The Constitution of Canada gives the federal government exclusive responsibility for national defence, and expenditures are thus outlined in the federal budget. For the 2008–2009 fiscal year, the amount allocated for defence spending was CAD$18.9 billion. This regular funding was augmented in 2005 with an additional CAD$12.5 billion over five years, as well as a commitment to increasing regular force troop levels by 5,000 persons, and the primary reserve by 3,000 over the same period. In 2006, a further CAD$5.3 billion over five years was provided to allow for 13,000 more regular force members, and 10,000 more primary reserve personnel, as well as CAD$17.1 billion for the purchase of new trucks for the Canadian Army, transport aircraft and helicopters for the Royal Canadian Air Force, and joint support ships for the Royal Canadian Navy.

What gives the federal government responsibility for national defense?

The Constitution of Canada

What year was an additional 12.5 Billion Canadian Dollars assigned for over five years?

What gives the federal government responsibility for international defense?

I'm not sure.

What year was an additional 12.5 Billion Canadian Dollars assigned for over 10 years?

I'm not sure.


Although the Canadian Armed Forces are a single service, there are three similar but distinctive environmental uniforms (DEUs): navy blue (which is actually black) for the navy, rifle green for the army, and light blue for the air force. CAF members in operational occupations generally wear the DEU to which their occupation "belongs." CAF members in non-operational occupations (the "purple" trades) are allocated a uniform according to the "distribution" of their branch within the CAF, association of the branch with one of the former services, and the individual's initial preference. Therefore, on any given day, in any given CAF unit, all three coloured uniforms may be seen.

What color is the DEU uniform if it isn't green?

I'm not sure.

What are the "red" trades?

I'm not sure.

What does "DUE" stand for?

I'm not sure.

What is the fourth similar environmental uniform?

I'm not sure.


In 1059, the right of electing the pope was reserved to the principal clergy of Rome and the bishops of the seven suburbicarian sees. In the 12th century the practice of appointing ecclesiastics from outside Rome as cardinals began, with each of them assigned a church in Rome as his titular church or linked with one of the suburbicarian dioceses, while still being incardinated in a diocese other than that of Rome.[citation needed]

In 1059, who was responsible for electing the pope?

the principal clergy of Rome and the bishops of the seven suburbicarian sees.

What were the cardinals assigned?

a church in Rome as his titular church or linked with one of the suburbicarian dioceses

Who did not have the right of electing the pope in 1059?

I'm not sure.

Who held the right to appoint ecclesiastics from outside Rome in 1059?

I'm not sure.

What were the cardinals not assigned?

I'm not sure.

Where outside of Rome were the ecclesiastics assigned?

I'm not sure.


The term cardinal at one time applied to any priest permanently assigned or incardinated to a church, or specifically to the senior priest of an important church, based on the Latin cardo (hinge), meaning "principal" or "chief". The term was applied in this sense as early as the ninth century to the priests of the tituli (parishes) of the diocese of Rome. The Church of England retains an instance of this origin of the title, which is held by the two senior members of the College of Minor Canons of St Paul's Cathedral.

At one time, Priest permanently were assigned to a church were referred to as?

cardinal

How early was this term used?

ninth century

The Church of England uses what term that is held by two senior members of the College of Minor Canons of St. Pauls Catherdral?

tituli

What Latin word does "cardinal" come from?

cardo

Which church still holds on to the original meaning of "cardinal" from the above Latin word?

The Church of England

What does the Latin cardo not mean?

I'm not sure.

What is the term applied to any priest temporarily assigned or incardinated to a church?

I'm not sure.

What term was applied as early as the eighth century to the priests of the tituli of the diocese of Rome?

I'm not sure.

What term was used by the Church of France that is held by two senior members of the College of Minor Canon of St. Paul's Catherdral?

I'm not sure.

Which church maintains the original meaning of the Greek word "cardo"?

I'm not sure.


There is disagreement about the origin of the term, but general consensus that "cardinalis" from the word cardo (meaning 'pivot' or 'hinge') was first used in late antiquity to designate a bishop or priest who was incorporated into a church for which he had not originally been ordained. In Rome the first persons to be called cardinals were the deacons of the seven regions of the city at the beginning of the 6th century, when the word began to mean “principal,” “eminent,” or "superior." The name was also given to the senior priest in each of the "title" churches (the parish churches) of Rome and to the bishops of the seven sees surrounding the city. By the 8th century the Roman cardinals constituted a privileged class among the Roman clergy. They took part in the administration of the church of Rome and in the papal liturgy. By decree of a synod of 769, only a cardinal was eligible to become pope. In 1059, during the pontificate of Nicholas II, cardinals were given the right to elect the pope under the Papal Bull In nomine Domini. For a time this power was assigned exclusively to the cardinal bishops, but the Third Lateran Council in 1179 gave back the right to the whole body of cardinals. Cardinals were granted the privilege of wearing the red hat by Pope Innocent IV in 1244.

Who were the first people to be called cardinals in Rome?

the deacons of the seven regions of the city

When were the Roman cardinals perceived as a privleged class among the Roman clergy?

8th century

What year did the ruling "only a cardinal was eligible to become pope" come in effect?

Who gave cardinals the right to elect the pope under the Papal Bull In nomine Domini?

Nicholas II

What was it that gave cardinals the right to elect the pope?

the Papal Bull In nomine Domini

In what year did the pope allow cardinals to wear the red hats?

Who was the pope who gave cardinals the right to wear the hats?

Pope Innocent IV

Who were the first persons to be called cardinals at the beginning of the 7th century in Rome?

I'm not sure.

What did the word cardinal begin to mean at the beginning of the 8th century?

I'm not sure.

When were the Roman cardinals considered part of the peasant class?

I'm not sure.

In what year was the pope eligible to become a cardinal?

I'm not sure.

Who rescinded the right of the whole body of cardinals to elect the pope in 1179?

I'm not sure.


In cities other than Rome, the name cardinal began to be applied to certain church men as a mark of honour. The earliest example of this occurs in a letter sent by Pope Zacharias in 747 to Pippin III (the Short), ruler of the Franks, in which Zacharias applied the title to the priests of Paris to distinguish them from country clergy. This meaning of the word spread rapidly, and from the 9th century various episcopal cities had a special class among the clergy known as cardinals. The use of the title was reserved for the cardinals of Rome in 1567 by Pius V.

What term was given to certain church men of honor?

cardinal

When is the earliest date of using the term cardinal as honorable church men used?

When was the title of cardinal reserved for the cardinals of Rome by Pius V?

In regards to the word "cardinal" being used in cities other than Rome, who sent a letter to Pippin III?

Pope Zacharias

In what year was the letter sent?

Which pope declared that cardinals would be from Rome?

Pius V.

In what year did the pope make the declaration?

What term was applied to certain political leaders as a mark of honor?

I'm not sure.

What did Pippin III call priests of Paris to distinguish them from county clergy?

I'm not sure.

What century did the term cardinal spread quickly throughout various Muslim cities?

I'm not sure.

In what year did Pope Zacharias reserve the title for the cardinals of Rome?

I'm not sure.

Who had a special class among clergy known as priests in the 9th century?

I'm not sure.


In the year 1563 the influential Ecumenical Council of Trent, headed by Pope Pius IV, wrote about the importance of selecting good Cardinals. According to this historic council "nothing is more necessary to the Church of God than that the holy Roman pontiff apply that solicitude which by the duty of his office he owes the universal Church in a very special way by associating with himself as cardinals the most select persons only, and appoint to each church most eminently upright and competent shepherds; and this the more so, because our Lord Jesus Christ will require at his hands the blood of the sheep of Christ that perish through the evil government of shepherds who are negligent and forgetful of their office."

In what year did Pope Pius IV wrote abou tthe selecting of cardinals?

Who was in charge of the Ecumenical Council of Trent?

Pope Pius IV

In what year did the Ecumenical Council of Trent write in regards to the selection of Cardinals?

Who was the pope who headed the Ecumencial Council of Trent in that year?

Pope Pius IV

What year did the Ecumenical Council of Trent headed by Pope Zacharius write about the importance of selecting good cardinals?

I'm not sure.

Who led the Ecumenical Council of Thames?

I'm not sure.

Who did the historic council determine that the College of Cardinals should select as cardinals?

I'm not sure.

What did our Lord Jesus Christ not require according to the Council of Trent?

I'm not sure.

Who would not be negligent or forgetful of their office?

I'm not sure.


The earlier influence of temporal rulers, notably the French kings, reasserted itself through the influence of cardinals of certain nationalities or politically significant movements. Traditions even developed entitling certain monarchs, including those of Austria, Spain, and Portugal, to nominate one of their trusted clerical subjects to be created cardinal, a so-called crown-cardinal.[citation needed]

Who were generally temporal rulers?

French kings

Who reasserted the earliest influence of temporal subjects?

I'm not sure.

Who did the English kings appoint to influence politically significant movement?

I'm not sure.

What tradition in England, France, and Portugal developed entitling certain political influencers to nominate their trusted subjects?

I'm not sure.

Who did not reassert themselves through the influence of cardinals?

I'm not sure.


In early modern times, cardinals often had important roles in secular affairs. In some cases, they took on powerful positions in government. In Henry VIII's England, his chief minister was Cardinal Wolsey. Cardinal Richelieu's power was so great that he was for many years effectively the ruler of France. Richelieu successor was also a cardinal, Jules Mazarin. Guillaume Dubois and André-Hercule de Fleury complete the list of the "four great" cardinals to have ruled France.[citation needed] In Portugal, due to a succession crisis, one cardinal, Henry, King of Portugal, was crowned king, the only example of a cardinal-king.

In what roles did cardinals have important roles?

secular affairs.

What Caridinal had powers so great that he basically ran France?

Cardinal Richelieu

Which cardinal acted a the leader of France due to his amount of power?

Cardinal Richelieu

Who is the only person to ever become a cardinal king?

Henry, King of Portugal

What role did priests have in secular affairs?

I'm not sure.

Who did not take powerful positions in government?

I'm not sure.

Who acted as Henry VI's chief minister?

I'm not sure.

Which cardinal had power so great that he effectively ruled England?

I'm not sure.

What five great cardinals once ruled France?

I'm not sure.


Pope Sixtus V limited the number of cardinals to 70, comprising six cardinal bishops, 50 cardinal priests, and 14 cardinal deacons. Starting in the pontificate of Pope John XXIII, that limit has been exceeded. At the start of 1971, Pope Paul VI set the number of cardinal electors at a maximum of 120, but set no limit on the number of cardinals generally. He also established a maximum age of eighty years for electors. His action deprived twenty-five living cardinals, including the three living cardinals elevated by Pope Pius XI, of the right to participate in a conclave.[citation needed] Popes can dispense from church laws and have sometimes brought the number of cardinals under the age of 80 to more than 120. Pope Paul VI also increased the number of cardinal bishops by giving that rank to patriarchs of the Eastern Catholic Churches.

Pope Sixtus V limited the number of cardinals to?

What did the composition of the cardinals consist of?

comprising six cardinal bishops, 50 cardinal priests, and 14 cardinal deacons.

During who's term did the ruling exceed?

Pope John XXIII

Pope Paul VI increse the number of cardinal electors to?

What is the maximum age for electors?

Pope Paul VI raised the cap on cardinal electors from 70 to what?

Pope Paul VI had no cap on what?

the number of cardinals generally

What was the limit of cardinals that Pope Pius implemented?

I'm not sure.

What did the composition of popes consist of?

I'm not sure.

Who implemented the maximum age of 60 years for electors?

I'm not sure.

Who gave a rank to patriarchs of the Western Catholic Churches?

I'm not sure.

What can popes not dispense from?

I'm not sure.


Each cardinal takes on a titular church, either a church in the city of Rome or one of the suburbicarian sees. The only exception is for patriarchs of Eastern Catholic Churches. Nevertheless, cardinals possess no power of governance nor are they to intervene in any way in matters which pertain to the administration of goods, discipline, or the service of their titular churches. They are allowed to celebrate Mass and hear confessions and lead visits and pilgrimages to their titular churches, in coordination with the staff of the church. They often support their churches monetarily, and many Cardinals do keep in contact with the pastoral staffs of their titular churches.

Where do the cardinals work?

a church in the city of Rome or one of the suburbicarian sees

What do cardinals do in order to influence governing or administration of goods, discipline, or service of their titular churches?

I'm not sure.

Which Moroccan cities do cardinals get assigned to their titular church?

I'm not sure.

What duties are nuns allowed to perform?

I'm not sure.

Who does not offer monetary support to their titular churches?

I'm not sure.

What do many nuns do for their titular churches?

I'm not sure.


The Dean of the College of Cardinals in addition to such a titular church also receives the titular bishopric of Ostia, the primary suburbicarian see. Cardinals governing a particular Church retain that church.

Who receives the hishopric of Ostia?

The Dean of the College of Cardinals

What other title does the Dean of Collge of Cardinals receive upon appointment?

titular bishopric of Ostia

Who receives the titular bisphoric of Tok Hangari?

I'm not sure.

What other title does the Dean of the College of Priests receive upon appointment?

I'm not sure.

What do nuns retain if they are governing a particular church?

I'm not sure.

What is other title does the President of the College of Cardinals receive?

I'm not sure.


In 1630, Pope Urban VIII decreed their title to be Eminence (previously, it had been "illustrissimo" and "reverendissimo")  and decreed that their secular rank would equate to Prince, making them secondary only to the Pope and crowned monarchs.

In was year was the title decreed Eminence?

Who decreed this?

Pope Urban VIII

What rank did the Eminece decree assigned?

Prince

Who held more power then the cardinal?

the Pope and crowned monarchs

Which pope decided that being pope was equal to being a prince?

Pope Urban VIII

What year did Pope Pious II decree their title to be Eminence?

I'm not sure.

What did was the title of the pope before 1630?

I'm not sure.

Who decreed that their secular rank would equate to king?

I'm not sure.

Who held less power then the cardinal?

I'm not sure.


In accordance with tradition, they sign by placing the title "Cardinal" (abbreviated Card.) after their personal name and before their surname as, for instance, "John Card(inal) Doe" or, in Latin, "Ioannes Card(inalis) Cognomen". Some writers, such as James-Charles Noonan, hold that, in the case of cardinals, the form used for signatures should be used also when referring to them in English. Official sources such as the Archdiocese of Milwaukee and Catholic News Service say that the correct form for referring to a cardinal in English is normally as "Cardinal [First name] [Surname]". This is the rule given also in stylebooks not associated with the Catholic Church. This style is also generally followed on the websites of the Holy See and episcopal conferences. Oriental Patriarchs who are created Cardinals customarily use "Sanctae Ecclesiae Cardinalis" as their full title, probably because they do not belong to the Roman clergy.

The Archdiocese of Milwaukee says that the correct way to address a cardinal in English is?

"Cardinal [First name] [Surname]"

What is the proper way to address a cardinal according to the Archdiocese of Milwaukee?

Cardinal [First name] [Surname]

How do cardinals sign traditionally?

by placing the title "Cardinal" (abbreviated Card.) after their personal name and before their surname

How do Oriental Patriarchs sign?

Sanctae Ecclesiae Cardinalis

Why do Oriental Patriarchs sign this way?

because they do not belong to the Roman clergy

What is not the correct way to address a cardinal according to the Archdiocese of Milwaukee?

I'm not sure.

How do cardinals sign that is not in accordance with tradition?

I'm not sure.

What style is generally not followed on the websites of the Holy See and episcopal conferences?

I'm not sure.

How do English Patriarchs typically sign?

I'm not sure.

Who does not belong to the French clergy?

I'm not sure.


In Latin, on the other hand, the [First name] Cardinal [Surname] order is used in the proclamation of the election of a new pope by the cardinal protodeacon: "Annuntio vobis gaudium magnum; habemus Papam: Eminentissimum ac Reverendissimum Dominum, Dominum (first name) Sanctae Romanae Ecclesiae Cardinalem (last name), ..." (Meaning: "I announce to you a great joy; we have a Pope: The Most Eminent and Most Reverend Lord, Lord (first name) Cardinal of the Holy Roman Church (last name), ...") This assumes that the new pope had been a cardinal just before becoming pope; the most recent election of a non-cardinal as pope was in 1378.

What way is used to announce the election of a new pope in Latin?

[First name] Cardinal [Surname]

What should the new pople have been before becoming a pope?

Cardinal

When was the most recent election of a non-cardinal?

When is the last time a non cardinal was elected as pope?

What way is used in the proclamation of the election of a new nun in Latin?

I'm not sure.

What should a new pope not have been before becoming a pope?

I'm not sure.

How should a new pope not be addresses by the Cardinal protodeacon?

I'm not sure.

When was the last election of a cardinal?

I'm not sure.


While the incumbents of some sees are regularly made cardinals, and some countries are entitled to at least one cardinal by concordate (usually earning its primate the cardinal's hat), no see carries an actual right to the cardinalate, not even if its bishop is a Patriarch.

Do any sees carry the right to the cardinalate?

no

Despite some traditions and rights, no see has the right to what?

the cardinalate

Which see carries a right to the cardinalate?

I'm not sure.

Which bishop carries an actual right to the cardinalate?

I'm not sure.

Who is not sometimes entitled to at least one cardinal by concordate?

I'm not sure.

Who are not regularly made cardinals?

I'm not sure.


Cardinal bishops (cardinals of the episcopal order) are among the most senior prelates of the Catholic Church. Though in modern times most cardinals are also bishops, the term "cardinal bishop" only refers to the cardinals who are titular bishops of one of the "suburbicarian" sees.

Who are among the most senior members of the Catholic Church?

Cardinal bishops

What is a cardinal bishop?

cardinals of the episcopal order

Some cardinals are bishop in name only, what are they called?

Cardinal bishops

Who is among the most junior prelates of the Catholic Church?

I'm not sure.

What is a cardinal of the Benedictine order?

I'm not sure.

What are most cardinals not known as in modern times?

I'm not sure.

What does the term "cardinal bishop" not refer to?

I'm not sure.


In early times, the privilege of papal election was not reserved to the cardinals, and for centuries the person elected was customarily a Roman priest and never a bishop from elsewhere. To preserve apostolic succession the rite of consecrating him a bishop had to be performed by someone who was already a bishop. The rule remains that, if the person elected Pope is not yet a bishop, he is consecrated by the Dean of the College of Cardinals, the Cardinal Bishop of Ostia.

In early times, who was generally electied to cardinal?

a Roman priest

Why did the ceromony of consecrating a bishop have to be preformed by someone who was already a bishop?

To preserve apostolic succession

What is the rule if the peson elected is not a bishop?

he is consecrated by the Dean of the College of Cardinals, the Cardinal Bishop of Ostia.

What happens if a Pope is elected who is not a bishop?

he is consecrated by the Dean of the College of Cardinals, the Cardinal Bishop of Ostia.

What was reserved for the cardinals in early times?

I'm not sure.

Who was generally not elected to cardinal in early times?

I'm not sure.

What is the rule if the person elected is a bishop?

I'm not sure.

What happens if a Nun is elected who is not a bishop?

I'm not sure.


There are seven suburbicarian sees: Ostia, Albano, Porto and Santa Rufina, Palestrina, Sabina and Mentana, Frascati and Velletri. Velletri was united with Ostia from 1150 until 1914, when Pope Pius X separated them again, but decreed that whatever cardinal bishop became Dean of the College of Cardinals would keep the suburbicarian see he already held, adding to it that of Ostia, with the result that there continued to be only six cardinal bishops.

How many suburbicarian sees?

seven

When were the two sees combined?

1150 until 1914

Who separated them?

Pope Pius X

What are the seven sees?

Ostia, Albano, Porto and Santa Rufina, Palestrina, Sabina and Mentana, Frascati and Velletri

What are the name of the eight suburbicarian sees?

I'm not sure.

Which two sees were united from 1250 to 1944?

I'm not sure.

What did Pope Pius II do to Velletri and Ostia in 1914?

I'm not sure.

How did Pope Pius X maintain only four cardinal bishops?

I'm not sure.

What suburbicarian would the President of the College of Cardinal keep in addition to that Velletri?

I'm not sure.


Since 1962, the cardinal bishops have only a titular relationship with the suburbicarian sees, with no powers of governance over them. Each see has its own bishop, with the exception of Ostia, in which the Cardinal Vicar of the see of Rome is apostolic administrator.

Cardinal bishops do not have any powers of governnace over the suburibicarian see since when?

Which see doesn't have its own bishop?

Ostia

Who is in charge of Ostia?

Cardinal Vicar of the see of Rome is apostolic administrator.

In what year was it decided that cardinal bishops had no power over the seven sees?

What see is the one exception to this rule?

Ostia

Who has power over the exception?

the Cardinal Vicar of the see of Rome

What type of relationship did the pope have with suburbicarian sees?

I'm not sure.

Who had powers of governance over suburbicarian sees?

I'm not sure.

In what year did cardinal bishops have the powers of governance over suburbicarian sees?

I'm not sure.

Who is the bishop of Ostia?

I'm not sure.

Which does each see not have with the exception of Ostia?

I'm not sure.


A cardinal (Latin: sanctae romanae ecclesiae cardinalis, literally cardinal of the Holy Roman Church) is a senior ecclesiastical leader, an ecclesiastical prince, and usually (now always for those created when still within the voting age-range) an ordained bishop of the Roman Catholic Church. The cardinals of the Church are collectively known as the College of Cardinals. The duties of the cardinals include attending the meetings of the College and making themselves available individually or in groups to the Pope as requested. Most have additional duties, such as leading a diocese or archdiocese or managing a department of the Roman Curia. A cardinal's primary duty is electing the pope when the see becomes vacant. During the sede vacante (the period between a pope's death or resignation and the election of his successor), the day-to-day governance of the Holy See is in the hands of the College of Cardinals. The right to enter the conclave of cardinals where the pope is elected is limited to those who have not reached the age of 80 years by the day the vacancy occurs.

The entire group of cardinals is known as what?

College of Cardinals

Who is a junior ecclesiastical leader in the Holy Roman Church?

I'm not sure.

What are the cardinals of the church not collectively known as?

I'm not sure.

What duties do cardinals not perform?

I'm not sure.

What is a priest's primary duty?

I'm not sure.

Who does not oversee the day-to-day governance during the sede vacante?

I'm not sure.


Cardinals have in canon law a "privilege of forum" (i.e., exemption from being judged by ecclesiastical tribunals of ordinary rank): only the pope is competent to judge them in matters subject to ecclesiastical jurisdiction (cases that refer to matters that are spiritual or linked with the spiritual, or with regard to infringement of ecclesiastical laws and whatever contains an element of sin, where culpability must be determined and the appropriate ecclesiastical penalty imposed). The pope either decides the case himself or delegates the decision to a tribunal, usually one of the tribunals or congregations of the Roman Curia. Without such delegation, no ecclesiastical court, even the Roman Rota, is competent to judge a canon law case against a cardinal. Cardinals are, however, subject to the civil and criminal law like everybody else.

Who is the only person who can judge a Cardinal in regards to laws of the church?

the pope

What does the privilege of democracy guarantee cardinals and popes?

I'm not sure.

Who is forbidden to judge cardinals in matters subject to ecclesiastical jurisdiction?

I'm not sure.

What does the pope either decide or delegates the decision to the the College of Cardinals?

I'm not sure.

What are cardinals not subject to like everybody else?

I'm not sure.


To symbolize their bond with the papacy, the pope gives each newly appointed cardinal a gold ring, which is traditionally kissed by Catholics when greeting a cardinal (as with a bishop's episcopal ring). The pope chooses the image on the outside: under Pope Benedict XVI it was a modern depiction of the crucifixion of Jesus, with Mary and John to each side. The ring includes the pope's coat of arms on the inside.[citation needed]

What does the pope give to a new Cardinal?

a gold ring

Who decides on the design of the item given to new Cardinals?

the pope

What does the pope give to each retiring cardinal?

I'm not sure.

What does the silver ring symbolize?

I'm not sure.

What is traditionally kissed by Athiests when greeting a cardinal?

I'm not sure.

What includes the cardinal's coat of arms?

I'm not sure.

What image did Pope John Paul II depict on the outside of the ring?

I'm not sure.


In previous times, at the consistory at which the pope named a new cardinal, he would bestow upon him a distinctive wide-brimmed hat called a galero. This custom was discontinued in 1969 and the investiture now takes place with the scarlet biretta. In ecclesiastical heraldry, however, the scarlet galero is still displayed on the cardinal's coat of arms. Cardinals had the right to display the galero in their cathedral, and when a cardinal died, it would be suspended from the ceiling above his tomb. Some cardinals will still have a galero made, even though it is not officially part of their apparel.[citation needed]

What is the name of the hat that the pope used to wear when naming a new Cardinal?

a galero.

In what year did the practice of donning this item stop?

What does the pope now wear when naming a new Cardinal?

scarlet biretta

What was the name of the hat bestowed upon a pope upon his naming?

I'm not sure.

What custom was discontinued in 1959?

I'm not sure.

What do cardinals not have the right to display in their cathedral?

I'm not sure.

What would happen to a pope's gelero when he dies?

I'm not sure.

What is officially part of a cardinals apparel?

I'm not sure.


Eastern Catholic cardinals continue to wear the normal dress appropriate to their liturgical tradition, though some may line their cassocks with scarlet and wear scarlet fascias, or in some cases, wear Eastern-style cassocks entirely of scarlet.

Which Cardinals still wear traditional clothing?

Eastern Catholic cardinals

What do Western Catholic cardinals continue to wear?

I'm not sure.

What do Western Catholic cardinals sometimes line?

I'm not sure.

What color are Western style cassocks made entirely of?

I'm not sure.

What traditional dress do eastern Catholic deacons continue to wear?

I'm not sure.


When in choir dress, a Latin-rite cardinal wears scarlet garments — the blood-like red symbolizes a cardinal's willingness to die for his faith. Excluding the rochet — which is always white — the scarlet garments include the cassock, mozzetta, and biretta (over the usual scarlet zucchetto). The biretta of a cardinal is distinctive not merely for its scarlet color, but also for the fact that it does not have a pompon or tassel on the top as do the birettas of other prelates. Until the 1460s, it was customary for cardinals to wear a violet or blue cape unless granted the privilege of wearing red when acting on papal business. His normal-wear cassock is black but has scarlet piping and a scarlet fascia (sash). Occasionally, a cardinal wears a scarlet ferraiolo which is a cape worn over the shoulders, tied at the neck in a bow by narrow strips of cloth in the front, without any 'trim' or piping on it. It is because of the scarlet color of cardinals' vesture that the bird of the same name has become known as such.[citation needed]

What does the color red symbolize in the clothing worn by Cardinals?

willingness to die for his faith

Which item of clothing worn by cardinals is always white?

rochet

The Cardinal bird was named as such because of what in relation to Cardinals of the church?

the scarlet color of cardinals' vesture

When did Cardinals stop wearing purple or blue capes?

What color is worn by popes when in choir dress?

I'm not sure.

What does the blood like red not symbolize for a cardinal?

I'm not sure.

What was customary for cardinals to wear until the 1700's?

I'm not sure.

What is not distinctive about the biretta of a cardinal?

I'm not sure.

What color ferrailo does a pope occasionally wear?

I'm not sure.


If conditions change, so that the pope judges it safe to make the appointment public, he may do so at any time. The cardinal in question then ranks in precedence with those raised to the cardinalate at the time of his in pectore appointment. If a pope dies before revealing the identity of an in pectore cardinal, the cardinalate expires.

What happens if a Cardinal is named in pectore, and the pope dies?

the cardinalate expires

What does the Pope do if conditions do not change?

I'm not sure.

What happens if a Cardinal is named in pectore and the president dies?

I'm not sure.

Whose identity is not revealed if the pope dies?

I'm not sure.

Who ranks secondary to those raised in the cardinalate at the time of his appointment?

I'm not sure.


During the Western Schism, many cardinals were created by the contending popes. Beginning with the reign of Pope Martin V, cardinals were created without publishing their names until later, termed creati et reservati in pectore.

Which pope began using creati et reservati in pectore?

Pope Martin V

How were many Cardinals created during the Eastern Schism>?

I'm not sure.

What was published during the reign of Pope Martin V?

I'm not sure.

What did Pope Pious V begin using?

I'm not sure.

What position was not being contended during the Western Schism?

I'm not sure.


At various times, there have been cardinals who had only received first tonsure and minor orders but not yet been ordained as deacons or priests. Though clerics, they were inaccurately called "lay cardinals" and were permitted to marry. Teodolfo Mertel was among the last of the lay cardinals. When he died in 1899 he was the last surviving cardinal who was not at least ordained a priest. With the revision of the Code of Canon Law promulgated in 1917 by Pope Benedict XV, only those who are already priests or bishops may be appointed cardinals. Since the time of Pope John XXIII a priest who is appointed a cardinal must be consecrated a bishop, unless he obtains a dispensation.

What was a "lay cardinal" allowed to do that is not considered a normal status of a Cardinal?

marry

In what year did Pope Benedict XV revise the Code of Canon Law?

What did the Code of Canon Law state in regards to Cardinals?

only those who are already priests or bishops may be appointed cardinals

What was a lay cardinal not allowed to do that is not considered a normal status of a Cardinal?

I'm not sure.

Who was among the first lay cardinal?

I'm not sure.

What year did Pope Benedict X revise the Code of Canon Law?

I'm not sure.

Who may not be appointed cardinals according the revision of Code of Cannon Law?

I'm not sure.


A cardinal who is not a bishop is still entitled to wear and use the episcopal vestments and other pontificalia (episcopal regalia: mitre, crozier, zucchetto, pectoral cross and ring). Even if not a bishop, any cardinal has both actual and honorary precedence over non-cardinal patriarchs, as well as the archbishops and bishops who are not cardinals, but he cannot perform the functions reserved solely to bishops, such as ordination. The prominent priests who since 1962 were not ordained bishops on their elevation to the cardinalate were over the age of 80 or near to it, and so no cardinal who was not a bishop has participated in recent papal conclaves.

A cardinal who does not hold the title of "bishop" may not do what?

perform the functions reserved solely to bishops, such as ordination

Cardinals who were not bishops have been promoted to Cardinal around the age of 80 since what year?

What is a cardinal who is a bishop entitles to wear and use?

I'm not sure.

What six items make up the episcopal regalia?

I'm not sure.

What may a cardinal who does not hold the title of "bishop" do?

I'm not sure.

What year were cardinals were were bishops have been promoted to Cardinal around the age of 80?

I'm not sure.


Until 1917, it was possible for someone who was not a priest, but only in minor orders, to become a cardinal (see "lay cardinals", below), but they were enrolled only in the order of cardinal deacons. For example, in the 16th century, Reginald Pole was a cardinal for 18 years before he was ordained a priest. In 1917 it was established that all cardinals, even cardinal deacons, had to be priests, and, in 1962, Pope John XXIII set the norm that all cardinals be ordained as bishops, even if they are only priests at the time of appointment. As a consequence of these two changes, canon 351 of the 1983 Code of Canon Law requires that a cardinal be at least in the order of priesthood at his appointment, and that those who are not already bishops must receive episcopal consecration. Several cardinals aged over 80 or close to it when appointed have obtained dispensation from the rule of having to be a bishop. These were all appointed cardinal-deacons, but one of them, Roberto Tucci, lived long enough to exercise the right of option and be promoted to the rank of cardinal-priest.

In what year did the practice of allowing non priests to become Cardinals stop?

In what year was it declared that Cardinals had to be bishops?

What was possible for someone to become who was not a priest, but only in major orders?

I'm not sure.

Who was enrolled only in the order of cardinal laymen?

I'm not sure.

What year did Pope John XX set the norm that all cardinals be ordained as bishops?

I'm not sure.

What canon does not require that a cardinal be at least in the order of priesthood at his appointment?

I'm not sure.

What year did the practice of allowing nuns to become Cardinals stop?

I'm not sure.


The Cardinal Camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church, assisted by the Vice-Camerlengo and the other prelates of the office known as the Apostolic Camera, has functions that in essence are limited to a period of sede vacante of the papacy. He is to collate information about the financial situation of all administrations dependent on the Holy See and present the results to the College of Cardinals, as they gather for the papal conclave.

In the time between electing new popes, what is the duty of the cardinal?

collate information about the financial situation of all administrations dependent on the Holy See and present the results to the College of Cardinals

What four entities make up the Apostolic Camera?

I'm not sure.

Who has functions that are not limited to a period of sede vacante of the papacy?

I'm not sure.

Who does nor collate information about the financial situation of all dependent administrations of the Holy See?

I'm not sure.

Who does not have the responsibility of presenting results to the College of Cardinals?

I'm not sure.


The cardinal protodeacon, the senior cardinal deacon in order of appointment to the College of Cardinals, has the privilege of announcing a new pope's election and name (once he has been ordained to the Episcopate) from the central balcony at the Basilica of Saint Peter in Vatican City State. In the past, during papal coronations, the proto-deacon also had the honor of bestowing the pallium on the new pope and crowning him with the papal tiara. However, in 1978 Pope John Paul I chose not to be crowned and opted for a simpler papal inauguration ceremony, and his three successors followed that example. As a result, the Cardinal protodeacon's privilege of crowning a new pope has effectively ceased although it could be revived if a future Pope were to restore a coronation ceremony. However, the proto-deacon still has the privilege of bestowing the pallium on a new pope at his papal inauguration. “Acting in the place of the Roman Pontiff, he also confers the pallium upon metropolitan bishops or gives the pallium to their proxies.” The current cardinal proto-deacon is Renato Raffaele Martino.

Who announces the election of a new pope?

The cardinal protodeacon

Where does this person announce the election of the new pope?

from the central balcony at the Basilica of Saint Peter in Vatican City State

Who was the first pope who chose not to be crowned?

Pope John Paul I

Who does not have the privilege of announcing a new pope's election?

I'm not sure.

What is the junior cardinal deacon in order of appointment to the College of Cardinals also known as?

I'm not sure.

Who announced Pope John Paul I coronation in 1976?

I'm not sure.

What Cardinal protodeacon's privilege was continued after the election of Pope John Paul I?

I'm not sure.

What position does Renato Raffaele Martinez currently hold?

I'm not sure.


When not celebrating Mass but still serving a liturgical function, such as the semiannual Urbi et Orbi papal blessing, some Papal Masses and some events at Ecumenical Councils, cardinal deacons can be recognized by the dalmatics they would don with the simple white mitre (so called mitra simplex).

What color is the hat?

white

How are Cardinal deacons recognized at Masses?

I'm not sure.

How are Cardinal deacons recognized at Ecumenical Meetings?

I'm not sure.

How are Cardinal deacons recognized at quarterly Urbi et Orbi papal blessings?

I'm not sure.

What do nuns wear in addition to the simple white mitre?

I'm not sure.


As of 2005, there were over 50 churches recognized as cardinalatial deaconries, though there were only 30 cardinals of the order of deacons. Cardinal deacons have long enjoyed the right to "opt for the order of cardinal priests" (optazione) after they have been cardinal deacons for 10 years. They may on such elevation take a vacant "title" (a church allotted to a cardinal priest as the church in Rome with which he is associated) or their diaconal church may be temporarily elevated to a cardinal priest's "title" for that occasion. When elevated to cardinal priests, they take their precedence according to the day they were first made cardinal deacons (thus ranking above cardinal priests who were elevated to the college after them, regardless of order).

How many cardinal deacons were there in 2005?

How many years before a cardinal deacon can choose the order of the cardinal priests?

10 years

How many churches are recognized as cardinalatial deaconries in 2000?

I'm not sure.

How many cardinals were there in the order of popes?

I'm not sure.

What have Cardinal deacons not had the right to do?

I'm not sure.

Who may not take a vacant title?

I'm not sure.

Who may opt for the order of cardinal priests after they have been deacons for 30 years?

I'm not sure.


Cardinals elevated to the diaconal order are mainly officials of the Roman Curia holding various posts in the church administration. Their number and influence has varied through the years. While historically predominantly Italian the group has become much more internationally diverse in later years. While in 1939 about half were Italian by 1994 the number was reduced to one third. Their influence in the election of the Pope has been considered important, they are better informed and connected than the dislocated cardinals but their level of unity has been varied. Under the 1587 decree of Pope Sixtus V, which fixed the maximum size of the College of Cardinals, there were 14 cardinal deacons. Later the number increased. As late as 1939 almost half of the cardinals were members of the curia. Pius XII reduced this percentage to 24 percent. John XXIII brought it back up to 37 percent but Paul VI brought it down to 27 percent where John Paul II has maintained this ratio.

In 1939, how many Cardinals were Italian?

about half

In 1994, how many Cardinals were Italian?

third

Where are priests that are elevated to the diaconal order mainly officials of?

I'm not sure.

How many Cardinals were French in 1939?

I'm not sure.

How many Cardinals were French in 1994?

I'm not sure.

How many cardinals were members of the curia in 1929?

I'm not sure.

What year did Pope Sixtus I fix the maximum size of the College of Cardinals?

I'm not sure.


Cardinal deacons derive originally from the seven deacons in the Papal Household and the seven deacons who supervised the Church's works in the districts of Rome during the early Middle Ages, when church administration was effectively the government of Rome and provided all social services. Cardinal deacons are given title to one of these deaconries.

What is the name of one of the deaconries in which Cardinals come from?

seven deacons in the Papal Household

Where do Cardinal deacons not originally derive from?

I'm not sure.

Who is originally from the six deacons in the Papal Household?

I'm not sure.

Who does not supervise the Church's works in the districts of Rome?

I'm not sure.

Who did not provide all social services in Rome during the early Middle Ages?

I'm not sure.

Who is not given title to one of these seven deacons?

I'm not sure.


The cardinal deacons are the lowest-ranking cardinals. Cardinals elevated to the diaconal order are either officials of the Roman Curia or priests elevated after their 80th birthday. Bishops with diocesan responsibilities, however, are created cardinal priests.

Which cardinals are ranked lowest?

cardinal deacons

What title is given to the highest ranking cardinals?

I'm not sure.

What position do cardinal deacons not hold?

I'm not sure.

What do bishops become that are without diocesan responsibilities?

I'm not sure.

What are cardinals who are not elevated to the diaconal order?

I'm not sure.


The cardinal who is the longest-serving member of the order of cardinal priests is titled cardinal protopriest. He had certain ceremonial duties in the conclave that have effectively ceased because he would generally have already reached age 80, at which cardinals are barred from the conclave. The current cardinal protopriest is Paulo Evaristo Arns of Brazil.

Who can become the cardinal protopriest?

The cardinal who is the longest-serving member of the order of cardinal priests

Who is the cardinal protopriest at this time?

Paulo Evaristo Arns of Brazil

What title is given to the newest member of the order of cardinal priests?

I'm not sure.

What position does Paulo Evaristo Arns of Columbia currently hold?

I'm not sure.

Whose ceremonial duties in the conclave continued after the age of 80?

I'm not sure.

Who was accepted into the conclave after the age of 80?

I'm not sure.


The Dean of the College of Cardinals, or Cardinal-dean, is the primus inter pares of the College of Cardinals, elected by the cardinal bishops holding suburbicarian sees from among their own number, an election, however, that must be approved by the Pope. Formerly the position of dean belonged by right to the longest-serving of the cardinal bishops.

In the College of Cardinals, the elected Dean needs the approval of who?

the Pope

Who does not need the approval of the Pope?

I'm not sure.

What is the Dean of the College of Humanities also known as?

I'm not sure.

Who does not act as the primus inter pares of the College of Cardinals?

I'm not sure.

Who approves the appointment of the Cardinal-dean by the Pope?

I'm not sure.

What position belonged by right to the shortest-serving of the cardinal bishops?

I'm not sure.


In 1965, Pope Paul VI decreed in his motu proprio Ad Purpuratorum Patrum that patriarchs of the Eastern Catholic Churches who were named cardinals (i.e., patriarch cardinals) would also be part of the episcopal order, ranking after the six cardinal bishops of the suburbicarian sees (who had been relieved of direct responsibilities for those sees by Pope John XXIII three years earlier). Patriarch cardinals do not receive title of a suburbicarian see, and as such they cannot elect the dean or become dean. There are currently three Eastern Patriarchs who are cardinal bishops:

Patriarch cardinals are not given what title?

a suburbicarian see

What did Pope Paul VI decree in 1965 about the patriarchs of the Western Catholic Churches?

I'm not sure.

Who ranked after the seven cardinal bishops of the suburbicarian sees?

I'm not sure.

What title did patriarch cardinals receive?

I'm not sure.

How many Western Patriarchs are currently cardinal bishops?

I'm not sure.

Who can elect the dean or become dean?

I'm not sure.


Cardinal priests are the most numerous of the three orders of cardinals in the Catholic Church, ranking above the cardinal deacons and below the cardinal bishops. Those who are named cardinal priests today are generally bishops of important dioceses throughout the world, though some hold Curial positions.

Who are the lowest ranking cardinals in the Catholic church?

cardinal deacons

Who are the highest ranking cardinals in the Catholic Church?

cardinal bishops

Which rank has the most cardinals?

Cardinal priests

Who are the highest ranking priests in the Catholic church?

I'm not sure.

Who are the most numerous of the four orders of cardinals in the Catholic Church?

I'm not sure.

Who is the lowest ranking priest in the Catholic Church?

I'm not sure.

What are those named cardinal popes today generally bishops of?

I'm not sure.

What position do some popes currently hold?

I'm not sure.


In modern times, the name "cardinal priest" is interpreted as meaning a cardinal who is of the order of priests. Originally, however, this referred to certain key priests of important churches of the Diocese of Rome, who were recognized as the cardinal priests, the important priests chosen by the pope to advise him in his duties as Bishop of Rome (the Latin cardo means "hinge"). Certain clerics in many dioceses at the time, not just that of Rome, were said to be the key personnel — the term gradually became exclusive to Rome to indicate those entrusted with electing the bishop of Rome, the pope.

What was the original definition of a cardinal priest?

priests chosen by the pope

What name was interpreted as meaning a cardinal who is of the order of popes?

I'm not sure.

What does the name "cardinal popes" originally refer to?

I'm not sure.

What is the name of the important nuns that are chosen by the pope to advice him?

I'm not sure.

Who holds the title Cardinal of Rome?

I'm not sure.

What term did not gradually become exclusive to Rome to indicate those entrusted with electing the pope?

I'm not sure.


While the cardinalate has long been expanded beyond the Roman pastoral clergy and Roman Curia, every cardinal priest has a titular church in Rome, though they may be bishops or archbishops elsewhere, just as cardinal bishops are given one of the suburbicarian dioceses around Rome. Pope Paul VI abolished all administrative rights cardinals had with regard to their titular churches, though the cardinal's name and coat of arms are still posted in the church, and they are expected to celebrate mass and preach there if convenient when they are in Rome.

Each cardinal priest has what?

a titular church in Rome

What does every cardinal priest not have?

I'm not sure.

What has not been expanded beyond the Roman pastoral clergy and Roman Curia?

I'm not sure.

What did Pope Paul V abolish?

I'm not sure.

What is not still posted in the church after Pope Paul VI abolished all administrative rights?

I'm not sure.

What are cardinals not expected to do?

I'm not sure.


While the number of cardinals was small from the times of the Roman Empire to the Renaissance, and frequently smaller than the number of recognized churches entitled to a cardinal priest, in the 16th century the College expanded markedly. In 1587, Pope Sixtus V sought to arrest this growth by fixing the maximum size of the College at 70, including 50 cardinal priests, about twice the historical number. This limit was respected until 1958, and the list of titular churches modified only on rare occasions, generally when a building fell into disrepair. When Pope John XXIII abolished the limit, he began to add new churches to the list, which Popes Paul VI and John Paul II continued to do. Today there are close to 150 titular churches, out of over 300 churches in Rome.

In what year did Pope Sixtus V put a cap on the number of cardinals in the College of Cardinals?

What was the maximum number allowed per Pope Sixtus V?

Who removed the cap on cardinals in the College of the Cardinals?

Pope John XXIII

Who had a large number from the times of the Roman Empire to the Renaissance?

I'm not sure.

What happened to the College of the Cardinals in the 3rd century?

I'm not sure.

Who sought to cap the number of the College at 50?

I'm not sure.

Who upheld the cap on cardinals in the College of the Cardinals?

I'm not sure.


For a period ending in the mid-20th century, long-serving cardinal priests were entitled to fill vacancies that arose among the cardinal bishops, just as cardinal deacons of ten years' standing are still entitled to become cardinal priests. Since then, cardinals have been advanced to cardinal bishop exclusively by papal appointment.

What were long-serving cardinal priests entitled to do ending in the mid-fifteenth century?

I'm not sure.

What are cardinal deacons of eight years standing still entitled to become?

I'm not sure.

Who has not been advanced to cardinal bishop exclusively by papal appointment?

I'm not sure.

How have cardinals been advance to cardinal priests?

I'm not sure.

Who filled vacancies that arose among the cardinal priests?

I'm not sure.


A cardinal named in pectore is known only to the pope; not even the cardinal so named is necessarily aware of his elevation, and in any event cannot function as a cardinal while his appointment is in pectore. Today, cardinals are named in pectore to protect them or their congregations from reprisals if their identities were known.

Which cardinal is known by all the Catholic Church?

I'm not sure.

What does the cardinal named pectore know?

I'm not sure.

What can a cardinal in pectore continue to function as?

I'm not sure.

What is done to cardinals that does not protect them or their congregations?

I'm not sure.


The Iranian languages or Iranic languages form a branch of the Indo-Iranian languages, which in turn are a branch of the Indo-European language family. The speakers of Iranian languages are known as Iranian peoples. Historical Iranian languages are grouped in three stages: Old Iranian (until 400 BCE), Middle Iranian (400 BCE – 900 CE), and New Iranian (since 900 CE). Of the Old Iranian languages, the better understood and recorded ones are Old Persian (a language of Achaemenid Iran) and Avestan (the language of the Avesta). Middle Iranian languages included Middle Persian (a language of Sassanid Iran), Parthian, and Bactrian.

What is another term meaning Iranian languages?

Iranic languages

What are the Iranic languages a subgroup of?

Indo-Iranian languages

What are Indo-Iranian languages a subset of?

Indo-European language family

When did the change from Old Iranian to Middle Iranian occur?

400 BCE

What is an example of a Sassanid language?

Middle Persian

What stage of Iranian languages from 400 BCE to 900 CE includes old Persian?

I'm not sure.

What stage of Iranian language was in use until 400 BCE and included Parthian and Bactrian?

I'm not sure.

When did the change from old Iranian to new Iranian occur?

I'm not sure.

Where are the old Iranian languages Parthian and Bactrian from?

I'm not sure.


As of 2008, there were an estimated 150–200 million native speakers of Iranian languages. Ethnologue estimates there are 86 Iranian languages, the largest amongst them being Persian, Pashto, Kurdish, and Balochi.

How many different Iranian languages exist?

In what year were there hundred and 50 to 200 Iranian languages

I'm not sure.

What are some of the largest among the 200 Iranian languages?

I'm not sure.

What were their 86 million of in 2008

I'm not sure.


The term Iranian is applied to any language which descends from the ancestral Proto-Iranian language. Iranian derives from the Persian and Sanskrit origin word Arya.

Iranian languages are all said to be derived from which predecessor?

Proto-Iranian

From what languages does the word Aryao come?

Persian and Sanskrit

What is any language that descends from ancestral Persian?

I'm not sure.

What word is derived from Sanskrit and Arya?

I'm not sure.

Arya is derived from what ancestral language?

I'm not sure.


The use of the term for the Iranian language family was introduced in 1836 by Christian Lassen. Robert Needham Cust used the term Irano-Aryan in 1878, and Orientalists such as George Abraham Grierson and Max Müller contrasted Irano-Aryan (Iranian) and Indo-Aryan (Indic). Some recent scholarship, primarily in German, has revived this convention.

When was the phrase Iranian language family first used?

Who first used the term Iranian language?

Christian Lassen

Who first used the term Irano-Aryan?

Robert Needham Cust

When was the phrase Irano-Aryan first used?

When did Robert Needham Cust introduced the term Iranian?

I'm not sure.

What term did Christian Lassen using 1878?

I'm not sure.

What did George Abraham Grierson and Christian Lassen contrast?

I'm not sure.

What scholars have revived the term Irano-Aryan

I'm not sure.


All Iranian languages are descended from a common ancestor, Proto-Iranian. In turn, and together with Proto-Indo-Aryan and the Nuristani languages, Proto-Iranian descends from a common ancestor Proto-Indo-Iranian. The Indo-Iranian languages are thought to have originated in Central Asia. The Andronovo culture is the suggested candidate for the common Indo-Iranian culture ca. 2000 BC.

From where did Iranian languages originate?

Proto-Iranian

What part of the world is it theorized that Indo-Iranian languages came from?

Central Asia

What society is a strong contender for the common culture speaking Indo-Iranian?

Andronovo

When did the Andronovo culture exist?

2000 BC

What other language did most Iranian languages descend from?

I'm not sure.

What other language besides Nuristani this proto-Iranian descent from?

I'm not sure.

What language does Proto-Indo Iranian descent from?

I'm not sure.

What languages are believed to have originated in central India?

I'm not sure.


It was situated precisely in the western part of Central Asia that borders present-day Russia (and present-day Kazakhstan). It was in relative proximity to the other satem ethno-linguistic groups of the Indo-European family, like Thracian, Balto-Slavic and others, and to common Indo-European's original homeland (more precisely, the steppes of southern Russia to the north of the Caucasus), according to the reconstructed linguistic relationships of common Indo-European.

What language family did Thracian and Balto-Slavic belong to?

Indo-European

What Indo-European groups belong to the Satem language family?

I'm not sure.

What language family originated in the mountains of Russia?

I'm not sure.


Proto-Iranian thus dates to some time after Proto-Indo-Iranian break-up, or the early second millennium BCE, as the Old Iranian languages began to break off and evolve separately as the various Iranian tribes migrated and settled in vast areas of southeastern Europe, the Iranian plateau, and Central Asia.

Where did early Iranian people establish societies?

southeastern Europe, the Iranian plateau, and Central Asia

What language came sometime after the breakup of Proto-Iranian?

I'm not sure.

What language broke up after the second millennium BCE?

I'm not sure.

When did the middle Iranian language begin to break off?

I'm not sure.


The multitude of Middle Iranian languages and peoples indicate that great linguistic diversity must have existed among the ancient speakers of Iranian languages. Of that variety of languages/dialects, direct evidence of only two have survived. These are:

What characteristic of Middle Iranian civilization is shown by the number of different languages and their speakers?

linguistic diversity

How many of the Middlie Iranian tongues have remained in existence since ancient time?

two

What characteristic of middle Iranian civilization is shown by the limited number of languages and speakers?

I'm not sure.

How many middle Iranian languages are still spoken today?

I'm not sure.

What languages were spoken by a limited number of people?

I'm not sure.


Old Persian is the Old Iranian dialect as it was spoken in south-western Iran by the inhabitants of Parsa, who also gave their name to their region and language. Genuine Old Persian is best attested in one of the three languages of the Behistun inscription, composed circa 520 BC, and which is the last inscription (and only inscription of significant length) in which Old Persian is still grammatically correct. Later inscriptions are comparatively brief, and typically simply copies of words and phrases from earlier ones, often with grammatical errors, which suggests that by the 4th century BC the transition from Old Persian to Middle Persian was already far advanced, but efforts were still being made to retain an "old" quality for official proclamations.

In which historical record does Old Persian appear in exemplary form?

the Behistun inscription

When was the Behistun inscription written?

520 BC

During what century was the change from Old to Middle Persian well underway?

4th century BC

What dialect was spoken in northwestern Iran

I'm not sure.

What official purpose was Middle Persian being used for in the fourth century BC?

I'm not sure.

What inscription was composed in the 4th Century BC.

I'm not sure.

In which document composed in 520 BC was old Persian grammatically incorrect?

I'm not sure.

During what century was the change from old to middle Persian just beginning?

I'm not sure.


The other directly attested Old Iranian dialects are the two forms of Avestan, which take their name from their use in the Avesta, the liturgical texts of indigenous Iranian religion that now goes by the name of Zoroastrianism but in the Avesta itself is simply known as vohu daena (later: behdin). The language of the Avesta is subdivided into two dialects, conventionally known as "Old (or 'Gathic') Avestan", and "Younger Avestan". These terms, which date to the 19th century, are slightly misleading since 'Younger Avestan' is not only much younger than 'Old Avestan', but also from a different geographic region. The Old Avestan dialect is very archaic, and at roughly the same stage of development as Rigvedic Sanskrit. On the other hand, Younger Avestan is at about the same linguistic stage as Old Persian, but by virtue of its use as a sacred language retained its "old" characteristics long after the Old Iranian languages had yielded to their Middle Iranian stage. Unlike Old Persian, which has Middle Persian as its known successor, Avestan has no clearly identifiable Middle Iranian stage (the effect of Middle Iranian is indistinguishable from effects due to other causes).

What ancient religious document exists in two versions and includes Old Iranian language?

Avestan

What is the contemporary name of the religion which Avesta was part of?

Zoroastrianism

What language shows a level of maturity corresponding to Old Avestan?

Rigvedic Sanskrit

What language shows the same level of development as Younger Avestan?

Old Persian

What dialect is the Avesta language from?

I'm not sure.

How many dialects of the Avesta language or there?

I'm not sure.

What religion is vohu daena the contemporary name for?

I'm not sure.

Why did old Persian retained its old characteristics long after the old Iranian languages

I'm not sure.

What language shows the same level of development as old Avestan

I'm not sure.


In addition to Old Persian and Avestan, which are the only directly attested Old Iranian languages, all Middle Iranian languages must have had a predecessor "Old Iranian" form of that language, and thus can all be said to have had an (at least hypothetical) "Old" form. Such hypothetical Old Iranian languages include Carduchi (the hypothetical predecessor to Kurdish) and Old Parthian. Additionally, the existence of unattested languages can sometimes be inferred from the impact they had on neighbouring languages. Such transfer is known to have occurred for Old Persian, which has (what is called) a "Median" substrate in some of its vocabulary. Also, foreign references to languages can also provide a hint to the existence of otherwise unattested languages, for example through toponyms/ethnonyms or in the recording of vocabulary, as Herodotus did for what he called "Scythian".

What language is Carduchi thought to have become?

Kurdish

What language did Herodotus invent a name for?

Scythian

What language to Kurdish become?

I'm not sure.

What cannot be inferred from the impact on a neighboring language?

I'm not sure.

What kind of substrate is Middle Iranian?

I'm not sure.

Who reported vocabulary for old Persian?

I'm not sure.


Conventionally, Iranian languages are grouped in "western" and "eastern" branches. These terms have little meaning with respect to Old Avestan as that stage of the language may predate the settling of the Iranian peoples into western and eastern groups. The geographic terms also have little meaning when applied to Younger Avestan since it isn't known where that dialect (or dialects) was spoken either. Certain is only that Avestan (all forms) and Old Persian are distinct, and since Old Persian is "western", and Avestan was not Old Persian, Avestan acquired a default assignment to "eastern". Confusing the issue is the introduction of a western Iranian substrate in later Avestan compositions and redactions undertaken at the centers of imperial power in western Iran (either in the south-west in Persia, or in the north-west in Nisa/Parthia and Ecbatana/Media).

What are the two main divisions of Iranian tongues?

western and eastern

Which language is associated with the western branch of Iranian?

Old Persian

Which language is associated with the eastern branch of Iranian?

Avestan

What languages are grouped into northern and southern branches?

I'm not sure.

What language is associated with the Western branch of old Persian?

I'm not sure.

What language is associated with the Eastern branch of Avestan?

I'm not sure.

What were the centers of imperial power in Persia?

I'm not sure.


Two of the earliest dialectal divisions among Iranian indeed happen to not follow the later division into Western and Eastern blocks. These concern the fate of the Proto-Indo-Iranian first-series palatal consonants, *ć and *dź:

What elements of Proto-Indo-Iranian did not diverge according to the ensuing split between eastern and western variants?

*ć and *dź

What type of letters are *ć and *dź?

first-series palatal consonants

What Iranian dialects did not follow the Western and Eastern blocks?

I'm not sure.

What type of valves are c and dz?

I'm not sure.


As a common intermediate stage, it is possible to reconstruct depalatalized affricates: *c, *dz. (This coincides with the state of affairs in the neighboring Nuristani languages.) A further complication however concerns the consonant clusters *ćw and *dźw:

What languages share a similar situation?

Nuristani languages

What other elements of early Iranian languages problematize the east-west division?

*ćw and *dźw

What is the linguistic categorization of *ćw and *dźw?

consonant clusters

What is contrary to the state of affairs in the Nuristani languages?

I'm not sure.

What other elements of early Iranian language support the East-West division?

I'm not sure.


It is possible that other distinct dialect groups were already in existence during this period. Good candidates are the hypothethical ancestor languages of Alanian/Scytho-Sarmatian subgroup of Scythian in the far northwest; and the hypothetical "Old Parthian" (the Old Iranian ancestor of Parthian) in the near northwest, where original *dw > *b (paralleling the development of *ćw).

What may have also been in use at the time?

other distinct dialect groups

Precursors of what subset of Scythian are theorized to have existed?

Alanian/Scytho-Sarmatian

What possible predecessor of Pathian is thought to have existed?

Old Parthian

What was not in use at the time?

I'm not sure.

What is the ancestor of old Iranian?

I'm not sure.

c parallel the development of what other two letters?

I'm not sure.

Scythian was the ancestor of what other languages?

I'm not sure.


What is known in Iranian linguistic history as the "Middle Iranian" era is thought to begin around the 4th century BCE lasting through the 9th century. Linguistically the Middle Iranian languages are conventionally classified into two main groups, Western and Eastern.

When did the age of Middle Iranian come to a close?

9th century

What are the two main divisions of Middle Iranian?

Western and Eastern

What era began in the ninth century?

I'm not sure.

What language was divided into a northern and southern division?

I'm not sure.


The Western family includes Parthian (Arsacid Pahlavi) and Middle Persian, while Bactrian, Sogdian, Khwarezmian, Saka, and Old Ossetic (Scytho-Sarmatian) fall under the Eastern category. The two languages of the Western group were linguistically very close to each other, but quite distinct from their eastern counterparts. On the other hand, the Eastern group was an areal entity whose languages retained some similarity to Avestan. They were inscribed in various Aramaic-derived alphabets which had ultimately evolved from the Achaemenid Imperial Aramaic script, though Bactrian was written using an adapted Greek script.

Bactrian, Sogdian, and Saka are examples of what type of Iranian language?

Eastern

Which language bears a resemblance to the diversity of eastern Iranian languages?

Avestan

Where did the the alphabets used by eastern languages come from?

Aramaic

What did the Bactrian language use for writing?

Greek script

What family includes party on an Old Persian?

I'm not sure.

What family includes Bactrain, Sogdian and old Iranian?

I'm not sure.

Where did the alphabet used by Western languages come from?

I'm not sure.

What script was used for Persian rating?

I'm not sure.


Middle Persian (Pahlavi) was the official language under the Sasanian dynasty in Iran. It was in use from the 3rd century CE until the beginning of the 10th century. The script used for Middle Persian in this era underwent significant maturity. Middle Persian, Parthian and Sogdian were also used as literary languages by the Manichaeans, whose texts also survive in various non-Iranian languages, from Latin to Chinese. Manichaean texts were written in a script closely akin to the Syriac script.

What is another term for Middle Persian?

Pahlavi

When did Middle Persian start being u sed?

3rd century CE

What are three languages employed by the Manichaeans?

Middle Persian, Parthian and Sogdian

What was the writing of Manichaean documents similar to?

Syriac script

Underwood dynasty was old Persian the official language?

I'm not sure.

What language was in use in Iran before the third century?

I'm not sure.

What are three spoken languages use by the Manchaeans?

I'm not sure.

Latin and Chinese writing were similar to what texts?

I'm not sure.


Following the Islamic Conquest of Persia (Iran), there were important changes in the role of the different dialects within the Persian Empire. The old prestige form of Middle Iranian, also known as Pahlavi, was replaced by a new standard dialect called Dari as the official language of the court. The name Dari comes from the word darbâr (دربار), which refers to the royal court, where many of the poets, protagonists, and patrons of the literature flourished. The Saffarid dynasty in particular was the first in a line of many dynasties to officially adopt the new language in 875 CE. Dari may have been heavily influenced by regional dialects of eastern Iran, whereas the earlier Pahlavi standard was based more on western dialects. This new prestige dialect became the basis of Standard New Persian. Medieval Iranian scholars such as Abdullah Ibn al-Muqaffa (8th century) and Ibn al-Nadim (10th century) associated the term "Dari" with the eastern province of Khorasan, while they used the term "Pahlavi" to describe the dialects of the northwestern areas between Isfahan and Azerbaijan, and "Pârsi" ("Persian" proper) to describe the Dialects of Fars. They also noted that the unofficial language of the royalty itself was yet another dialect, "Khuzi", associated with the western province of Khuzestan.

The proliferation of which religion had a profound effect on the development of Iranian languages?

Islam

What language displaced Middle Iranian as the court's official tongue?

Dari

What was the first dynasty to use Dari?

Saffarid

When did the Saffarid dynasty begin using Dari?

875 CE

What area was the name Dari connected to by medieval Iranian thinkers?

Khorasan

What religion slowed the spread of the Iranian language?

I'm not sure.

What language do middle Iranian displace is the court's official language?

I'm not sure.

What was the last Dynasty to use Dari

I'm not sure.

Who stopped using Dari in 875 CE?

I'm not sure.

What was the official dialect of the royalty itself?

I'm not sure.


The Islamic conquest also brought with it the adoption of Arabic script for writing Persian and much later, Kurdish, Pashto and Balochi. All three were adapted to the writing by the addition of a few letters. This development probably occurred some time during the second half of the 8th century, when the old middle Persian script began dwindling in usage. The Arabic script remains in use in contemporary modern Persian. Tajik script was first Latinised in the 1920s under the then Soviet nationality policy. The script was however subsequently Cyrillicized in the 1930s by the Soviet government.

What was the new form of writing introduced by the spread of Islam?

Arabic script

When did usage of Middle Persian script fall off?

second half of the 8th century

What script was converted to Latin in the 1920s?

Tajik script

When was Tajik script converted to Cyrillic?

the 1930s

Who catalyzed the conversion of Tajik script into Cyrillic?

the Soviet government

The spread of what religion introduce the Persian script?

I'm not sure.

When did the use of middle Persian script begin?

I'm not sure.

When was Arabic script converted to Latin?

I'm not sure.

What's began the conversion of Arabic script to Cyrillic?

I'm not sure.


The geographical regions in which Iranian languages were spoken were pushed back in several areas by newly neighbouring languages. Arabic spread into some parts of Western Iran (Khuzestan), and Turkic languages spread through much of Central Asia, displacing various Iranian languages such as Sogdian and Bactrian in parts of what is today Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. In Eastern Europe, mostly comprising the territory of modern-day Ukraine, southern European Russia, and parts of the Balkans, the core region of the native Scythians, Sarmatians, and Alans had been decisively been taken over as a result of absorption and assimilation (e.g. Slavicisation) by the various Proto-Slavic population of the region, by the 6th century AD. This resulted in the displacement and extinction of the once predominant Scythian languages of the region. Sogdian's close relative Yaghnobi barely survives in a small area of the Zarafshan valley east of Samarkand, and Saka as Ossetic in the Caucasus, which is the sole remnant of the once predominant Scythian languages in Eastern Europe proper and large parts of the North Caucasus. Various small Iranian languages in the Pamirs survive that are derived from Eastern Iranian.

What is another term for Western Iran?

Khuzestan

What are two languages that were forced out by the spread of Arabic?

Sogdian and Bactrian

By what century had the area inhabited by Sarmatians been absorbed by pre-Slavic people?

6th century AD

Where can the remnants of Yaghnobi be found?

Zarafshan valley

Ossetic is a version of which Scythian language?

Saka

What language writing to some parts of eastern Iran?

I'm not sure.

What two languages grew alongside Arabic?

I'm not sure.

By what century had the area inhabited by pre-Slavic people been absorbed by the Sarmations?

I'm not sure.

What small area still speaks Sogdian?

I'm not sure.


Lighting or illumination is the deliberate use of light to achieve a practical or aesthetic effect. Lighting includes the use of both artificial light sources like lamps and light fixtures, as well as natural illumination by capturing daylight. Daylighting (using windows, skylights, or light shelves) is sometimes used as the main source of light during daytime in buildings. This can save energy in place of using artificial lighting, which represents a major component of energy consumption in buildings. Proper lighting can enhance task performance, improve the appearance of an area, or have positive psychological effects on occupants.

What is used a main source of light for a building during the day?

Daylighting

What kind of effects can natural illumination have on a persons psychological?

positive

Using natural illumination instead of artificial light sources help with what?

energy consumption

Lamps and light fixtures are a form of what?

artificial light sources

The use of light to achieve an aesthetic effect is know as?

Lighting or illumination

What can be used a main source of light for a building during the day?

Daylighting

Lamps and light fixtures  are a form of what?

Lighting

What kind of effects can proper lighting have on a persons psychologically?

positive

What does using natural illumination instead of artificial lighting help with?

energy consumption

What is the used to achieve a practical effect?

Lighting or illumination


Indoor lighting is usually accomplished using light fixtures, and is a key part of interior design. Lighting can also be an intrinsic component of landscape projects.

What type of fixtures do you use for indoor lighting?

light fixtures

What is considered a key part of interior design?

Indoor lighting

What can be a intrinsic component of landscaping?

lighting

What type of fixtures are used typically used for indoor lighting?

light fixtures

What can be used as a intrinsic component of landscape projects?

lighting


Forms of lighting include alcove lighting, which like most other uplighting is indirect. This is often done with fluorescent lighting (first available at the 1939 World's Fair) or rope light, occasionally with neon lighting, and recently with LED strip lighting. It is a form of backlighting.

When was fluorescent lighting first available?


Recessed lighting (often called "pot lights" in Canada, "can lights" or 'high hats" in the US) is popular, with fixtures mounted into the ceiling structure so as to appear flush with it. These downlights can use narrow beam spotlights, or wider-angle floodlights, both of which are bulbs having their own reflectors. There are also downlights with internal reflectors designed to accept common 'A' lamps (light bulbs) which are generally less costly than reflector lamps. Downlights can be incandescent, fluorescent, HID (high intensity discharge) or LED.

What type of lighting can be mounted in the ceiling to appear flush?

Recessed lighting


With the discovery of fire, the earliest form of artificial lighting used to illuminate an area were campfires or torches. As early as 400,000 BCE, fire was kindled in the caves of Peking Man. Prehistoric people used primitive oil lamps to illuminate surroundings. These lamps were made from naturally occurring materials such as rocks, shells, horns and stones, were filled with grease, and had a fiber wick. Lamps typically used animal or vegetable fats as fuel. Hundreds of these lamps (hollow worked stones) have been found in the Lascaux caves in modern-day France, dating to about 15,000 years ago. Oily animals (birds and fish) were also used as lamps after being threaded with a wick. Fireflies have been used as lighting sources. Candles and glass and pottery lamps were also invented. Chandeliers were an early form of "light fixture".

Peking man kindled fire as early as?

400,000 BCE

Which type of oily animals where also used as lamps after being threaded with wick?

birds and fish

What is considered the earliest form of artificial lighting?

campfires or torches

The hollow worked stones lamps found in Lascaux caves date back how far?

15,000 years


Major reductions in the cost of lighting occurred with the discovery of whale oil and kerosene. Gas lighting was economical enough to power street lights in major cities starting in the early 1800s, and was also used in some commercial buildings and in the homes of wealthy people. The gas mantle boosted the luminosity of utility lighting and of kerosene lanterns. The next major drop in price came about with the incandescent light bulb powered by electricity.

What type of lighting was powered by electricity?

incandescent light

When did gas powered street lights became economically available.

early 1800s


Over time, electric lighting became ubiquitous in developed countries. Segmented sleep patterns disappeared, improved nighttime lighting made more activities possible at night, and more street lights reduced urban crime.

Street lights help reduce?

urban crime.


Lighting fixtures come in a wide variety of styles for various functions. The most important functions are as a holder for the light source, to provide directed light and to avoid visual glare. Some are very plain and functional, while some are pieces of art in themselves. Nearly any material can be used, so long as it can tolerate the excess heat and is in keeping with safety codes.

What can come in a wide variety of styles for various functions?

Lighting fixtures

Functioning as holder a light fixture can provide directed light and avoid?

visual glare


An important property of light fixtures is the luminous efficacy or wall-plug efficiency, meaning the amount of usable light emanating from the fixture per used energy, usually measured in lumen per watt. A fixture using replaceable light sources can also have its efficiency quoted as the percentage of light passed from the "bulb" to the surroundings. The more transparent the lighting fixture is, the higher efficacy. Shading the light will normally decrease efficacy but increase the directionality and the visual comfort probability.

Luminous efficacy is measure in what unit?

lumen per watt


Color temperature for white light sources also affects their use for certain applications. The color temperature of a white light source is the temperature in Kelvin of a theoretical black body emitter that most closely matches the spectral characteristics of the lamp. An incandescent bulb has a color temperature around 2800 to 3000 Kelvin; daylight is around 6400 Kelvin. Lower color temperature lamps have relatively more energy in the yellow and red part of the visible spectrum, while high color temperatures correspond to lamps with more of a blue-white appearance. For critical inspection or color matching tasks, or for retail displays of food and clothing, the color temperature of the lamps will be selected for the best overall lighting effect.

How many Kelvins is daylight measured at?

What has a color temperature around 2800 to 3000 Kelvin?

incandescent bulb

It can be said that lights with a high color temperature have more energy in what color spectrum?

blue-white

A lamp with more energy in the yellow and red spectrum are known to be?

Lower color temperature


Lighting is classified by intended use as general, accent, or task lighting, depending largely on the distribution of the light produced by the fixture.

A light is classified by intended purpose, what mainly changes its classification?

light produced by the fixture.


Track lighting, invented by Lightolier, was popular at one period of time because it was much easier to install than recessed lighting, and individual fixtures are decorative and can be easily aimed at a wall. It has regained some popularity recently in low-voltage tracks, which often look nothing like their predecessors because they do not have the safety issues that line-voltage systems have, and are therefore less bulky and more ornamental in themselves. A master transformer feeds all of the fixtures on the track or rod with 12 or 24 volts, instead of each light fixture having its own line-to-low voltage transformer. There are traditional spots and floods, as well as other small hanging fixtures. A modified version of this is cable lighting, where lights are hung from or clipped to bare metal cables under tension.

Who invented track lighting?

Lightolier

What feeds all the fixtures in low voltage tracks instead of each light having a line-to-low voltage transformer.

master transformer

What  type of lighting uses lights that are hung or clipped to bare metal cables?

cable lighting

How many volts does a track lighting system usually use?

12 or 24 volts


A sconce is a wall-mounted fixture, particularly one that shines up and sometimes down as well. A torchiere is an uplight intended for ambient lighting. It is typically a floor lamp but may be wall-mounted like a sconce.

What is a uplight used for ambient lighting?

torchiere


The portable or table lamp is probably the most common fixture, found in many homes and offices. The standard lamp and shade that sits on a table is general lighting, while the desk lamp is considered task lighting. Magnifier lamps are also task lighting.

What is one type of fixture commonly found in offices?

table lamp

Magnifier lamps are considered what type of lighting?

task lighting


The illuminated ceiling was once popular in the 1960s and 1970s but fell out of favor after the 1980s. This uses diffuser panels hung like a suspended ceiling below fluorescent lights, and is considered general lighting. Other forms include neon, which is not usually intended to illuminate anything else, but to actually be an artwork in itself. This would probably fall under accent lighting, though in a dark nightclub it could be considered general lighting.

When would neon lighting be considered general lighting?

dark nightclub

What uses diffuser panels below fluorescent lights?

illuminated ceiling

Normally neon lighting is considered what type of lighting?

accent lighting


In a movie theater, steps in the aisles are usually marked with a row of small lights for convenience and safety, when the film has started and the other lights are off. Traditionally made up of small low wattage, low voltage lamps in a track or translucent tube, these are rapidly being replaced with LED based versions.

What do steps in move theater aisles have for safety markings?

small lights

What are the low wattage lamps being replaced with in movie theaters?

LED based versions

What kind of tube are the movie theaters lights enclosed in?

translucent tube


Street Lights are used to light roadways and walkways at night. Some manufacturers are designing LED and photovoltaic luminaires to provide an energy-efficient alternative to traditional street light fixtures.

What is used to light walkways at night?

Street Lights

What kind of lights are being designed for energy efficiency?

photovoltaic luminaires


Floodlights can be used to illuminate outdoor playing fields or work zones during nighttime hours. The most common type of floodlights are metal halide and high pressure sodium lights.

What kind of light is used to illuminate outdoor playing fields at night?

Floodlights


Sometimes security lighting can be used along roadways in urban areas, or behind homes or commercial facilities. These are extremely bright lights used to deter crime. Security lights may include floodlights.

Extremely bright lights used to deter crime are called?

security lighting


Entry lights can be used outside to illuminate and signal the entrance to a property. These lights are installed for safety, security, and for decoration.

What type of light would be used illuminate the entrance to a property?

Entry lights


Vehicles typically include headlamps and tail lights. Headlamps are white or selective yellow lights placed in the front of the vehicle, designed to illuminate the upcoming road and to make the vehicle more visible. Many manufactures are turning to LED headlights as an energy-efficient alternative to traditional headlamps. Tail and brake lights are red and emit light to the rear so as to reveal the vehicle's direction of travel to following drivers. White rear-facing reversing lamps indicate that the vehicle's transmission has been placed in the reverse gear, warning anyone behind the vehicle that it is moving backwards, or about to do so. Flashing turn signals on the front, side, and rear of the vehicle indicate an intended change of position or direction. In the late 1950s, some automakers began to use electroluminescent technology to backlight their cars' speedometers and other gauges or to draw attention to logos or other decorative elements.

What color are tail lights?

red

What color are headlamps on a vehicle?

white or selective yellow

When did automakers start using electroluminescent technology to backlight gauges?

late 1950s

What color are reversing indicator lamps?

White

What indicates that a driver is intending to change position?

turn signals


Commonly called 'light bulbs', lamps are the removable and replaceable part of a light fixture, which converts electrical energy into electromagnetic radiation. While lamps have traditionally been rated and marketed primarily in terms of their power consumption, expressed in watts, proliferation of lighting technology beyond the incandescent light bulb has eliminated the correspondence of wattage to the amount of light produced. For example, a 60 W incandescent light bulb produces about the same amount of light as a 13 W compact fluorescent lamp. Each of these technologies has a different efficacy in converting electrical energy to visible light. Visible light output is typically measured in lumens. This unit only quantifies the visible radiation, and excludes invisible infrared and ultraviolet light. A wax candle produces on the close order of 13 lumens, a 60 watt incandescent lamp makes around 700 lumens, and a 15-watt compact fluorescent lamp produces about 800 lumens, but actual output varies by specific design. Rating and marketing emphasis is shifting away from wattage and towards lumen output, to give the purchaser a directly applicable basis upon which to select a lamp.

What is the removable and replaceable part of a light fixture?

light bulbs

What does a light bulb convert into electromagnetic radiation?

electrical energy

Huge much light does a 13 W compact fluorescent lamp produce equivalent to a incandescent light bulb.

60 w

How many lemuns does a 15 watt fluorescent lamp produce?

800 lumens


Lighting design as it applies to the built environment is known as 'architectural lighting design'. Lighting of structures considers aesthetic elements as well as practical considerations of quantity of light required, occupants of the structure, energy efficiency and cost. Artificial lighting takes into account the amount of daylight received in an internal space by using Daylight factor calculation. For simple installations, hand-calculations based on tabular data are used to provide an acceptable lighting design. More critical or optimized designs now routinely use mathematical modeling on a computer using software such as Radiance which can allow an Architect to quickly undertake complex calculations to review the benefit of a particular design.

What is designing as it applies to built environments?

architectural lighting design

Would you consider aesthetic elements alone in architectural lighting design?

kno

What is the name of the software sometimes used to help calculate lighting needs in a built environment?

Radiance

Hand-calculations are based off of what type of data?

tabular

What type of factor calculation can be used to find out how much daylight is received in a internal space.

Daylight factor calculation.


In some design instances, materials used on walls and furniture play a key role in the lighting effect< for example dark paint tends to absorb light, making the room appear smaller and more dim than it is, whereas light paint does the opposite. In addition to paint, reflective surfaces also have an effect on lighting design.

What type of paint tends to absorb light?

dark paint

What kind of paint makes a room a room look larger and brighter?

light paint


Photometric studies (also sometimes referred to as "layouts" or "point by points") are often used to simulate lighting designs for projects before they are built or renovated. This enables architects, lighting designers, and engineers to determine whether a proposed lighting setup will deliver the amount of light intended. They will also be able to determine the contrast ratio between light and dark areas. In many cases these studies are referenced against IESNA or CIBSE recommended lighting practices for the type of application. Depending on the type of area, different design aspects may be emphasized for safety or practicality (i.e. such as maintaining uniform light levels, avoiding glare or highlighting certain areas). Specialized software is often used to create these, which typically combine the use of two-dimensional digital CAD drawings and lighting calculation software (i.e. AGi32or Dialux).

What type of study is used to simulate lighting designs?

Photometric studies


Lighting illuminates the performers and artists in a live theatre, dance, or musical performance, and is selected and arranged to create dramatic effects. Stage lighting uses general illumination technology in devices configured for easy adjustment of their output characteristics.[citation needed] The setup of stage lighting is tailored for each scene of each production. Dimmers, colored filters, reflectors, lenses, motorized or manually aimed lamps, and different kinds of flood and spot lights are among the tools used by a stage lighting designer to produce the desired effects. A set of lighting cues are prepared so that the lighting operator can control the lights in step with the performance; complex theatre lighting systems use computer control of lighting instruments.

What is prepared prior to the performance for the lighting operator?

lighting cues


Motion picture and television production use many of the same tools and methods of stage lighting. Especially in the early days of these industries, very high light levels were required and heat produced by lighting equipment presented substantial challenges. Modern cameras require less light, and modern light sources emit less heat.

Motion pictures employee the similar lighting techniques as which other form of lighting?

stage lighting


Measurement of light or photometry is generally concerned with the amount of useful light falling on a surface and the amount of light emerging from a lamp or other source, along with the colors that can be rendered by this light. The human eye responds differently to light from different parts of the visible spectrum, therefore photometric measurements must take the luminosity function into account when measuring the amount of useful light. The basic SI unit of measurement is the candela (cd), which describes the luminous intensity, all other photometric units are derived from the candela. Luminance for instance is a measure of the density of luminous intensity in a given direction. It describes the amount of light that passes through or is emitted from a particular area, and falls within a given solid angle. The SI unit for luminance is candela per square metre (cd/m2). The CGS unit of luminance is the stilb, which is equal to one candela per square centimetre or 10 kcd/m2. The amount of useful light emitted from a source or the luminous flux is measured in lumen (lm).

What is the basic SI unit of measurement?

candela (cd)

What is the SI unit for lumiance?

What is the CGS unit of lumiance?

stilb

What is the amount of useful light emitted from a luminous flux measured in?

lumen (lm)


The SI unit of illuminance and luminous emittance, being the luminous power per area, is measured in Lux. It is used in photometry as a measure of the intensity, as perceived by the human eye, of light that hits or passes through a surface. It is analogous to the radiometric unit watts per square metre, but with the power at each wavelength weighted according to the luminosity function, a standardized model of human visual brightness perception. In English, "lux" is used in both singular and plural.

What is a standardized model of human visual brightness?

luminosity function

What is the SI unit of illuminace and luminous emittance?

Lux


Several measurement methods have been developed to control glare resulting from indoor lighting design. The Unified Glare Rating (UGR), the Visual Comfort Probability, and the Daylight Glare Index are some of the most well-known methods of measurement. In addition to these new methods, four main factors influence the degree of discomfort glare; the luminance of the glare source, the solid angle of the glare source, the background luminance, and the position of the glare source in the field of view must all be taken into account.

What does UGR stand for?

Unified Glare Rating


To define light source color properties, the lighting industry predominantly relies on two metrics, correlated color temperature (CCT), commonly used as an indication of the apparent "warmth" or "coolness" of the light emitted by a source, and color rendering index (CRI), an indication of the light source’s ability to make objects appear natural.

What does CCT stand for?

correlated color temperature

What does CRI stand for?

color rendering index

What metric indicates a lights ability to make object appear natural?

CRI

What metric indicates "warmth" or "coolness"?

CCT


For example, in order to meet the expectations for good color rendering in retail applications, research suggests using the well-established CRI along with another metric called gamut area index (GAI). GAI represents the relative separation of object colors illuminated by a light source; the greater the GAI, the greater the apparent saturation or vividness of the object colors. As a result, light sources which balance both CRI and GAI are generally preferred over ones that have only high CRI or only high GAI.

What does GAI stand for?

gamut area index

The relative separating of object colors illuminated by a light source is known as?

GAI

Would a lower GAI mean higher apparent saturation or vividness of object colors?

ano


Typical measurements of light have used a Dosimeter. Dosimeters measure an individual's or an object's exposure to something in the environment, such as light dosimeters and ultraviolet dosimeters.

What is typically used to measure light?

light dosimeters


In order to specifically measure the amount of light entering the eye, personal circadian light meter called the Daysimeter has been developed. This is the first device created to accurately measure and characterize light (intensity, spectrum, timing, and duration) entering the eye that affects the human body's clock.

What measures the amount of light entering the eye?

Daysimeter

A Daysimeter what type of personal meter?

circadian light meter