?

In what year did Suleiman the Magnificent capture Belgrade?

Suleiman the Magnificent had an important victory in what battle in 1526?

Battle of Mohács

After a victorious battle in 1526 in what present-day nation was Turkish rule expanded to?

Hungary

In what siege was Suleiman the Magnificent stopped when attacking Vienna in 1532?

the Siege of Güns


France and the Ottoman Empire, united by mutual opposition to Habsburg rule, became strong allies. The French conquests of Nice (1543) and Corsica (1553) occurred as a joint venture between the forces of the French king Francis I and Suleiman, and were commanded by the Ottoman admirals Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha and Turgut Reis. A month prior to the siege of Nice, France supported the Ottomans with an artillery unit during the 1543 Ottoman conquest of Esztergom in northern Hungary. After further advances by the Turks, the Habsburg ruler Ferdinand officially recognized Ottoman ascendancy in Hungary in 1547.

France and the Ottoman Empire united against what?

Habsburg rule

Where did the French lay conquest in 1553?

Corsica

The conquest of Nice was an effort by Suleiman and what French king?

Francis I

What were the names of the Ottoman admirals who commanded the conquest of Nice?

Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha and Turgut Reis

What ruler recognized the Ottomans in 1547?

Ferdinand


The stagnation and decline, Stephen Lee argues, was relentless after the death of Suleiman in 1566, interrupted by a few short revivals or reform and recovery. The decline gathered speed so that the Empire in 1699 was, "a mere shadow of that which intimidated East and West alike in 1566." Although there are dissenting scholars, most historians point to "degenerate Sultans, incompetent Grand Viziers, debilitated and ill-equipped armies, corrupt officials, avaricious speculators, grasping enemies, and treacherous friends." The main cause was a failure of leadership, as Lee argues the first 10 sultans from 1292 to 1566, with one exception, had performed admirably. The next 13 sultans from 1566 to 1703, with two exceptions, were lackadaisical or incompetent rulers, says Lee. In a highly centralized system, the failure at the center proved fatal. A direct result was the strengthening of provincial elites who increasingly ignored Constantinople. Secondly the military strength of European enemies grew stronger and stronger, while the Ottoman armies and arms scarcely improved. Finally the Ottoman economic system grew distorted and impoverished, as war caused inflation, world trade moved in other directions, and the deterioration of law and order made economic progress difficult.

Who argues that there was steep decline and stagnation after the death of Suleiman?

Stephen Lee

In what year did Suleiman die?

By what year was it argued that the Ottoman empire was merely "a shadow" of what it was in 1566?

Beginning and ending with what years does Lee argue that the rules of the Empire were incompetent?

1566 to 1703

What factor caused inflation in the Ottoman empire?

war


The effective military and bureaucratic structures of the previous century came under strain during a protracted period of misrule by weak Sultans. The Ottomans gradually fell behind the Europeans in military technology as the innovation that fed the Empire's forceful expansion became stifled by growing religious and intellectual conservatism. But in spite of these difficulties, the Empire remained a major expansionist power until the Battle of Vienna in 1683, which marked the end of Ottoman expansion into Europe.

Poor rule by what class of people strained the empire?

Sultans

Europeans gained on the Ottoman empire in what type of technology?

military technology

What types of conservative beliefs slowed the expansion of the empire?

religious and intellectual

What battle took place in 1683?

Battle of Vienna

The empire ceased its expansion into what area after a battle in 1683?

Europe