In the 2010s, American jurisdictions have experienced a shortage of lethal injection drugs, due to anti-death penalty advocacy and low production volume. Hospira, the only U.S. manufacturer of sodium thiopental, stopped making the drug in 2011. The European Union has outlawed the export of any product that could be used in an execution; this has prevented executioners from using EU-manufactured anesthetics like propofol which are needed for general medical purposes. Another alternative, pentobarbital, is also only manufactured in the European Union, which has caused the Danish producer to restrict distribution to U.S. government customers.

What death penalty drug ceased to be manufactured in 2011?

sodium thiopental

Up until 2011, who manufactured sodium thiopental?

Hospira

What is the nationality of the company that makes pentobarbital?

Danish

Along with anti-death penalty advocacy, why has there been a shortage in drugs for lethal injections in the United States?

low production volume

The EU outlawed the export of products that could be used in what activity?

execution

What death penalty drug started to be manufactured in 2011?

I'm not sure.

Up until 2015, who manufactured sodium thiopental?

I'm not sure.

What is the mission statement of the company that makes pentobarbital?

I'm not sure.

Along with anti-death penalty advocacy, why has there been a shortage in drugs for lethal injections outside of the United States?

I'm not sure.

The EU outlawed the export of products that could never be used in what activity?

I'm not sure.


As noted in the introduction to this article, the American public has maintained its position of support for capital punishment for murder. However, when given a choice between the death penalty and life imprisonment without parole, support has traditionally been significantly lower than polling which has only mentioned the death penalty as a punishment. In 2010, for instance, one poll showed 49 percent favoring the death penalty and 46 percent favoring life imprisonment while in another 61% said they preferred another punishment to the death penalty. The highest level of support for the death penalty recorded overall was 80 percent in 1994 (16 percent opposed), and the lowest recorded was 42 percent in 1966 (47 percent opposed). On the question of the death penalty vs. life without parole, the strongest preference for the death penalty was 61 percent in 1997 (29 percent favoring life), and the lowest preference for the death penalty was 47 percent in 2006 (48 percent favoring life).

In what year did the most polled American support capital punishment?

What percentage of polled Americans opposed the death penalty in 1966?

In a 1977 poll, what percentage of respondents preferred life imprisonment to the death penalty?

In a 2006 poll, what percentage of polled Americans preferred the death penalty to life without parole?

In what year did the least polled American support capital punishment?

I'm not sure.

What percentage of polled Americans opposed the death penalty in 1916?

I'm not sure.

In a 1977 poll, what percentage of respondents rejected life imprisonment to the death penalty?

I'm not sure.

In a 2006 poll, what percentage of polled Americans rejected the death penalty to life without parole?

I'm not sure.


Other capital crimes include: the use of a weapon of mass destruction resulting in death, espionage, terrorism, certain violations of the Geneva Conventions that result in the death of one or more persons, and treason at the federal level; aggravated rape in Louisiana, Florida, and Oklahoma; extortionate kidnapping in Oklahoma; aggravated kidnapping in Georgia, Idaho, Kentucky and South Carolina; aircraft hijacking in Alabama and Mississippi; assault by an escaping capital felon in Colorado; armed robbery in Georgia; drug trafficking resulting in a person's death in Florida; train wrecking which leads to a person's death, and perjury which leads to a person's death in California, Colorado, Idaho and Nebraska.

What is a notable capital crime in Louisiana?

aggravated rape

In what state is extortionate kidnapping a capital offense?

Oklahoma

Along with Alabama, where is hijacking an aircraft a death penalty offense?

Mississippi

In what state is armed robbery a capital crime?

Georgia

In what states is perjury leading to death a capital offense?

California, Colorado, Idaho and Nebraska

What is a notable capital crime in Missouri?

I'm not sure.

In what state is extortionate kidnapping not a capital offense?

I'm not sure.

Along with Alabama, where is hijacking an aircraft not a death penalty offense?

I'm not sure.

In what state is armed robbery not a capital crime?

I'm not sure.

In what states is perjury leading to death not a capital offense?

I'm not sure.


In a five-to-four decision, the Supreme Court struck down the impositions of the death penalty in each of the consolidated cases as unconstitutional. The five justices in the majority did not produce a common opinion or rationale for their decision, however, and agreed only on a short statement announcing the result. The narrowest opinions, those of Byron White and Potter Stewart, expressed generalized concerns about the inconsistent application of the death penalty across a variety of cases but did not exclude the possibility of a constitutional death penalty law. Stewart and William O. Douglas worried explicitly about racial discrimination in enforcement of the death penalty. Thurgood Marshall and William J. Brennan, Jr. expressed the opinion that the death penalty was proscribed absolutely by the Eighth Amendment as "cruel and unusual" punishment.

Along with Marshall, who believed that the Eighth Amendment forbade the death penalty?

William J. Brennan, Jr.

Along with Stewart, what Supreme Court justice was concerned about racial disparity in death penalty enforcement?

William O. Douglas

Aside from Stewart, what justice believed that the death penalty could be constitutional?

Byron White

Along with Marshall, who believed that the Ninth Amendment forbade the death penalty?

I'm not sure.

Along with Stewart, what Supreme Court justice was unconcerned about racial disparity in death penalty enforcement?

I'm not sure.

Aside from Stewart, what justice believed that the death penalty could be unconstitutional?

I'm not sure.


In total, 156 prisoners have been either acquitted, or received pardons or commutations on the basis of possible innocence, between 1973 to 2015. Death penalty opponents often argue that this statistic shows how perilously close states have come to undertaking wrongful executions; proponents point out that the statistic refers only to those exonerated in law, and that the truly innocent may be a smaller number. Statistics likely understate the actual problem of wrongful convictions because once an execution has occurred there is often insufficient motivation and finance to keep a case open, and it becomes unlikely at that point that the miscarriage of justice will ever be exposed.

Between 1973 and 2015, how amny prisoners were acquitted or received pardons or commutations of their death sentences due to possible innocence?

Between 1973 and 2015, how many prisoners were acquitted or received pardons or commutations of their death sentences due to possible guilt?

I'm not sure.

What happened in 2016?

I'm not sure.

What happened in 1970?

I'm not sure.

Who supported this statistic?

I'm not sure.


The death penalty is sought and applied more often in some jurisdictions, not only between states but within states. A 2004 Cornell University study showed that while 2.5 percent of murderers convicted nationwide were sentenced to the death penalty, in Nevada 6 percent were given the death penalty. Texas gave 2 percent of murderers a death sentence, less than the national average. Texas, however, executed 40 percent of those sentenced, which was about four times higher than the national average. California had executed only 1 percent of those sentenced.

What percentage of murderers in the United States are given a death sentence?

How many murderers in Nevada were given a capital sentence?

What state notably executes 40% of those given the death penalty?

Texas

What percentage of murderers in California are given the death penalty and subsequently executed?

How much higher is the rate of execution in Texas versus the national average?

four times

What percentage of murderers in the United States aren't given a death sentence?

I'm not sure.

How many murderers in Nevada weren't given a capital sentence?

I'm not sure.

What state notably executes 80% of those given the death penalty?

I'm not sure.

What percentage of murderers in California are given the death penalty and subsequently freed?

I'm not sure.

How much higher is the rate of execution in Texas versus the international average?

I'm not sure.


Congress acted defiantly toward the Supreme Court by passing the Drug Kingpin Act of 1988 and the Federal Death Penalty Act of 1994 that made roughly fifty crimes punishable by death, including crimes that do not always involve the death of someone. Such non-death capital offenses include treason, espionage (spying for another country), and high-level drug trafficking. Since no one has yet been sentenced to death for such non-death capital offenses, the Supreme Court has not ruled on their constitutionality.

Under the Drug Kingpin Act of 1988 and Federal Death Penalty Act of 1994, about how many crimes were punishable by death?

fifty

What body passed the Drug Kingpin Act of 1988?

Congress

What is another term for the act of spying for another country?

espionage

Along with treason and espionage, what non-death offense is still a federal capital crime?

high-level drug trafficking

Under the Drug Kingpin Act of 1998 and Federal Death Penalty Act of 1994, about how many crimes were punishable by death?

I'm not sure.

What body failed the Drug Kingpin Act of 1988?

I'm not sure.

What is another term for the act of spying on another country?

I'm not sure.

Along with treason and espionage, what death offense is still a federal capital crime?

I'm not sure.


Executions resumed on January 17, 1977, when Gary Gilmore went before a firing squad in Utah. But the pace was quite slow due to the use of litigation tactics which involved filing repeated writs of habeas corpus, which succeeded for many in delaying their actual execution for many years. Although hundreds of individuals were sentenced to death in the United States during the 1970s and early 1980s, only ten people besides Gilmore (who had waived all of his appeal rights) were actually executed prior to 1984.

Who was executed on January 17, 1977?

Gary Gilmore

By what method was Gary Gilmore executed?

firing squad

Aside from Gary Gilmore, how many people were executed in the United States between January 17, 1977 and 1984?

ten

What tactic did inmates on death row use to delay their executions?

filing repeated writs of habeas corpus

Who was pardoned on January 17, 1977?

I'm not sure.

By what method was Gary Gilmore let go free?

I'm not sure.

Aside from Gary Gilmore, how many people were executed in the United States between January 17, 1987 and 1987?

I'm not sure.

What tactic did inmates on death row use to delay their release?

I'm not sure.


After the September 2011 execution of Troy Davis, believed by many to be innocent, Richard Dieter, the director of the Death Penalty Information Center, said this case was a clear wake-up call to politicians across the United States. He said: "They weren't expecting such passion from people in opposition to the death penalty. There's a widely held perception that all Americans are united in favor of executions, but this message came across loud and clear that many people are not happy with it." Brian Evans of Amnesty International, which led the campaign to spare Davis's life, said that there was a groundswell in America of people "who are tired of a justice system that is inhumane and inflexible and allows executions where there is clear doubts about guilt". He predicted the debate would now be conducted with renewed energy.

In what month and year was Troy Davis executed?

September 2011

Who was the Death Penalty Information Center director?

Richard Dieter

What organization did Brian Evans work for?

Amnesty International

In what month and year was Troy Davis born?

I'm not sure.

Who was the Death Penalty Information Center secretary?

I'm not sure.

What organization did Brian Evans reject working for?

I'm not sure.


Various methods have been used in the history of the American colonies and the United States but only five methods are currently used. Historically, burning, crushing, breaking on wheel, and bludgeoning were used for a small number of executions, while hanging was the most common method. The last person burned at the stake was a black slave in South Carolina in August 1825. The last person to be hanged in chains was a murderer named John Marshall in West Virginia on April 4, 1913. Although beheading was a legal method in Utah from 1851 to 1888, it was never used.

How many execution methods are currently used in the United States?

five

What was the most common historical method of execution in the United States?

hanging

In what state did the last burning at the stake take place in the US?

South Carolina

Who was the last person hanged in chains in the Untied States?

John Marshall

When was execution by beheading ended in Utah?

How many execution methods are currently outlawed in the United States?

I'm not sure.

What was the least common historical method of execution in the United States?

I'm not sure.

In what state did the first burning at the stake take place in the US?

I'm not sure.

Who was the first person hanged in chains in the Untied States?

I'm not sure.

When was execution by beheading started in Utah?

I'm not sure.


African Americans made up 41 percent of death row inmates while making up only 12.6 percent of the general population. (They have made up 34 percent of those actually executed since 1976.) However, that number is lower than that of prison inmates, which is 47 percent. According to the US Department of Justice, African Americans accounted for 52.5% of homicide offenders from 1980 to 2008, with whites 45.3% and Native Americans and Asians 2.2%. This means African Americans are less likely to be executed on a per capita basis. However, according to a 2003 Amnesty International report, blacks and whites were the victims of murder in almost equal numbers, yet 80 percent of the people executed since 1977 were convicted of murders involving white victims. 13.5% of death row inmates are of Hispanic or Latino descent, while they make up 17.4% of the general population.

What percentage of American death row prisoners are African American?

What percentage of people executed in the United States since 1976 have been African American?

What percentage of American prison inmates are African American?

What percentage of homicides were committed by Asians between 1980 and 2008?

What percentage of the American population is Hispanic?

What percentage of American death row prisoners are South American

I'm not sure.

What percentage of people executed in the United States since 1976 have been South American?

I'm not sure.

What percentage of American prison inmates are South American?

I'm not sure.

What percentage of homicides were committed by Canadians between 1980 and 2008?

I'm not sure.

What percentage of the Canadian population is Hispanic?

I'm not sure.


The legal administration of the death penalty in the United States is complex. Typically, it involves four critical steps: (1) sentencing, (2) direct review, (3) state collateral review, and (4) federal habeas corpus. Recently, a narrow and final fifth level of process – (5) the Section 1983 challenge – has become increasingly important. (Clemency or pardon, through which the Governor or President of the jurisdiction can unilaterally reduce or abrogate a death sentence, is an executive rather than judicial process.) The number of new death sentences handed down peaked in 1995–1996 (309). There were 73 new death sentences handed down in 2014, the lowest number since 1973 (44).

In the United States, how many important steps are usually present in the administration of capital punishment?

four

Along with the President, what officeholder can issue pardons?

Governor

How many death sentences were issued in the period 1995-1996?

How many capital sentences were given in 1973?

In what year were there 73 death penalty convictions?

In the United States, how many important steps are never present in the administration of capital punishment?

I'm not sure.

Along with the President, what officeholder can't issue pardons?

I'm not sure.

How many death sentences were rejected in the period 1995-1996?

I'm not sure.

How many capital sentences were rejected in 1973?

I'm not sure.

In what year were there 73 death penalty convictions overturned?

I'm not sure.


All of the executions which have taken place since the 1936 hanging of Bethea in Owensboro have been conducted within a wall or enclosure. For example, Fred Adams was legally hanged in Kennett, Missouri, on April 2, 1937, within a 10-foot (3 m) wooden stockade. Roscoe "Red" Jackson was hanged within a stockade in Galena, Missouri, on May 26, 1937. Two Kentucky hangings were conducted after Galena in which numerous persons were present within a wooden stockade, that of John "Peter" Montjoy in Covington, Kentucky on December 17, 1937, and that of Harold Van Venison in Covington on June 3, 1938. An estimated 400 witnesses were present for the hanging of Lee Simpson in Ryegate, Montana, on December 30, 1939. The execution of Timothy McVeigh on June 11, 2001 was witnessed by some 300 people, some by closed-circuit television.

Where was Bethea hanged?

Owensboro

On what date was Fred Adams hanged?

April 2, 1937

In what state did the hanging of Adams take place?

Missouri

What was Roscoe Jackson's nickname?

Red

How many people witnessed Timothy McVeigh's execution?

Where was Bethea freed?

I'm not sure.

On what date was Fred Adams freed?

I'm not sure.

In what state did the freedom of Adams take place?

I'm not sure.

What was Roscoe Jackson's birthdate?

I'm not sure.

How many people refused Timothy McVeigh's execution?

I'm not sure.


James Liebman, a professor of law at Columbia Law School, stated in 1996 that his study found that when habeas corpus petitions in death penalty cases were traced from conviction to completion of the case that there was "a 40 percent success rate in all capital cases from 1978 to 1995." Similarly, a study by Ronald Tabak in a law review article puts the success rate in habeas corpus cases involving death row inmates even higher, finding that between "1976 and 1991, approximately 47 percent of the habeas petitions filed by death row inmates were granted." The different numbers are largely definitional, rather than substantive. Freedam's statistics looks at the percentage of all death penalty cases reversed, while the others look only at cases not reversed prior to habeas corpus review.

What institution does James Liebman work for?

Columbia Law School

What does James Liebman teach?

law

According to Liebman, about what percentage of death penalty habeas corpus petitions were successful between 1978 and 1995?

According to Tabak, what percentage of habeas corpus petitions were granted to death row inmates between 1976 and 1991?

In what year did Liebman announce his findings?

What institution did James Liebman get fired from?

I'm not sure.

What does James Liebman reject?

I'm not sure.

According to Liebman, about what percentage of death penalty habeas corpus petitions were successful between 1988 and 1999?

I'm not sure.

According to Tabak, what percentage of habeas corpus petitions were granted to death row inmates between 1978 and 1993

I'm not sure.

In what year did Liebman reject his findings?

I'm not sure.


The last use of the firing squad between 1608 and the moratorium on judicial executions between 1967 and 1977 was when Utah shot James W. Rodgers on March 30, 1960. The last use of the gallows between 1608 and the moratorium was when Kansas hanged George York on June 22, 1965. The last use of the electric chair between the first electrocution on August 6, 1890 and the moratorium was when Oklahoma electrocuted James French on August 10, 1966. The last use of the gas chamber between the first gassing on February 8, 1924 and the moratorium was when Colorado gassed Luis Monge on June 2, 1967.

Who was executed on March 30, 1960?

James W. Rodgers

What method of execution was used on James W. Rodgers?

firing squad

In what state was Rodgers executed?

Utah

On what date was George York executed?

June 22, 1965

Which state executed James French?

Oklahoma

Who was executed on March 30, 1990?

I'm not sure.

What method of execution was not used on James W. Rodgers?

I'm not sure.

In what state was Rodgers born?

I'm not sure.

On what date was George York freed?

I'm not sure.

Which state freed James French?

I'm not sure.


Since 1642 (in the 13 colonies, the United States under the Articles of Confederation, and the current United States) an estimated 364 juvenile offenders have been put to death by the states and the federal government. The earliest known execution of a prisoner for crimes committed as a juvenile was Thomas Graunger in 1642. Twenty-two of the executions occurred after 1976, in seven states. Due to the slow process of appeals, it was highly unusual for a condemned person to be under 18 at the time of execution. The youngest person to be executed in the 20th century was George Stinney, who was electrocuted in South Carolina at the age of 14 on June 16, 1944. The last execution of a juvenile may have been Leonard Shockley, who died in the Maryland gas chamber on April 10, 1959, at the age of 17. No one has been under age 19 at time of execution since at least 1964. Since the reinstatement of the death penalty in 1976, 22 people have been executed for crimes committed under the age of 18. Twenty-one were 17 at the time of the crime. The last person to be executed for a crime committed as a juvenile was Scott Hain on April 3, 2003 in Oklahoma.

About how many American juveniles have been executed since 1642?

In what year was Thomas Graunger executed?

Since 1976, how many Americans have been executed for crimes committed as juveniles?

Twenty-two

How old was George Stinney when he was executed?

What method was used to execute Leonard Shockley?

gas chamber

About how many American juveniles have been executed since 1842?

I'm not sure.

In what year was Thomas Graunger freed?

I'm not sure.

Since 1976, how many Americans have been executed for crimes committed as adults?

I'm not sure.

How old was George Stinney when he was freed?

I'm not sure.

What method was used to free Leonard Shockley?

I'm not sure.


In May 2014, Oklahoma Director of Corrections, Robert Patton, recommended an indefinite hold on executions in the state after the botched execution of African-American Clayton Lockett. The prisoner had to be tasered to restrain him prior to the execution, and the lethal injection missed a vein in his groin, resulting in Lockett regaining consciousness, trying to get up, and to speak, before dying of a heart attack 43 minutes later, after the attempted execution had been called off. In 2015, the state approved nitrogen asphyxiation as a method of execution.

As of May 2014, what was Robert Patton's job title?

Director of Corrections

What state employed Robert Patton in May 2014?

Oklahoma

What race was Clayton Lockett?

African-American

What was Clayton Lockett's cause of death?

heart attack

What gas did Oklahoma decide to use for executions in 2015?

nitrogen

As of May 2011, what was Robert Patton's job title?

I'm not sure.

What state executed Robert Patton in May 2014?

I'm not sure.

What religion was Clayton Lockett?

I'm not sure.

What was Clayton Lockett's crime?

I'm not sure.

What gas did Oklahoma decide to use for freedoms in 2015?

I'm not sure.


Opponents argue that the death penalty is not an effective means of deterring crime, risks the execution of the innocent, is unnecessarily barbaric in nature, cheapens human life, and puts a government on the same base moral level as those criminals involved in murder. Furthermore, some opponents argue that the arbitrariness with which it is administered and the systemic influence of racial, socio-economic, geographic, and gender bias on determinations of desert make the current practice of capital punishment immoral and illegitimate.

Along with gender, geography and race, what bias do some opponents of the death penalty see in its administration?

socio-economic

According to opponents of the death penalty, what does the death penalty cheapen?

human life

According to death penalty opponents, on whose moral level does execution place the government?

criminals involved in murder

What do death penalty opponents argue that capital punishment isn't effective at doing?

deterring crime

Who do death penalty opponents believe may sometimes be executed?

the innocent

Along with gender, geography and race, what bias do some people who agree with the death penalty see in its administration?

I'm not sure.

According to opponents of the death penalty, what does the death penalty strengthen?

I'm not sure.

According to death penalty supporters, on whose moral level does execution place the government?

I'm not sure.

What do death penalty opponents argue that capital punishment is effective at doing?

I'm not sure.

Who do death penalty opponents believe will never be executed?

I'm not sure.


Sixteen was held to be the minimum permissible age in the 1988 Supreme Court decision of Thompson v. Oklahoma. The Court, considering the case Roper v. Simmons in March 2005, found the execution of juvenile offenders unconstitutional by a 5–4 margin, effectively raising the minimum permissible age to 18. State laws have not been updated to conform with this decision. In the American legal system, unconstitutional laws do not need to be repealed; instead, they are held to be unenforceable. (See also List of juvenile offenders executed in the United States)

According to Thompson v. Oklahoma, what was the youngest age at which a person might be executed?

Sixteen

In what year was Thompson v. Oklahoma decided?

In what month and year was Roper v. Simmons decided?

March 2005

In Roper v. Simmons, how many Supreme Court justices believed juvenile execution to be unconstitutional?

Based on Roper v. Simmons, what is now the minimum age to be executed in the United States?

According to Thompson v. Oklahoma, what was the oldest age at which a person might be executed?

I'm not sure.

In what year was Thompson v. Oklahoma postponed?

I'm not sure.

In what month and year was Roper v. Simmons postponed?

I'm not sure.

In Roper v. Simmons, how many Supreme Court justices believed juvenile execution to be constitutional?

I'm not sure.

Based on Roper v. Simmons, what is now the maximum age to be executed in the United States?

I'm not sure.


Around 1890, a political movement developed in the United States to mandate private executions. Several states enacted laws which required executions to be conducted within a "wall" or "enclosure" to "exclude public view." For example, in 1919, the Missouri legislature adopted a statute (L.1919, p. 781) which required, "the sentence of death should be executed within the county jail, if convenient, and otherwise within an enclosure near the jail." The Missouri law permitted the local sheriff to distribute passes to individuals (usually local citizens) whom he believed should witness the hanging, but the sheriffs – for various reasons – sometimes denied passes to individuals who wanted to watch. Missouri executions conducted after 1919 were not "public" because they were conducted behind closed walls, and the general public was not permitted to attend.

In what year did Missouri pass a law stating that executions should be inside of or near a jail?

What procedure did Missouri use to execute prisoners in 1919?

hanging

In the Missouri of 1919, who handed out passes to witness executions?

the local sheriff

In approximately what year did a movement in favor of private executions begin in the US?

In what year did Missouri pass a law stating that executions should be outside of a jail?

I'm not sure.

What procedure did Missouri use to free prisoners in 1919?

I'm not sure.

In the Missouri of 1959, who handed out passes to witness executions?

I'm not sure.

In approximately what year did a movement in favor of public executions begin in the US?

I'm not sure.


Previous post-Furman mass clemencies took place in 1986 in New Mexico, when Governor Toney Anaya commuted all death sentences because of his personal opposition to the death penalty. In 1991, outgoing Ohio Governor Dick Celeste commuted the sentences of eight prisoners, among them all four women on the state's death row. And during his two terms (1979–1987) as Florida's Governor, Bob Graham, although a strong death penalty supporter who had overseen the first post-Furman involuntary execution as well as 15 others, agreed to commute the sentences of six people on the grounds of "possible innocence" or "disproportionality."

Who commuted all state capital sentences in 1986?

Toney Anaya

Of what state was Toney Anaya governor?

New Mexico

Who was Governor of Ohio in 1991?

Dick Celeste

How many women were on Ohio's death row in 1991?

four

In what year did Bob Graham become Governor of Florida?

Who commuted all state capital sentences in 1936?

I'm not sure.

Of what state was Toney Anaya senator?

I'm not sure.

Who was Governor of Nebraska in 1991?

I'm not sure.

How many men were on Ohio's death row in 1991?

I'm not sure.

In what year did Bob Graham become Senator of Florida?

I'm not sure.


In 2010, bills to abolish the death penalty in Kansas and in South Dakota (which had a de facto moratorium at the time) were rejected. Idaho ended its de facto moratorium, during which only one volunteer had been executed, on November 18, 2011 by executing Paul Ezra Rhoades; South Dakota executed Donald Moeller on October 30, 2012, ending a de facto moratorium during which only two volunteers had been executed. Of the 12 prisoners whom Nevada has executed since 1976, 11 waived their rights to appeal. Kentucky and Montana have executed two prisoners against their will (KY: 1997 and 1999, MT: 1995 and 1998) and one volunteer, respectively (KY: 2008, MT: 2006). Colorado (in 1997) and Wyoming (in 1992) have executed only one prisoner, respectively.

Along with South Dakota, what state rejected a death penalty abolition bill in 2010?

Kansas

Who did Idaho execute in 2011?

Paul Ezra Rhoades

Who was executed on October 30, 2012?

Donald Moeller

Since 1976, how many prisoners has Nevada executed?

Since 1976, in what year was a prisoner executed in Wyoming?

Along with North Dakota, what state rejected a death penalty abolition bill in 2010?

I'm not sure.

Who did Idaho execute in 2013?

I'm not sure.

Who was freed on October 30, 2012?

I'm not sure.

Since 1976, in what year was a prisoner freed in Wyoming?

I'm not sure.


Pharmaceutical companies whose products are used in the three-drug cocktails for lethal injections are predominantly European, and they have strenuously objected to the use of their drugs for executions and taken steps to prevent their use. For example, Hospira, the sole American manufacturer of sodium thiopental, the critical anesthetic in the three-drug cocktail, announced in 2011 that it would no longer manufacture the drug for the American market, in part for ethical reasons and in part because its transfer of sodium thiopental manufacturing to Italy would subject it to the European Union's Torture Regulation, which forbids the use of any product manufactured within the Union for torture (as execution by lethal injection is considered by the Regulation). Since the drug manufacturers began taking these steps and the EU regulation ended the importation of drugs produced in Europe, the resulting shortage of execution drugs has led to or influenced decisions to impose moratoria in Arkansas, California, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, Montana, Nevada, North Carolina, and Tennessee.

How many drugs are used to administer lethal injection?

three

What lethal injection drug is manufactured by Hospira?

sodium thiopental

When did Hospira cease to manufacture its lethal injection drug for the United States?

In what country does Hospira manufacture sodium thiopental today?

Italy

What EU law forbids products used in torture to be manufactured in the European Union?

Torture Regulation

How many hours does it take to administer lethal injection?

I'm not sure.

What lethal injection drug is not manufactured by Hospira?

I'm not sure.

When did Hospira begin to manufacture its lethal injection drug for the United States?

I'm not sure.

In what state does Hospira manufacture sodium thiopental today?

I'm not sure.


In the decades since Furman, new questions have emerged about whether or not prosecutorial arbitrariness has replaced sentencing arbitrariness. A study by Pepperdine University School of Law published in Temple Law Review, "Unpredictable Doom and Lethal Injustice: An Argument for Greater Transparency in Death Penalty Decisions," surveyed the decision-making process among prosecutors in various states. The authors found that prosecutors' capital punishment filing decisions remain marked by local "idiosyncrasies," suggesting they are not in keeping with the spirit of the Supreme Court's directive. This means that "the very types of unfairness that the Supreme Court sought to eliminate" may still "infect capital cases." Wide prosecutorial discretion remains because of overly broad criteria. California law, for example, has 22 "special circumstances," making nearly all premeditated murders potential capital cases. The 32 death penalty states have varying numbers and types of "death qualifiers" – circumstances that allow for capital charges. The number varies from a high of 34 in California to 22 in Colorado and Delaware to 12 in Texas, Nebraska, Georgia and Montana. The study's authors call for reform of state procedures along the lines of reforms in the federal system, which the U.S. Department of Justice initiated with a 1995 protocol. Crimes subject to the death penalty vary by jurisdiction. All jurisdictions that use capital punishment designate the highest grade of murder a capital crime, although most jurisdictions require aggravating circumstances. Treason against the United States, as well as treason against the states of Arkansas, California, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Missouri are capital offenses.

What University studied "Predictable Doom"?

I'm not sure.

How many cases are not special circumstances in California?

I'm not sure.

What happened in 1997?

I'm not sure.


French historians traditionally place the Enlightenment between 1715, the year that Louis XIV died, and 1789, the beginning of the French Revolution. Some recent historians begin the period in the 1620s, with the start of the scientific revolution. The Philosophes, the French term for the philosophers of the period, widely circulated their ideas through meetings at scientific academies, Masonic lodges, literary salons and coffee houses, and through printed books and pamphlets. The ideas of the Enlightenment undermined the authority of the monarchy and the church, and paved the way for the revolutions of the 18th and 19th centuries. A variety of 19th-century movements, including liberalism and neo-classicism, trace their intellectual heritage back to the Enlightenment.

In what year did Louis XIV die?

In what year did the French Revolution begin?

In what decade did the scientific revolution begin?


Francis Hutcheson, a moral philosopher, described the utilitarian and consequentialist principle that virtue is that which provides, in his words, "the greatest happiness for the greatest numbers". Much of what is incorporated in the scientific method (the nature of knowledge, evidence, experience, and causation) and some modern attitudes towards the relationship between science and religion were developed by his protégés David Hume and Adam Smith. Hume became a major figure in the skeptical philosophical and empiricist traditions of philosophy.

Which moral philosopher said "the greatest happiness for the greatest numbers"?

Francis Hutcheson

Which two men were Francis Hutecheson's proteges?

David Hume and Adam Smith

The nature of knowledge, evidence, experience, and causation together are called what?

the scientific method

What type of philosopher was Francis Hutcheson?

moral

In what areas of philosophy did Hume become a major figure?

skeptical philosophical and empiricist traditions


The influence of science also began appearing more commonly in poetry and literature during the Enlightenment. Some poetry became infused with scientific metaphor and imagery, while other poems were written directly about scientific topics. Sir Richard Blackmore committed the Newtonian system to verse in Creation, a Philosophical Poem in Seven Books (1712). After Newton's death in 1727, poems were composed in his honour for decades. James Thomson (1700–1748) penned his "Poem to the Memory of Newton," which mourned the loss of Newton, but also praised his science and legacy.

Who wrote "Poem to the Memory of Newton?"

James Thomson

In what year did Newton die?

Whose death in 1727 prompted poems to be written in his honour for decades?

Newton

Who wrote Creation, a Philosophical Poem in Seven Books?

Sir Richard Blackmore

In what year was Creation, a Philosophical Poem in Seven Books written?


John Locke, one of the most influential Enlightenment thinkers, based his governance philosophy in social contract theory, a subject that permeated Enlightenment political thought. The English philosopher Thomas Hobbes ushered in this new debate with his work Leviathan in 1651. Hobbes also developed some of the fundamentals of European liberal thought: the right of the individual; the natural equality of all men; the artificial character of the political order (which led to the later distinction between civil society and the state); the view that all legitimate political power must be "representative" and based on the consent of the people; and a liberal interpretation of law which leaves people free to do whatever the law does not explicitly forbid.

What did John Locke base his governance philosphy in?

social contract theory

Which English philosopher wrote Leviathan in 1651?

Thomas Hobbes

Who developed the view that all legitimate political power must be "representative?"

Thomas Hobbes

Which of Hobbes' ideas led to the distinction between civil society and the state?

the artificial character of the political order


Both Rousseau and Locke's social contract theories rest on the presupposition of natural rights, which are not a result of law or custom, but are things that all men have in pre-political societies, and are therefore universal and inalienable. The most famous natural right formulation comes from John Locke in his Second Treatise, when he introduces the state of nature. For Locke the law of nature is grounded on mutual security, or the idea that one cannot infringe on another's natural rights, as every man is equal and has the same inalienable rights. These natural rights include perfect equality and freedom, and the right to preserve life and property. Locke also argued against slavery on the basis that enslaving yourself goes against the law of nature; you cannot surrender your own rights, your freedom is absolute and no one can take it from you. Additionally, Locke argues that one person cannot enslave another because it is morally reprehensible, although he introduces a caveat by saying that enslavement of a lawful captive in time of war would not go against one's natural rights.

How does John Locke define mutual security?

the idea that one cannot infringe on another's natural rights

What do Locke's idea of natural rights include?

perfect equality and freedom, and the right to preserve life and property

Why did John Locke believe that one person cannot enslave another?

because it is morally reprehensible

What was John Locke's one exception to denouncing slavery?

enslavement of a lawful captive in time of war would not go against one's natural rights

In which of John Locke's works are natural rights most famously defined and discussed?

Second Treatise


Enlightenment era religious commentary was a response to the preceding century of religious conflict in Europe, especially the Thirty Years' War. Theologians of the Enlightenment wanted to reform their faith to its generally non-confrontational roots and to limit the capacity for religious controversy to spill over into politics and warfare while still maintaining a true faith in God. For moderate Christians, this meant a return to simple Scripture. John Locke abandoned the corpus of theological commentary in favor of an "unprejudiced examination" of the Word of God alone. He determined the essence of Christianity to be a belief in Christ the redeemer and recommended avoiding more detailed debate. Thomas Jefferson in the Jefferson Bible went further; he dropped any passages dealing with miracles, visitations of angels, and the resurrection of Jesus after his death. He tried to extract the practical Christian moral code of the New Testament.

Who dropped any passages dealing with miracles or visitations of angels from his work the Jefferson Bible?

Thomas Jefferson

The Enlightenment era religious commentary was, in part, a response to which war?

Thirty Years' War

What did the Enlightenment mean for moderate Christians?

a return to simple Scripture

Did John Locke want to foster or avoid increased detailed debate on the essence of Christianity?

avoid


The Enlightenment took hold in most European countries, often with a specific local emphasis. For example, in France it became associated with anti-government and anti-Church radicalism while in Germany it reached deep into the middle classes and where it expressed a spiritualistic and nationalistic tone without threatening governments or established churches. Government responses varied widely. In France, the government was hostile, and the philosophes fought against its censorship, sometimes being imprisoned or hounded into exile. The British government for the most part ignored the Enlightenment's leaders in England and Scotland, although it did give Isaac Newton a knighthood and a very lucrative government office.

In which country did the Enlightenment become associated with anti-government and anti-Church radicalism?

France

Which of the Enlightenment's leaders did the British government give a knighthood and lucrative government office?

Isaac Newton

In which country did the government respond with hostility to the Enlightenment, even imprisoning philosophes?

France

Was government response to the Enlightenment uniformly positive or widely varied?

varied

In which class did the Enlightenment reach deepest, expressing a nationalistic tone?

middle


The Enlightenment has always been contested territory. Its supporters "hail it as the source of everything that is progressive about the modern world. For them, it stands for freedom of thought, rational inquiry, critical thinking, religious tolerance, political liberty, scientific achievement, the pursuit of happiness, and hope for the future." However, its detractors accuse it of 'shallow' rationalism, naïve optimism, unrealistic universalism, and moral darkness. From the start there was a Counter-Enlightenment in which conservative and clerical defenders of traditional religion attacked materialism and skepticism as evil forces that encouraged immorality. By 1794, they pointed to the Terror during the French Revolution as confirmation of their predictions. As the Enlightenment was ending, Romantic philosophers argued that excessive dependence on reason was a mistake perpetuated by the Enlightenment, because it disregarded the bonds of history, myth, faith and tradition that were necessary to hold society together.

What two ideas did conservative and clerical defenders of traditional religion attack as evil forces that encouraged immorality?

materialism and skepticism

By 1794, what did those against the Enlightenment point to as confirmation of their predictions?

Terror during the French Revolution

Which type of philosophers argued that excessive dependence on reason was a mistake perpetuated by the Enlightenment?

Romantic


There is little consensus on the precise beginning of the Age of Enlightenment; the beginning of the 18th century (1701) or the middle of the 17th century (1650) are often used as epochs. French historians usually place the period, called the Siècle des Lumières (Century of Enlightenments), between 1715 and 1789, from the beginning of the reign of Louis XV until the French Revolution. If taken back to the mid-17th century, the Enlightenment would trace its origins to Descartes' Discourse on Method, published in 1637. In France, many cited the publication of Isaac Newton's Principia Mathematica in 1687. It is argued by several historians and philosophers that the beginning of the Enlightenment is when Descartes shifted the epistemological basis from external authority to internal certainty by his cogito ergo sum published in 1637. As to its end, most scholars use the last years of the century, often choosing the French Revolution of 1789 or the beginning of the Napoleonic Wars (1804–15) as a convenient point in time with which to date the end of the Enlightenment.

Most scholars use the beginning of the Napoleonic Wars or which other battle as a convenient date to end the Enlightenment?

French Revolution

French historians generally use the beginning of which King's reign to date the start of the Enlightenment?

Louis XV

What do French historians commonly call the Age of Enlightenment?

Siècle des Lumières (Century of Enlightenments)

In what year was Descartes' Discourse on Method published?

In what year was Issaac Newton's Principia Mathematica published?


The creation of the public sphere has been associated with two long-term historical trends: the rise of the modern nation state and the rise of capitalism. The modern nation state, in its consolidation of public power, created by counterpoint a private realm of society independent of the state, which allowed for the public sphere. Capitalism also increased society's autonomy and self-awareness, and an increasing need for the exchange of information. As the nascent public sphere expanded, it embraced a large variety of institutions; the most commonly cited were coffee houses and cafés, salons and the literary public sphere, figuratively localized in the Republic of Letters. In France, the creation of the public sphere was helped by the aristocracy's move from the King's palace at Versailles to Paris in about 1720, since their rich spending stimulated the trade in luxuries and artistic creations, especially fine paintings.

The creation of the public sphere is associated with the rise of capitalism and which other historical trend?

rise of the modern nation state

What increased society's autonomy, self-awareness, and need for exchange of information?

Capitalism

In what year did the aristocracy move from the King's palace at Versailles to Paris?


The desire to explore, record and systematize knowledge had a meaningful impact on music publications. Jean-Jacques Rousseau's Dictionnaire de musique (published 1767 in Geneva and 1768 in Paris) was a leading text in the late 18th century. This widely available dictionary gave short definitions of words like genius and taste, and was clearly influenced by the Enlightenment movement. Another text influenced by Enlightenment values was Charles Burney's A General History of Music: From the Earliest Ages to the Present Period (1776), which was a historical survey and an attempt to rationalize elements in music systematically over time. Recently, musicologists have shown renewed interest in the ideas and consequences of the Enlightenment. For example, Rose Rosengard Subotnik's Deconstructive Variations (subtitled Music and Reason in Western Society) compares Mozart's Die Zauberflöte (1791) using the Enlightenment and Romantic perspectives, and concludes that the work is "an ideal musical representation of the Enlightenment".

The desire to explore, record and systematize knowledge had a meaningful impact on what other form of publication?

music

What publication of Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a leading text in the late 18th century and was published 1767 in Geneva and 1768 in Paris?

Dictionnaire de musique

In what year was Charles Burney's A General History of Music: From the Earliest Ages to the Present Period published?

What Mozart piece did Rose Rosengard Subotnik conclude is "an ideal musical representation of the Enlightenment"?

Die Zauberflöte (1791)

Which two perspectives did Rose Rosengard Subotnik use to compare Mozart's Die Cauberflote?

Enlightenment and Romantic


Many women played an essential part in the French Enlightenment, due to the role they played as salonnières in Parisian salons, as the contrast to the male philosophes. The salon was the principal social institution of the republic, and "became the civil working spaces of the project of Enlightenment." Women, as salonnières, were "the legitimate governors of [the] potentially unruly discourse" that took place within. While women were marginalized in the public culture of the Ancien Régime, the French Revolution destroyed the old cultural and economic restraints of patronage and corporatism (guilds), opening French society to female participation, particularly in the literary sphere.

What was the principal social institution of the republic during the French Enlightenment?

salon

Was French society open or fearful of female participation in the literary sphere during the Enlightenment?

open

What female occupation allowed women to play an essential part in the French Enlightenment?

salonnières

Which event destroyed the former patronage and corporatism of France and allowed women to participate in society?

French Revolution


The vast majority of the reading public could not afford to own a private library, and while most of the state-run "universal libraries" set up in the 17th and 18th centuries were open to the public, they were not the only sources of reading material. On one end of the spectrum was the Bibliothèque Bleue, a collection of cheaply produced books published in Troyes, France. Intended for a largely rural and semi-literate audience these books included almanacs, retellings of medieval romances and condensed versions of popular novels, among other things. While some historians have argued against the Enlightenment's penetration into the lower classes, the Bibliothèque Bleue represents at least a desire to participate in Enlightenment sociability. Moving up the classes, a variety of institutions offered readers access to material without needing to buy anything. Libraries that lent out their material for a small price started to appear, and occasionally bookstores would offer a small lending library to their patrons. Coffee houses commonly offered books, journals and sometimes even popular novels to their customers. The Tatler and The Spectator, two influential periodicals sold from 1709 to 1714, were closely associated with coffee house culture in London, being both read and produced in various establishments in the city. This is an example of the triple or even quadruple function of the coffee house: reading material was often obtained, read, discussed and even produced on the premises.

Where was Bibliotheque Bleue located?

Troyes, France

For what audience were the books of the Bibliotheque Bleue written?

largely rural and semi-literate

Which two influential periodicals  were closely associated with London coffee house culture and were sold from 1909 to 1714?

The Tatler and The Spectator

What collection of cheaply produced books represents the lower class' desire to participate in the Enlightenment?

Bibliothèque Bleue


The target audience of natural history was French polite society, evidenced more by the specific discourse of the genre than by the generally high prices of its works. Naturalists catered to polite society's desire for erudition – many texts had an explicit instructive purpose. However, natural history was often a political affair. As E. C. Spary writes, the classifications used by naturalists "slipped between the natural world and the social ... to establish not only the expertise of the naturalists over the natural, but also the dominance of the natural over the social". The idea of taste (le goût) was a social indicator: to truly be able to categorize nature, one had to have the proper taste, an ability of discretion shared by all members of polite society. In this way natural history spread many of the scientific developments of the time, but also provided a new source of legitimacy for the dominant class. From this basis, naturalists could then develop their own social ideals based on their scientific works.

Who was the target audience of natural history?

French polite society

Many texts had explicit instructive purposes as Naturalists catered to polite society's desire for what?

erudition

The idea of what quality was a social indicator that provided a new source of legitimacy for the dominant class?

taste (le goût)

Was the target audience of natural history evidenced more by the price of publications or its specific discourse of the genre?

specific discourse of the genre


The first technical dictionary was drafted by John Harris and entitled Lexicon Technicum: Or, An Universal English Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. Harris' book avoided theological and biographical entries; instead it concentrated on science and technology. Published in 1704, the Lexicon technicum was the first book to be written in English that took a methodical approach to describing mathematics and commercial arithmetic along with the physical sciences and navigation. Other technical dictionaries followed Harris' model, including Ephraim Chambers' Cyclopaedia (1728), which included five editions, and was a substantially larger work than Harris'. The folio edition of the work even included foldout engravings. The Cyclopaedia emphasized Newtonian theories, Lockean philosophy, and contained thorough examinations of technologies, such as engraving, brewing, and dyeing.

Who drafted the first technical dictionary?

John Harris

What was the first technical dictionary drafted by John Harris titled?

Lexicon Technicum: Or, An Universal English Dictionary of Arts and Sciences

Did the Lexicon Technicum focus on theological and biographical entries or science and technology?

science and technology

What year was the Lexicon Technicum published?

In what language was the Lexicon Technicum written?

English


The first significant work that expressed scientific theory and knowledge expressly for the laity, in the vernacular, and with the entertainment of readers in mind, was Bernard de Fontenelle's Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds (1686). The book was produced specifically for women with an interest in scientific writing and inspired a variety of similar works. These popular works were written in a discursive style, which was laid out much more clearly for the reader than the complicated articles, treatises, and books published by the academies and scientists. Charles Leadbetter's Astronomy (1727) was advertised as "a Work entirely New" that would include "short and easie  [sic] Rules and Astronomical Tables." The first French introduction to Newtonianism and the Principia was Eléments de la philosophie de Newton, published by Voltaire in 1738. Émilie du Châtelet's translation of the Principia, published after her death in 1756, also helped to spread Newton's theories beyond scientific academies and the university. Francesco Algarotti, writing for a growing female audience, published Il Newtonianism per le dame, which was a tremendously popular work and was translated from Italian into English by Elizabeth Carter. A similar introduction to Newtonianism for women was produced by Henry Pembarton. His A View of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophy was published by subscription. Extant records of subscribers show that women from a wide range of social standings purchased the book, indicating the growing number of scientifically inclined female readers among the middling class. During the Enlightenment, women also began producing popular scientific works themselves. Sarah Trimmer wrote a successful natural history textbook for children titled The Easy Introduction to the Knowledge of Nature (1782), which was published for many years after in eleven editions.

What book was published in 1686 specifically for women with an interest in scientific writing?

Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds

Who was the author of Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds (1686)?

Bernard de Fontenelle

Who wrote a successful natural history textbook for children titled The Easy Introduction to the Knowledge of Nature (1782)?

Sarah Trimmer

How many editions were published of Sarah Trimmer's history textbook for children?

eleven

Emilie du Chatelet's translation of what Newton work was published after her death in 1756?

Principia


The strongest contribution of the French Academies to the public sphere comes from the concours académiques (roughly translated as 'academic contests') they sponsored throughout France. These academic contests were perhaps the most public of any institution during the Enlightenment. The practice of contests dated back to the Middle Ages, and was revived in the mid-17th century. The subject matter had previously been generally religious and/or monarchical, featuring essays, poetry, and painting. By roughly 1725, however, this subject matter had radically expanded and diversified, including "royal propaganda, philosophical battles, and critical ruminations on the social and political institutions of the Old Regime." Topics of public controversy were also discussed such as the theories of Newton and Descartes, the slave trade, women's education, and justice in France.

The practice of contests dates back to what time period?

Middle Ages

Previous to 1725, what subject matter was focused on by the concours academiques?

generally religious and/or monarchical

Which topics of public controversy became more widely discussed around 1725?

theories of Newton and Descartes, the slave trade, women's education, and justice

Were the concours academiques public or private matters?

public


The first English coffeehouse opened in Oxford in 1650. Brian Cowan said that Oxford coffeehouses developed into "penny universities", offering a locus of learning that was less formal than structured institutions. These penny universities occupied a significant position in Oxford academic life, as they were frequented by those consequently referred to as the "virtuosi", who conducted their research on some of the resulting premises. According to Cowan, "the coffeehouse was a place for like-minded scholars to congregate, to read, as well as learn from and to debate with each other, but was emphatically not a university institution, and the discourse there was of a far different order than any university tutorial."

Where did the first English coffeehouse open in 1650?

Oxford

According to Brian Cowan, was learning more or less formal in coffehouses as opposed to private institutions?

less

What term did Brian Cowan give Oxford coffeehouses?

penny universities


Historians have long debated the extent to which the secret network of Freemasonry was a main factor in the Enlightenment. The leaders of the Enlightenment included Freemasons such as Diderot, Montesquieu, Voltaire, Pope, Horace Walpole, Sir Robert Walpole, Mozart, Goethe, Frederick the Great, Benjamin Franklin, and George Washington. Norman Davies said that Freemasonry was a powerful force on behalf of Liberalism in Europe, from about 1700 to the twentieth century. It expanded rapidly during the Age of Enlightenment, reaching practically every country in Europe. It was especially attractive to powerful aristocrats and politicians as well as intellectuals, artists and political activists.

Diderot, Voltaire, Mozart, Goethe, and Benjamin Franklin were all members of what secret network?

Freemasonry

To whom was Freemasonry most attractive?

powerful aristocrats and politicians as well as intellectuals, artists and political activists

Freemasonry expanded rapidly to nearly every country in which continent?

Europe


The Age of Enlightenment was preceded by and closely associated with the scientific revolution. Earlier philosophers whose work influenced the Enlightenment included Francis Bacon, Descartes, Locke, and Spinoza. The major figures of the Enlightenment included Cesare Beccaria, Voltaire, Denis Diderot, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, David Hume, Adam Smith, and Immanuel Kant. Some European rulers, including Catherine II of Russia, Joseph II of Austria and Frederick I of Prussia, tried to apply Enlightenment thought on religious and political tolerance, which became known as enlightened absolutism. The Americans Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson came to Europe during the period and contributed actively to the scientific and political debate, and the ideals of the Enlightenment were incorporated into the United States Declaration of Independence and the Constitution of the United States.

Trying to apply Enlightenment thought on religious and political tolerance became known as what?

enlightened absolutism

Which two Americans travelled to Europe during the Enlightenment and actively contributed to the scienific and political debate?

Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson

The ideals of the Enlightenment were incorporated into which two United States documents?

Declaration of Independence and the Constitution

Did the scientific revolution precede or follow the Age of Enlightenment?

preceded


Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) tried to reconcile rationalism and religious belief, individual freedom and political authority, as well as map out a view of the public sphere through private and public reason. Kant's work continued to shape German thought, and indeed all of European philosophy, well into the 20th century. Mary Wollstonecraft was one of England's earliest feminist philosophers. She argued for a society based on reason, and that women, as well as men, should be treated as rational beings. She is best known for her work A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1791).

Kant's work continued to shape German thought and European philosophy well into what century?

In what year was Immanuel Kant born?

For which work is Mary Wollstonecraft best known?

A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1791)

In what year was A Vindication on the Rights of Woman published?

Mary Wollstonecraft argued for a society based on what idea?

reason


Hume and other Scottish Enlightenment thinkers developed a 'science of man', which was expressed historically in works by authors including James Burnett, Adam Ferguson, John Millar, and William Robertson, all of whom merged a scientific study of how humans behaved in ancient and primitive cultures with a strong awareness of the determining forces of modernity. Modern sociology largely originated from this movement, and Hume's philosophical concepts that directly influenced James Madison (and thus the U.S. Constitution) and as popularised by Dugald Stewart, would be the basis of classical liberalism.

The basis of classical liberalism comes from whose philosophical concepts?

Hume

Whose philosophical concepts directly influenceed James Madison and thus the U.S. Constitution?

Hume

Who popularised Hume's philosophical concepts?

Dugald Stewart


Both Locke and Rousseau developed social contract theories in Two Treatises of Government and Discourse on Inequality, respectively. While quite different works, Locke, Hobbes, and Rousseau agreed that a social contract, in which the government's authority lies in the consent of the governed, is necessary for man to live in civil society. Locke defines the state of nature as a condition in which humans are rational and follow natural law; in which all men are born equal and with the right to life, liberty and property. However, when one citizen breaks the Law of Nature, both the transgressor and the victim enter into a state of war, from which it is virtually impossible to break free. Therefore, Locke said that individuals enter into civil society to protect their natural rights via an "unbiased judge" or common authority, such as courts, to appeal to. Contrastingly, Rousseau's conception relies on the supposition that "civil man" is corrupted, while "natural man" has no want he cannot fulfill himself. Natural man is only taken out of the state of nature when the inequality associated with private property is established. Rousseau said that people join into civil society via the social contract to achieve unity while preserving individual freedom. This is embodied in the sovereignty of the general will, the moral and collective legislative body constituted by citizens.

What did Locke, Hobbes, and Rousseau agree was necessary for a man to live in civil society?

social contract

Which theorist wrote Two Treatises of Government?

Locke

Who wrote Discourse on Inequality?

Rousseau

From which state does Locke believe it is virtually improssible to break free?

state of war

For what reason did Rousseau feel people joined into civil society?

to achieve unity while preserving individual freedom


In several nations, rulers welcomed leaders of the Enlightenment at court and asked them to help design laws and programs to reform the system, typically to build stronger national states. These rulers are called "enlightened despots" by historians. They included Frederick the Great of Prussia, Catherine the Great of Russia, Leopold II of Tuscany, and Joseph II of Austria. Joseph was over-enthusiastic, announcing so many reforms that had so little support that revolts broke out and his regime became a comedy of errors and nearly all his programs were reversed. Senior ministers Pombal in Portugal and Struensee in Denmark also governed according to Enlightenment ideals. In Poland, the model constitution of 1791 expressed Enlightenment ideals, but was in effect for only one year as the nation was partitioned among its neighbors. More enduring were the cultural achievements, which created a nationalist spirit in Poland.

Leaders of the Enlightenment that helped design laws and programs to reform the court system are called what by historians?

enlightened despots

Which enlightened despot was so over-enthusiastic that revolts broke out and nearly all of his programs were reversed?

Joseph II of Austria

In what country was the model constitution of 1791 in effect for only one year?

Poland

From what country was Enlightenment leader Catherine the Great?

Russia


Enlightenment scholars sought to curtail the political power of organized religion and thereby prevent another age of intolerant religious war. Spinoza determined to remove politics from contemporary and historical theology (e.g. disregarding Judaic law). Moses Mendelssohn advised affording no political weight to any organized religion, but instead recommended that each person follow what they found most convincing. A good religion based in instinctive morals and a belief in God should not theoretically need force to maintain order in its believers, and both Mendelssohn and Spinoza judged religion on its moral fruits, not the logic of its theology.

Did Mendelssohn and Spinoza judge religion on its moral fruits or logic of its theology??

moral fruits

What did Enlightenment scholars seek to curtail and thereby prevent another age of intolerant religious war?

organized religion

Spinoza was determined to remove what from contemporary and historical theology?

politics

Did Moses Mendelssohn advise to follow a specific organized religion, or to whatever one found most convincing?

what they found most convincing


In the Scottish Enlightenment, Scotland's major cities created an intellectual infrastructure of mutually supporting institutions such as universities, reading societies, libraries, periodicals, museums and masonic lodges. The Scottish network was "predominantly liberal Calvinist, Newtonian, and 'design' oriented in character which played a major role in the further development of the transatlantic Enlightenment". In France, Voltaire said "we look to Scotland for all our ideas of civilization." The focus of the Scottish Enlightenment ranged from intellectual and economic matters to the specifically scientific as in the work of William Cullen, physician and chemist; James Anderson, an agronomist; Joseph Black, physicist and chemist; and James Hutton, the first modern geologist.

Who did Voltaire say that France looked to for ideas of civilization?

Scotland

What was the profession of James Anderson?

agronomist

Who was the first modern geologist?

James Hutton

William Cullen and Joseph Black shared what two occupations?

physicist and chemist


The term "Enlightenment" emerged in English in the later part of the 19th century, with particular reference to French philosophy, as the equivalent of the French term 'Lumières' (used first by Dubos in 1733 and already well established by 1751). From Immanuel Kant's 1784 essay "Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklärung?" ("Answering the Question: What is Enlightenment?") the German term became 'Aufklärung' (aufklären = to illuminate; sich aufklären = to clear up). However, scholars have never agreed on a definition of the Enlightenment, or on its chronological or geographical extent. Terms like "les Lumières" (French), "illuminismo" (Italian), "ilustración" (Spanish) and "Aufklärung" (German) referred to partly overlapping movements. Not until the late nineteenth century did English scholars agree they were talking about "the Enlightenment."

In what year was the French term Lumieres first used?

What term became the German equivalent to the French term Lumieres?

Aufklärung

In what century did the term Enlightenment emerge in English?

What is the Italian equivalent to the French term Lumieres?

illuminismo

Did the terms, Enlightenment, Lumieres, Aufklarung and illuminismo refer to distinct or overlapping movements?

overlapping


The context for the rise of the public sphere was the economic and social change commonly associated with the Industrial Revolution: "economic expansion, increasing urbanization, rising population and improving communications in comparison to the stagnation of the previous century"." Rising efficiency in production techniques and communication lowered the prices of consumer goods and increased the amount and variety of goods available to consumers (including the literature essential to the public sphere). Meanwhile, the colonial experience (most European states had colonial empires in the 18th century) began to expose European society to extremely heterogeneous cultures, leading to the breaking down of "barriers between cultural systems, religious divides, gender differences and geographical areas".

Did rising efficiency in production and communication lower or raise the prices of consumer goods?

lowered

Was the variety of goods available to consumers increased or decreased by the economic and social change of the Industrial Revolution?

increased

The context for the rise of the public sphere was the econoic and social change associated with what revolution?

Industrial Revolution


As the economy and the middle class expanded, there was an increasing number of amateur musicians. One manifestation of this involved women, who became more involved with music on a social level. Women were already engaged in professional roles as singers, and increased their presence in the amateur performers' scene, especially with keyboard music. Music publishers begin to print music that amateurs could understand and play. The majority of the works that were published were for keyboard, voice and keyboard, and chamber ensemble. After these initial genres were popularized, from the mid-century on, amateur groups sang choral music, which then became a new trend for publishers to capitalize on. The increasing study of the fine arts, as well as access to amateur-friendly published works, led to more people becoming interested in reading and discussing music. Music magazines, reviews, and critical works which suited amateurs as well as connoisseurs began to surface.

A the economy and middle class expanded, what artistic profession had an increasing number of members?

musicians

Which economic class expansion led to the emergence of music magazines and reviews?

middle

Women increased their presence in the amateur performers scene with what instrument, especially?

keyboard

Which musican mediums were the majority of amateur music works published for?

keyboard, voice and keyboard, and chamber ensemble


In France, the established men of letters (gens de lettres) had fused with the elites (les grands) of French society by the mid-18th century. This led to the creation of an oppositional literary sphere, Grub Street, the domain of a "multitude of versifiers and would-be authors". These men came to London to become authors, only to discover that the literary market simply could not support large numbers of writers, who, in any case, were very poorly remunerated by the publishing-bookselling guilds.

By what century in France had the men of letters fused with the elites?

mid-18th century

What was the term for the oppositional literary sphere of a "multitude of versifiers and would-be-authors"?

Grub Street

Could the London market support the large numbers of writers that were emerging?

not

Were men travelling to London to become authors paid well or poorly by the publishing-bookselling guilds?

very poorly


The first scientific and literary journals were established during the Enlightenment. The first journal, the Parisian Journal des Sçavans, appeared in 1665. However, it was not until 1682 that periodicals began to be more widely produced. French and Latin were the dominant languages of publication, but there was also a steady demand for material in German and Dutch. There was generally low demand for English publications on the Continent, which was echoed by England's similar lack of desire for French works. Languages commanding less of an international market – such as Danish, Spanish and Portuguese – found journal success more difficult, and more often than not, a more international language was used instead. French slowly took over Latin's status as the lingua franca of learned circles. This in turn gave precedence to the publishing industry in Holland, where the vast majority of these French language periodicals were produced.

During which movement were the first scientific and literary journals established?

the Enlightenment

What was the title of the first scientific and literary journal?

the Parisian Journal des Sçavans

In what year did the first scientific and literary journal appear?

Which two languages were the most dominant languages of scientific and literary publications?

French and Latin

Where were the vast majority of French language periodicals produced?

Holland


In Germany, practical reference works intended for the uneducated majority became popular in the 18th century. The Marperger Curieuses Natur-, Kunst-, Berg-, Gewerkund Handlungs-Lexicon (1712) explained terms that usefully described the trades and scientific and commercial education. Jablonksi Allgemeines Lexicon (1721) was better known than the Handlungs-Lexicon, and underscored technical subjects rather than scientific theory. For example, over five columns of text were dedicated to wine, while geometry and logic were allocated only twenty-two and seventeen lines, respectively. The first edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica (1771) was modelled along the same lines as the German lexicons.

Which work published in 1712 explained terms that usefully described the trades and scientific and commercial education?

The Marperger Curieuses Natur-, Kunst-, Berg-, Gewerkund Handlungs-Lexicon

In the Jablonski Allgemeines Lexicon (1721) how many colums of text were dedicated to wine?

over five

Was the Jablonski Allgemeines Lexicon (1721) more dedicated to technical subjects or scientific theory?

technical subjects

In what year was the first edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica published?

The Encyclopaedia Britannica was modelled along the same lines as a work from which country?

Germany


More importantly, the contests were open to all, and the enforced anonymity of each submission guaranteed that neither gender nor social rank would determine the judging. Indeed, although the "vast majority" of participants belonged to the wealthier strata of society ("the liberal arts, the clergy, the judiciary, and the medical profession"), there were some cases of the popular classes submitting essays, and even winning. Similarly, a significant number of women participated – and won – the competitions. Of a total of 2300 prize competitions offered in France, women won 49 – perhaps a small number by modern standards, but very significant in an age in which most women did not have any academic training. Indeed, the majority of the winning entries were for poetry competitions, a genre commonly stressed in women's education.

What enforced contest rule guaranteed that neither gender nor social rank would determine the judging?

anonymity

Were the vast majority of contest participants from the wealthier strata of society or the popular classes?

wealthier strata of society

How many prize competitions did women win out of the 2300 in France?

Women's education common stressed which literary genre?

poetry

What literary genre were the majority of female winning contest entries?

poetry


The Café Procope was established in Paris in 1686; by the 1720s there were around 400 cafés in the city. The Café Procope in particular became a center of Enlightenment, welcoming such celebrities as Voltaire and Rousseau. The Café Procope was where Diderot and D'Alembert decided to create the Encyclopédie. The cafés were one of the various "nerve centers" for bruits publics, public noise or rumour. These bruits were allegedly a much better source of information than were the actual newspapers available at the time.

Where was the Cafe Procope established in 1686?

Paris

By the 1720s. how many cafes were in Paris?

around 400

In which Cafe was the Encyclopedie created?

The Café Procope

Were bruits or newspapers allegedly a better source of information?

bruits


During the Age of Enlightenment, Freemasons comprised an international network of like-minded men, often meeting in secret in ritualistic programs at their lodges. they promoted the ideals of the Enlightenment, and helped diffuse these values across Britain and France and other places. Freemasonry as a systematic creed with its own myths, values and set of rituals originated in Scotland around 1600 and spread first to England and then across the Continent in the eighteenth century. They fostered new codes of conduct – including a communal understanding of liberty and equality inherited from guild sociability – "liberty, fraternity, and equality" Scottish soldiers and Jacobite Scots brought to the Continent ideals of fraternity which reflected not the local system of Scottish customs but the institutions and ideals originating in the English Revolution against royal absolutism. Freemasonry was particularly prevalent in France – by 1789, there were perhaps as many as 100,000 French Masons, making Freemasonry the most popular of all Enlightenment associations. The Freemasons displayed a passion for secrecy and created new degrees and ceremonies. Similar societies, partially imitating Freemasonry, emerged in France, Germany, Sweden and Russia. One example was the "Illuminati" founded in Bavaria in 1776, which was copied after the Freemasons but was never part of the movement. The Illuminati was an overtly political group, which most Masonic lodges decidedly were not.

Where did Freemasonry originate?

Scotland

Where did Freemasonry first spread?

England

In what country was Freemaonry particularly prevalent?

France

What was the most popular of all Enlightenment associations?

Freemasonry

Which group was copied from the Freemasons and founded in Bavaria in 1776?

Illuminati


Locke is known for his statement that individuals have a right to "Life, Liberty and Property", and his belief that the natural right to property is derived from labor. Tutored by Locke, Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury wrote in 1706: "There is a mighty Light which spreads its self over the world especially in those two free Nations of England and Holland; on whom the Affairs of Europe now turn". Locke's theory of natural rights has influenced many political documents, including the United States Declaration of Independence and the French National Constituent Assembly's Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.

Who is known for his statement that individuals have a right to "Life, Liberty and Property"?

Locke

Locke believed that the natural right to property is derived from what?

labor

Locke's theory of natural rights influenced what French document?

French National Constituent Assembly's Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen


Frederick the Great, the king of Prussia from 1740 to 1786, saw himself as a leader of the Enlightenment and patronized philosophers and scientists at his court in Berlin. Voltaire, who had been imprisoned and maltreated by the French government, was eager to accept Frederick's invitation to live at his palace. Frederick explained, "My principal occupation is to combat ignorance and prejudice ... to enlighten minds, cultivate morality, and to make people as happy as it suits human nature, and as the means at my disposal permit."

Which king of Prussia saw himself as the leader of the Enlightenment?

Frederick the Great

Which Enlightenment theorist was extended an invitation to live at the palace after being iprisoned by the French government?

Voltaire

Who was the king of Prussia from 1740 to 1786?

Frederick the Great,


Several Americans, especially Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson, played a major role in bringing Enlightenment ideas to the New World and in influencing British and French thinkers. Franklin was influential for his political activism and for his advances in physics. The cultural exchange during the Age of Enlightenment ran in both directions across the Atlantic. Thinkers such as Paine, Locke, and Rousseau all take Native American cultural practices as examples of natural freedom. The Americans closely followed English and Scottish political ideas, as well as some French thinkers such as Montesquieu. As deists, they were influenced by ideas of John Toland (1670–1722) and Matthew Tindal (1656–1733). During the Enlightenment there was a great emphasis upon liberty, democracy, republicanism and religious tolerance. Attempts to reconcile science and religion resulted in a widespread rejection of prophecy, miracle and revealed religion in preference for Deism – especially by Thomas Paine in The Age of Reason and by Thomas Jefferson in his short Jefferson Bible – from which all supernatural aspects were removed.

Which American Enlightenment sympathiser was known for his political activism and advances in physics?

Benjamin Franklin

Did the cultural exchange during the Age of Enlightenment travel exclusively to America or did information travel in both directions, back across the Atlantic to Europe?

both directions

As diests, Americans were influenced by the ideas of which two Enlightenment followers?

John Toland (1670–1722) and Matthew Tindal (1656–1733)

Attempts to reconcile which two fields resulted in a widespread rejection of prophecy?

science and religion

All supernatural aspects were removed from which Thomas Paine work?

The Age of Reason


The writers of Grub Street, the Grub Street Hacks, were left feeling bitter about the relative success of the men of letters, and found an outlet for their literature which was typified by the libelle. Written mostly in the form of pamphlets, the libelles "slandered the court, the Church, the aristocracy, the academies, the salons, everything elevated and respectable, including the monarchy itself". Le Gazetier cuirassé by Charles Théveneau de Morande was a prototype of the genre. It was Grub Street literature that was most read by the public during the Enlightenment. More importantly, according to Darnton, the Grub Street hacks inherited the "revolutionary spirit" once displayed by the philosophes, and paved the way for the French Revolution by desacralizing figures of political, moral and religious authority in France.

What term was given to the writers of Grub Street?

the Grub Street Hacks

Libelles were generally written in what form?

pamphlets

Which group inherited the "revolutionary spirit" once displayed by the philosophes, according to Darnton?

the Grub Street hacks

Which works by the Grub Street Hacks "slandered the court, the Church, the aristocracy, the academies, the salons, everything elevated and respectable, including the monarchy itself."?

the libelles


Coffeehouses were especially important to the spread of knowledge during the Enlightenment because they created a unique environment in which people from many different walks of life gathered and shared ideas. They were frequently criticized by nobles who feared the possibility of an environment in which class and its accompanying titles and privileges were disregarded. Such an environment was especially intimidating to monarchs who derived much of their power from the disparity between classes of people. If classes were to join together under the influence of Enlightenment thinking, they might recognize the all-encompassing oppression and abuses of their monarchs and, because of their size, might be able to carry out successful revolts. Monarchs also resented the idea of their subjects convening as one to discuss political matters, especially those concerning foreign affairs - rulers thought political affairs to be their business only, a result of their supposed divine right to rule.

Which venue created a unique environment in which people from many different walks of life could gather and share ideas?

Coffeehouses

Coffehouses were criticized by which group of people, fearing the possiblity of an environmentin which class was disregarded?

nobles

What societal group derived much of their power from the disparity between classes of people?

Monarchs

Which societal group believed they held a divine right to rule and resented the idea of their subjects convening to discuss political matters?

Monarchs


A genre that greatly rose in importance was that of scientific literature. Natural history in particular became increasingly popular among the upper classes. Works of natural history include René-Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur's Histoire naturelle des insectes and Jacques Gautier d'Agoty's La Myologie complète, ou description de tous les muscles du corps humain (1746). Outside ancien régime France, natural history was an important part of medicine and industry, encompassing the fields of botany, zoology, meteorology, hydrology and mineralogy. Students in Enlightenment universities and academies were taught these subjects to prepare them for careers as diverse as medicine and theology. As shown by M D Eddy, natural history in this context was a very middle class pursuit and operated as a fertile trading zone for the interdisciplinary exchange of diverse scientific ideas.

Did natural history in particular become increasingly popular amoung the upper or lower classes?

upper

Which type of history encompassed botany, zoology, meteorolgy, hydrology, and mineralogy?

natural history

Who wrote the Histoire naturelle des insectes?

René-Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur


Masonic lodges created a private model for public affairs. They "reconstituted the polity and established a constitutional form of self-government, complete with constitutions and laws, elections and representatives." In other words, the micro-society set up within the lodges constituted a normative model for society as a whole. This was especially true on the Continent: when the first lodges began to appear in the 1730s, their embodiment of British values was often seen as threatening by state authorities. For example, the Parisian lodge that met in the mid 1720s was composed of English Jacobite exiles. Furthermore, freemasons all across Europe explicitly linked themselves to the Enlightenment as a whole. In French lodges, for example, the line "As the means to be enlightened I search for the enlightened" was a part of their initiation rites. British lodges assigned themselves the duty to "initiate the unenlightened". This did not necessarily link lodges to the irreligious, but neither did this exclude them from the occasional heresy. In fact, many lodges praised the Grand Architect, the masonic terminology for the deistic divine being who created a scientifically ordered universe.

In what decade did the first Masonic lodges appear on the Continent?

The Freemason embodiment of what country's values was seen as threatening by Continental authorities?

British

Which lodge that met in the mid 1720s was composed of English Jacobite exiles?

the Parisian lodge

Which lodges assigned themselves the duty to "initate the unenlightened"?

British

What is the masonic term for the deistic divine being who created a scientifically ordered universe?

Grand Architect


Coffeehouses represent a turning point in history during which people discovered that they could have enjoyable social lives within their communities. Coffeeshops became homes away from home for many who sought, for the first time, to engage in discourse with their neighbors and discuss intriguing and thought-provoking matters, especially those regarding philosophy to politics. Coffeehouses were essential to the Enlightenment, for they were centers of free-thinking and self-discovery. Although many coffeehouse patrons were scholars, a great deal were not. Coffeehouses attracted a diverse set of people, including not only the educated wealthy but also members of the bourgeoisie and the lower class. While it may seem positive that patrons, being doctors, lawyers, merchants, etc. represented almost all classes, the coffeeshop environment sparked fear in those who sought to preserve class distinction. One of the most popular critiques of the coffeehouse claimed that it "allowed promiscuous association among people from different rungs of the social ladder, from the artisan to the aristocrat" and was therefore compared to Noah's Ark, receiving all types of animals, clean or unclean. This unique culture served as a catalyst for journalism when Joseph Addison and Richard Steele recognized its potential as an audience. Together, Steele and Addison published The Spectator (1711), a daily publication which aimed, through fictional narrator Mr. Spectator, both to entertain and to provoke discussion regarding serious philosophical matters.

Which venue represents a turning point in history during which people discovered that they could have enjoyable social lives within their communities?

Coffeehouses

Coffehouses were essential to what movement by becoming centers of free-thinking and self-discovery?

the Enlightenment

In what year was The Spectator published?

Which literary work used the fictional narrator Mr. Spectator to entertain and provoke discussion regarding serious philosophical matters?

The Spectator


The major opponent of Freemasonry was the Roman Catholic Church, so that in countries with a large Catholic element, such as France, Italy, Spain, and Mexico, much of the ferocity of the political battles involve the confrontation between what Davies calls the reactionary Church and enlightened Freemasonry. Even in France, Masons did not act as a group. American historians, while noting that Benjamin Franklin and George Washington were indeed active Masons, have downplayed the importance of Freemasonry in causing the American Revolution because the Masonic order was non-political and included both Patriots and their enemy the Loyalists.

Who was the major opponent to Freemasonry?

Roman Catholic Church

Which countries had a large Catholic element and therefore had confrontation with Freemasons?

France, Italy, Spain, and Mexico

Do American historians downplay or attribute the importance of Freemasonry in causing the American Revolution?

downplay

Who was the political enemy of the Patriots?

the Loyalists

Were the Masons political or non-political in the American Revolution?

non-political


The Enlightenment – known in French as the Siècle des Lumières, the Century of Enlightenment, and in German as the Aufklärung – was a philosophical movement which dominated the world of ideas in Europe in the 18th century. The Enlightenment included a range of ideas centered on reason as the primary source of authority and legitimacy, and came to advance ideals such as liberty, progress, tolerance, fraternity, constitutional government and ending the abuses of the church and state. In France, the central doctrines of the Lumières were individual liberty and religious tolerance, in opposition to the principle of absolute monarchy and the fixed dogmas of the Roman Catholic Church. The Enlightenment was marked by increasing empiricism, scientific rigor, and reductionism, along with increased questioning of religious orthodoxy.

How was the Enlightenment known in French?

Siècle des Lumières

Which movement dominated the world of ideas in Europe in the 18th century?

The Enlightenment

In France, what were the central doctrines of the Lumieres?

individual liberty and religious tolerance

The principle of absolute monarchy of which group was at odds with those following the Enlightenment?

Roman Catholic Church


In the mid-18th century, Paris became the center of an explosion of philosophic and scientific activity challenging traditional doctrines and dogmas. The philosophic movement was led by Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who argued for a society based upon reason rather than faith and Catholic doctrine, for a new civil order based on natural law, and for science based on experiments and observation. The political philosopher Montesquieu introduced the idea of a separation of powers in a government, a concept which was enthusiastically adopted by the authors of the United States Constitution. While the Philosophes of the French Enlightenment were not revolutionaries, and many were members of the nobility, their ideas played an important part in undermining the legitimacy of the Old Regime and shaping the French Revolution.

Which city in the mid-18th century became the center of an explosion of philosophic and scientific activity?

Paris

Who were the two leaders of Paris' philosophic movement?

Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Rousseau argued for a society based on what, rather than faith?

reason

Which philosopher introduced the idea of a separation of powers in government?

Montesquieu

Montesquieu's ideas were enthusiastically adopted by the authors of what American document?

the United States Constitution


The most influential publication of the Enlightenment was the Encyclopédie, compiled by Denis Diderot and (until 1759) by Jean le Rond d'Alembert and a team of 150 scientists and philosophers. It was published between 1751 and 1772 in thirty-five volumes, and spread the ideas of the Enlightenment across Europe and beyond. Other landmark publications were the Dictionnaire philosophique (Philosophical Dictionary, 1764) and Letters on the English (1733) written by Voltaire; Rousseau's Discourse on Inequality (1754) and The Social Contract (1762); and Montesquieu's Spirit of the Laws (1748). The ideas of the Enlightenment played a major role in inspiring the French Revolution, which began in 1789. After the Revolution, the Enlightenment was followed by an opposing intellectual movement known as Romanticism.

What was the most influential publication of the Enlightenment?

the Encyclopédie

The Encyclopedie was comprised of how many volumes?

thirty-five

Voltaire wrote Letters on the English in what year?

When was Rousseau's Discourse on Inequality published?

What year did the French Revolution begin?


There were two distinct lines of Enlightenment thought: the radical enlightenment, inspired by the philosophy of Spinoza, advocating democracy, individual liberty, freedom of expression, and eradication of religious authority; and a second, more moderate variety, supported by René Descartes, John Locke, Christian Wolff, Isaac Newton and others, which sought accommodation between reform and the traditional systems of power and faith. Both lines of thought were opposed by the conservative Counter-Enlightenment.

What was the name of the conservative group opposing the Enlightenment?

Counter-Enlightenment.

The radical enlightenment was inspired by the philosophy of whom?

Spinoza

Which Enlightenment philosopher advocated democracy, individual liberty, freedom of expression, and eradication of religious authority?

Spinoza

Which Enlightenment philosophers sought accomodatin between reform and the traditional systems of power and faith?

René Descartes, John Locke, Christian Wolff, Isaac Newton and others


The "Radical Enlightenment" promoted the concept of separating church and state, an idea that often credited to English philosopher John Locke (1632–1704). According to his principle of the social contract, Locke said that the government lacked authority in the realm of individual conscience, as this was something rational people could not cede to the government for it or others to control. For Locke, this created a natural right in the liberty of conscience, which he said must therefore remain protected from any government authority.

Who is credited with the concept of separating church and state?

John Locke

Which term describes John Locke's movement to seperate church and state?

The "Radical Enlightenment"

In what year was John Locke born?

In what realm did John Locke feel the government lacked authority?

the realm of individual conscience