Often taxonomists prefer to use phylogenetic analysis to determine whether a population can be considered a subspecies. Phylogenetic analysis relies on the concept of derived characteristics that are not shared between groups, usually applying to populations that are allopatric (geographically separated) and therefore discretely bounded. This would make a subspecies, evolutionarily speaking, a clade – a group with a common evolutionary ancestor population. The smooth gradation of human genetic variation in general tends to rule out any idea that human population groups can be considered monophyletic (cleanly divided), as there appears to always have been considerable gene flow between human populations. Rachel Caspari (2003) have argued that clades are by definition monophyletic groups (a taxon that includes all descendants of a given ancestor) and since no groups currently regarded as races are monophyletic, none of those groups can be clades.

What analysis method are taxonomists fond of using in considering a population?

phylogenetic

How are allopatric populations separated?

geographically

What is a group with a common evolutionary ancestor population called?

a clade

What is a tongue twister of a word that merely means "cleanly divided"?

monophyletic

Who argued in 2003 that all clades are by definition monophyletic groups?

Rachel Caspari


For the anthropologists Lieberman and Jackson (1995), however, there are more profound methodological and conceptual problems with using cladistics to support concepts of race. They claim that "the molecular and biochemical proponents of this model explicitly use racial categories in their initial grouping of samples". For example, the large and highly diverse macroethnic groups of East Indians, North Africans, and Europeans are presumptively grouped as Caucasians prior to the analysis of their DNA variation. This is claimed to limit and skew interpretations, obscure other lineage relationships, deemphasize the impact of more immediate clinal environmental factors on genomic diversity, and can cloud our understanding of the true patterns of affinity. They argue that however significant the empirical research, these studies use the term race in conceptually imprecise and careless ways. They suggest that the authors of these studies find support for racial distinctions only because they began by assuming the validity of race. "For empirical reasons we prefer to place emphasis on clinal variation, which recognizes the existence of adaptive human hereditary variation and simultaneously stresses that such variation is not found in packages that can be labeled races."

What did Lieberman and Jackon find profound problems using cladistics to support concepts of?

race

What would the diverse group of East Indians, North Africans and Europeans be grouped as prior to DNA analysis?

Caucasians

Cladistics can limit and skew what?

interpretations

Lieberman and Jackson suggest authors of some studies use the term race in what ways?

conceptually imprecise and careless

What is variation found in that can be labeled as races?

packages


One crucial innovation in reconceptualizing genotypic and phenotypic variation was the anthropologist C. Loring Brace's observation that such variations, insofar as it is affected by natural selection, slow migration, or genetic drift, are distributed along geographic gradations or clines. In part this is due to isolation by distance. This point called attention to a problem common to phenotype-based descriptions of races (for example, those based on hair texture and skin color): they ignore a host of other similarities and differences (for example, blood type) that do not correlate highly with the markers for race. Thus, anthropologist Frank Livingstone's conclusion, that since clines cross racial boundaries, "there are no races, only clines".

What did C. Loring Brace observe about about variations?

distributed along geographic gradations or clines

Why are variations distributed along clines?

isolation by distance

What is a problem common to phenotype-based descriptions of races?

they ignore a host of other similarities and differences

What is Frank Livingstone's profession?

anthropologist

What is the conclusion from the evidence that clines cross racial boundaries?

there are no races, only clines


In a response to Livingstone, Theodore Dobzhansky argued that when talking about race one must be attentive to how the term is being used: "I agree with Dr. Livingstone that if races have to be 'discrete units,' then there are no races, and if 'race' is used as an 'explanation' of the human variability, rather than vice versa, then the explanation is invalid." He further argued that one could use the term race if one distinguished between "race differences" and "the race concept." The former refers to any distinction in gene frequencies between populations; the latter is "a matter of judgment." He further observed that even when there is clinal variation, "Race differences are objectively ascertainable biological phenomena… but it does not follow that racially distinct populations must be given racial (or subspecific) labels." In short, Livingstone and Dobzhansky agree that there are genetic differences among human beings; they also agree that the use of the race concept to classify people, and how the race concept is used, is a matter of social convention. They differ on whether the race concept remains a meaningful and useful social convention.

What must one be attentive to when talking about race?

how the term is being used

On what point did Dobzhansky agree with Dr. Livingstone?

if races have to be 'discrete units,' then there are no races

What is merely "a matter of judgement"?

"the race concept."

While race difference possible to easily see, they need not be given what?

labels

Livingston and Dobzhansky disagree on whether the race concept is what?

a meaningful and useful social convention


In 1964, the biologists Paul Ehrlich and Holm pointed out cases where two or more clines are distributed discordantly—for example, melanin is distributed in a decreasing pattern from the equator north and south; frequencies for the haplotype for beta-S hemoglobin, on the other hand, radiate out of specific geographical points in Africa. As the anthropologists Leonard Lieberman and Fatimah Linda Jackson observed, "Discordant patterns of heterogeneity falsify any description of a population as if it were genotypically or even phenotypically homogeneous".

What did two biologists point out in 1964?

cases where two or more clines are distributed discordantly

What gene distribution decreases as you move away from the equator in either direction?

melanin

What do the frequencies for the haplotype for beta-5 hemogoblin do from specific points in Africa?

radiate

To what profession do both Leonard Lieberman and Fatimah Linda Jackson belong?

anthropologists

What patterns of heterogeneity falsify any descriptions of population?

Discordant


Patterns such as those seen in human physical and genetic variation as described above, have led to the consequence that the number and geographic location of any described races is highly dependent on the importance attributed to, and quantity of, the traits considered. Scientists discovered a skin-lighting mutation that partially accounts for the appearance of Light skin in humans (people who migrated out of Africa northward into what is now Europe) which they estimate occurred 20,000 to 50,000 years ago. The East Asians owe their relatively light skin to different mutations. On the other hand, the greater the number of traits (or alleles) considered, the more subdivisions of humanity are detected, since traits and gene frequencies do not always correspond to the same geographical location. Or as Ossorio & Duster (2005) put it:

What is the consequence of the number and geographic location ascribed to a race highly dependent on?

the importance attributed to, and quantity of, the traits considered.

What mutation did scientists discover?

skin-lighting

What partially accounts for the appearance of light skin in humans?

mutation

What do East Asians have to thank for their relatively light skin?

different mutations

Traits and gene frequencies do not always correspond to what type of location?

geographical


Coop et al. (2009) found "a selected allele that strongly differentiates the French from both the Yoruba and Han could be strongly clinal across Europe, or at high frequency in Europe and absent elsewhere, or follow any other distribution according to the geographic nature of the selective pressure. However, we see that the global geographic distributions of these putatively selected alleles are largely determined simply by their frequencies in Yoruba, French and Han (Figure 3). The global distributions fall into three major geographic patterns that we interpret as non-African sweeps, west Eurasian sweeps and East Asian sweeps, respectively."

What thing that strongly differentiates the French from some other populations be clinal across Europe?

a selected allele

When did Coop and others find out something about a selected allele?

Something that is found at high frequency in Europe could be what elsewhere?

absent

How many major geographic patterns do the global distributions fall into?

three

What are sweeps?

major geographic patterns


Another way to look at differences between populations is to measure genetic differences rather than physical differences between groups. The mid-20th-century anthropologist William C. Boyd defined race as: "A population which differs significantly from other populations in regard to the frequency of one or more of the genes it possesses. It is an arbitrary matter which, and how many, gene loci we choose to consider as a significant 'constellation'". Leonard Lieberman and Rodney Kirk have pointed out that "the paramount weakness of this statement is that if one gene can distinguish races then the number of races is as numerous as the number of human couples reproducing." Moreover, the anthropologist Stephen Molnar has suggested that the discordance of clines inevitably results in a multiplication of races that renders the concept itself useless. The Human Genome Project states "People who have lived in the same geographic region for many generations may have some alleles in common, but no allele will be found in all members of one population and in no members of any other."

What can one use to look at differences between groups instead of physical differences?

genetic differences

Who was William C. Boyd?

mid-20th-century anthropologist

Boyd felt race was based on a specific differentiation of the frequency of what in a population?

genes

How numerous would the number of races be if one gene can distinguish races?

number of human couples reproducing

What may people who have lived in the same area for generations have in common?

alleles


The population geneticist Sewall Wright developed one way of measuring genetic differences between populations known as the Fixation index, which is often abbreviated to FST. This statistic is often used in taxonomy to compare differences between any two given populations by measuring the genetic differences among and between populations for individual genes, or for many genes simultaneously. It is often stated that the fixation index for humans is about 0.15. This translates to an estimated 85% of the variation measured in the overall human population is found within individuals of the same population, and about 15% of the variation occurs between populations. These estimates imply that any two individuals from different populations are almost as likely to be more similar to each other than either is to a member of their own group. Richard Lewontin, who affirmed these ratios, thus concluded neither "race" nor "subspecies" were appropriate or useful ways to describe human populations. However, others have noticed that group variation was relatively similar to the variation observed in other mammalian species.

What did Sewall Wright develop one way of measuring?

genetic differences between populations

What was Wright's method known as?

the Fixation index

What is the often stated FST for humans?

Richard Lewontin, upon looking at the FST ratios, concluded race wasn't an appropriate or useful way to describe what?

human populations

Human group variation is similar to variation observed in what other species?

mammalian


Wright himself believed that values >0.25 represent very great genetic variation and that an FST of 0.15–0.25 represented great variation. However, about 5% of human variation occurs between populations within continents, therefore FST values between continental groups of humans (or races) of as low as 0.1 (or possibly lower) have been found in some studies, suggesting more moderate levels of genetic variation. Graves (1996) has countered that FST should not be used as a marker of subspecies status, as the statistic is used to measure the degree of differentiation between populations, although see also Wright (1978).

FST values greater than .25 represent very great what?

genetic variation

About how much human variation occurs between continental populations?

FST values as low as what amount have been found in some studies?

What is the name of the person who thinks FST shouldn't be used as a marker of subspecies status?

Graves

FST is used to measure the degree of differentiation between what?

populations


Jeffrey Long and Rick Kittles give a long critique of the application of FST to human populations in their 2003 paper "Human Genetic Diversity and the Nonexistence of Biological Races". They find that the figure of 85% is misleading because it implies that all human populations contain on average 85% of all genetic diversity. They claim that this does not correctly reflect human population history, because it treats all human groups as independent. A more realistic portrayal of the way human groups are related is to understand that some human groups are parental to other groups and that these groups represent paraphyletic groups to their descent groups. For example, under the recent African origin theory the human population in Africa is paraphyletic to all other human groups because it represents the ancestral group from which all non-African populations derive, but more than that, non-African groups only derive from a small non-representative sample of this African population. This means that all non-African groups are more closely related to each other and to some African groups (probably east Africans) than they are to others, and further that the migration out of Africa represented a genetic bottleneck, with much of the diversity that existed in Africa not being carried out of Africa by the emigrating groups. This view produces a version of human population movements that do not result in all human populations being independent; but rather, produces a series of dilutions of diversity the further from Africa any population lives, each founding event representing a genetic subset of its parental population. Long and Kittles find that rather than 85% of human genetic diversity existing in all human populations, about 100% of human diversity exists in a single African population, whereas only about 70% of human genetic diversity exists in a population derived from New Guinea. Long and Kittles argued that this still produces a global human population that is genetically homogeneous compared to other mammalian populations.

What two researchers gave a long critique regarding the application of FST to human populations in 2003?

Jeffrey Long and Rick Kittles

What do Long and Kittles think of the implication that human populations contain on average 85% of all genetic diversity?

misleading

Non-African groups of human population may only drive from what type of sample of the African population?

non-representative

What type of bottleneck did the migration out of Africa represent?

genetic

How much human genetic diversity exists in a single African population?


In his 2003 paper, "Human Genetic Diversity: Lewontin's Fallacy", A. W. F. Edwards argued that rather than using a locus-by-locus analysis of variation to derive taxonomy, it is possible to construct a human classification system based on characteristic genetic patterns, or clusters inferred from multilocus genetic data. Geographically based human studies since have shown that such genetic clusters can be derived from analyzing of a large number of loci which can assort individuals sampled into groups analogous to traditional continental racial groups. Joanna Mountain and Neil Risch cautioned that while genetic clusters may one day be shown to correspond to phenotypic variations between groups, such assumptions were premature as the relationship between genes and complex traits remains poorly understood. However, Risch denied such limitations render the analysis useless: "Perhaps just using someone's actual birth year is not a very good way of measuring age. Does that mean we should throw it out? ... Any category you come up with is going to be imperfect, but that doesn't preclude you from using it or the fact that it has utility."

What type of classification system for humans did A.W.F. Edwards argue for?

characteristic genetic patterns

What might genetic clusters be shown to correspond to one day?

phenotypic variations between groups

How is the relationship between genes and complex traits understood?

poorly

Risch feels any category someone comes up with will be what?

imperfect

Risch thinks imperfect categories still have what?

utility


Early human genetic cluster analysis studies were conducted with samples taken from ancestral population groups living at extreme geographic distances from each other. It was thought that such large geographic distances would maximize the genetic variation between the groups sampled in the analysis and thus maximize the probability of finding cluster patterns unique to each group. In light of the historically recent acceleration of human migration (and correspondingly, human gene flow) on a global scale, further studies were conducted to judge the degree to which genetic cluster analysis can pattern ancestrally identified groups as well as geographically separated groups. One such study looked at a large multiethnic population in the United States, and "detected only modest genetic differentiation between different current geographic locales within each race/ethnicity group. Thus, ancient geographic ancestry, which is highly correlated with self-identified race/ethnicity—as opposed to current residence—is the major determinant of genetic structure in the U.S. population." (Tang et al. (2005))

What groups were early samples from for genetic cluster analysis?

ancestral population

Where did the groups the genetic clusters were taken from live from each other?

extreme geographic distances

What was thought might maximize the odds of finding unique cluster patterns in groups?

large geographic distances

What human activity has only recently accelerated?

migration

Human migration tends to accelerate this type of what flow?

gene


Witherspoon et al. (2007) have argued that even when individuals can be reliably assigned to specific population groups, it may still be possible for two randomly chosen individuals from different populations/clusters to be more similar to each other than to a randomly chosen member of their own cluster. They found that many thousands of genetic markers had to be used in order for the answer to the question "How often is a pair of individuals from one population genetically more dissimilar than two individuals chosen from two different populations?" to be "never". This assumed three population groups separated by large geographic ranges (European, African and East Asian). The entire world population is much more complex and studying an increasing number of groups would require an increasing number of markers for the same answer. The authors conclude that "caution should be used when using geographic or genetic ancestry to make inferences about individual phenotypes." Witherspoon, et al. concluded that, "The fact that, given enough genetic data, individuals can be correctly assigned to their populations of origin is compatible with the observation that most human genetic variation is found within populations, not between them. It is also compatible with our ﬁnding that, even when the most distinct populations are considered and hundreds of loci are used, individuals are frequently more similar to members of other populations than to members of their own population."

Randomly chosen people from different groups may be more similar to each other than with members of their own what?

cluster

How many genetic markers need to be used to show people from different groups are dissimilar to each other?

thousands

Studying increasing number of groups require an increasing number of what?

markers

What should be used when using ancestry to make inferences about individual phenotypes?

caution

People are more frequently similar to members of what populations?

other populations


Anthropologists such as C. Loring Brace, the philosophers Jonathan Kaplan and Rasmus Winther, and the geneticist Joseph Graves,[page needed] have argued that while there it is certainly possible to find biological and genetic variation that corresponds roughly to the groupings normally defined as "continental races", this is true for almost all geographically distinct populations. The cluster structure of the genetic data is therefore dependent on the initial hypotheses of the researcher and the populations sampled. When one samples continental groups, the clusters become continental; if one had chosen other sampling patterns, the clustering would be different. Weiss and Fullerton have noted that if one sampled only Icelanders, Mayans and Maoris, three distinct clusters would form and all other populations could be described as being clinally composed of admixtures of Maori, Icelandic and Mayan genetic materials. Kaplan and Winther therefore argue that, seen in this way, both Lewontin and Edwards are right in their arguments. They conclude that while racial groups are characterized by different allele frequencies, this does not mean that racial classification is a natural taxonomy of the human species, because multiple other genetic patterns can be found in human populations that crosscut racial distinctions. Moreover, the genomic data underdetermines whether one wishes to see subdivisions (i.e., splitters) or a continuum (i.e., lumpers). Under Kaplan and Winther's view, racial groupings are objective social constructions (see Mills 1998 ) that have conventional biological reality only insofar as the categories are chosen and constructed for pragmatic scientific reasons. In earlier work, Winther had identified "diversity partitioning" and "clustering analysis" as two separate methodologies, with distinct questions, assumptions, and protocols. Each is also associated with opposing ontological consequences vis-a-vis the metaphysics of race.

Cluster structure of genetic data is dependent on what initial thing?

hypotheses

If one samples a continental group, what do the clusters become?

continental

What is not a natural taxonomy of the human species?

racial classification

What are objective social constructions?

racial groupings

What are diversity partition and clustering analysis are examples of?

methodologies


Many social scientists have replaced the word race with the word "ethnicity" to refer to self-identifying groups based on beliefs concerning shared culture, ancestry and history. Alongside empirical and conceptual problems with "race", following the Second World War, evolutionary and social scientists were acutely aware of how beliefs about race had been used to justify discrimination, apartheid, slavery, and genocide. This questioning gained momentum in the 1960s during the U.S. civil rights movement and the emergence of numerous anti-colonial movements worldwide. They thus came to believe that race itself is a social construct, a concept that was believed to correspond to an objective reality but which was believed in because of its social functions.

What word do many social scientists instead of race?

ethnicity

What had been used to justify discrimination, apartheid, slavery and genocide in WWII?

beliefs about race

When did the civil rights movement take place?

the 1960s

What movement gained momentum worldwide in the 60's?

anti-colonial

What type of reality do some believe race is a social construct corresponding to?

objective


Craig Venter and Francis Collins of the National Institute of Health jointly made the announcement of the mapping of the human genome in 2000. Upon examining the data from the genome mapping, Venter realized that although the genetic variation within the human species is on the order of 1–3% (instead of the previously assumed 1%), the types of variations do not support notion of genetically defined races. Venter said, "Race is a social concept. It's not a scientific one. There are no bright lines (that would stand out), if we could compare all the sequenced genomes of everyone on the planet." "When we try to apply science to try to sort out these social differences, it all falls apart."

What organization is Craig Venter and Francis Collins associated with?

the National Institute of Health

What year was the announcement that the human genome had been mapped made in?

What doesn't the genetic variation within the human species support?

notion of genetically defined races

What is a social concept, not a scientific one?

Race

What happens when scientists try to apply science to sort out social differences?

it all falls apart


The theory that race is merely a social construct has been challenged by the findings of researchers at the Stanford University School of Medicine, published in the American Journal of Human Genetics as "Genetic Structure, Self-Identified Race/Ethnicity, and Confounding in Case-Control Association Studies". One of the researchers, Neil Risch, noted: "we looked at the correlation between genetic structure [based on microsatellite markers] versus self-description, we found 99.9% concordance between the two. We actually had a higher discordance rate between self-reported sex and markers on the X chromosome! So you could argue that sex is also a problematic category. And there are differences between sex and gender; self-identification may not be correlated with biology perfectly. And there is sexism."

Researchers from which university challenged the theory of race being only a social construct?

Stanford

Where was the challenge to the theory of racing being a social construct published?

the American Journal of Human Genetics

Neil Risch found a 99.9% agree between genetic structure and people's description of their what?

self

What is a problematic category in addition to race?

sex

What may self-identification not correlate with precisely?

biology


Basically, race in Brazil was "biologized", but in a way that recognized the difference between ancestry (which determines genotype) and phenotypic differences. There, racial identity was not governed by rigid descent rule, such as the one-drop rule, as it was in the United States. A Brazilian child was never automatically identified with the racial type of one or both parents, nor were there only a very limited number of categories to choose from, to the extent that full siblings can pertain to different racial groups.

What country was race "Biologized" in?

Brazil

What wasn't racial identity governed by in Brazil?

rigid descent rule

What were Brazillian children never automatically identified with the type of?

racial

What may full siblings belong to?

different racial groups

What determines genotype?

ancestry


Over a dozen racial categories would be recognized in conformity with all the possible combinations of hair color, hair texture, eye color, and skin color. These types grade into each other like the colors of the spectrum, and not one category stands significantly isolated from the rest. That is, race referred preferentially to appearance, not heredity, and appearance is a poor indication of ancestry, because only a few genes are responsible for someone's skin color and traits: a person who is considered white may have more African ancestry than a person who is considered black, and the reverse can be also true about European ancestry. The complexity of racial classifications in Brazil reflects the extent of miscegenation in Brazilian society, a society that remains highly, but not strictly, stratified along color lines. These socioeconomic factors are also significant to the limits of racial lines, because a minority of pardos, or brown people, are likely to start declaring themselves white or black if socially upward, and being seen as relatively "whiter" as their perceived social status increases (much as in other regions of Latin America).

How many racial categories would be needed with all the possible combinations of outward features?

Over a dozen

What way would categories grade into each other, rather than being isolated from each other?

like the colors of the spectrum

What did race refer to instead of heredity?

appearance

What is appearance a poor indication of?

ancestry

Where is there a lot of complexity in racial classifications?

Brazil


Fluidity of racial categories aside, the "biologification" of race in Brazil referred above would match contemporary concepts of race in the United States quite closely, though, if Brazilians are supposed to choose their race as one among, Asian and Indigenous apart, three IBGE's census categories. While assimilated Amerindians and people with very high quantities of Amerindian ancestry are usually grouped as caboclos, a subgroup of pardos which roughly translates as both mestizo and hillbilly, for those of lower quantity of Amerindian descent a higher European genetic contribution is expected to be grouped as a pardo. In several genetic tests, people with less than 60-65% of European descent and 5-10% of Amerindian descent usually cluster with Afro-Brazilians (as reported by the individuals), or 6.9% of the population, and those with about 45% or more of Subsaharan contribution most times do so (in average, Afro-Brazilian DNA was reported to be about 50% Subsaharan African, 37% European and 13% Amerindian).

What categories have an aspect of fluidity?

racial

What are people with high quantities of Amerindian ancestry grouped as?

caboclos

What's a rough translation of "pardos"?

hillbilly

What do people with less than 60-65% of European descent usually cluster with?

Afro-Brazilians

What percentage of Afro-Brazillian DNA is reported to be Subsaharan African?


If a more consistent report with the genetic groups in the gradation of miscegenation is to be considered (e.g. that would not cluster people with a balanced degree of African and non-African ancestry in the black group instead of the multiracial one, unlike elsewhere in Latin America where people of high quantity of African descent tend to classify themselves as mixed), more people would report themselves as white and pardo in Brazil (47.7% and 42.4% of the population as of 2010, respectively), because by research its population is believed to have between 65 and 80% of autosomal European ancestry, in average (also >35% of European mt-DNA and >95% of European Y-DNA).

What would more people report themselves as if a more consistent report were considered?

white

What do people with a high quality of African descent classify themselves as?

mixed

How much of the population of Brazil reported themselves as pardo in 2010?

Brazil's population is believed to have between what percentages of autosomal European ancestry?

65 and 80%

Brazil's population is thought to have greater than what percentage of European Y-DNA?


This is not surprising, though: While the greatest number of slaves imported from Africa were sent to Brazil, totalizing roughly 3.5 million people, they lived in such miserable conditions that male African Y-DNA there is significantly rare due to the lack of resources and time involved with raising of children, so that most African descent originarily came from relations between white masters and female slaves. From the last decades of the Empire until the 1950s, the proportion of the white population increased significantly while Brazil welcomed 5.5 million immigrants between 1821 and 1932, not much behind its neighbor Argentina with 6.4 million, and it received more European immigrants in its colonial history than the United States. Between 1500 and 1760, 700.000 Europeans settled in Brazil, while 530.000 Europeans settled in the United States for the same given time. Thus, the historical construction of race in Brazilian society dealt primarily with gradations between persons of majoritarily European ancestry and little minority groups with otherwise lower quantity therefrom in recent times.

What is roughly the amount of African slaves imported to Brazil?

3.5 million

What conditions did the African slaves in Brazil live in?

miserable

Most African descent in Brazil came from what sort of congress?

relations between white masters and female slaves

Between what years did Brazil welcome 5.5 million immigrants?

1821 and 1932

Between 1500 and 1760, how many Europeans settled in Brazil?


The European Union uses the terms racial origin and ethnic origin synonymously in its documents and according to it "the use of the term 'racial origin' in this directive does not imply an acceptance of such [racial] theories".[full citation needed] Haney López warns that using "race" as a category within the law tends to legitimize its existence in the popular imagination. In the diverse geographic context of Europe, ethnicity and ethnic origin are arguably more resonant and are less encumbered by the ideological baggage associated with "race". In European context, historical resonance of "race" underscores its problematic nature. In some states, it is strongly associated with laws promulgated by the Nazi and Fascist governments in Europe during the 1930s and 1940s. Indeed, in 1996, the European Parliament adopted a resolution stating that "the term should therefore be avoided in all official texts".

Who uses the terms racial origin and ethnic origin interchangeably?

The European Union

What does using race as a category within the law legitimize?

its existence

In what context is the historical use of race underscored by its problematic nature?

European

Race is strongly associated with laws by what type of governments?

Fascist

In what year did the European Parliament adopt a resolution to remove "race" from all official texts?


The concept of racial origin relies on the notion that human beings can be separated into biologically distinct "races", an idea generally rejected by the scientific community. Since all human beings belong to the same species, the ECRI (European Commission against Racism and Intolerance) rejects theories based on the existence of different "races". However, in its Recommendation ECRI uses this term in order to ensure that those persons who are generally and erroneously perceived as belonging to "another race" are not excluded from the protection provided for by the legislation. The law claims to reject the existence of "race", yet penalize situations where someone is treated less favourably on this ground.

What relies on the idea humans can be divided into biologically distinct races?

The concept of racial origin

What community rejects the idea there are biologically distinct races?

scientific

Why does the ECRI reject theories based on the existence of different races?

all human beings belong to the same species

What does the ECRI strive to make sure no one becomes?

excluded from the protection provided for by the legislation

The law penalizes situations where someone is treated less favourably on the ground of what?

race


Since the end of the Second World War, France has become an ethnically diverse country. Today, approximately five percent of the French population is non-European and non-white. This does not approach the number of non-white citizens in the United States (roughly 28–37%, depending on how Latinos are classified; see Demographics of the United States). Nevertheless, it amounts to at least three million people, and has forced the issues of ethnic diversity onto the French policy agenda. France has developed an approach to dealing with ethnic problems that stands in contrast to that of many advanced, industrialized countries. Unlike the United States, Britain, or even the Netherlands, France maintains a "color-blind" model of public policy. This means that it targets virtually no policies directly at racial or ethnic groups. Instead, it uses geographic or class criteria to address issues of social inequalities. It has, however, developed an extensive anti-racist policy repertoire since the early 1970s. Until recently, French policies focused primarily on issues of hate speech—going much further than their American counterparts—and relatively less on issues of discrimination in jobs, housing, and in provision of goods and services.

France has become a more ethnically diverse country since the end of which war?

Second World War

What percentage of the French population today is non-European?

approximately five percent

What is the number of non-white citizens in the United States?

roughly 28–37%

What issue has the existence of three million non-European people in France forced onto French policy agendas?

ethnic diversity

What type of model of public policy does France maintain?

color-blind


Since the early history of the United States, Amerindians, African–Americans, and European Americans have been classified as belonging to different races. Efforts to track mixing between groups led to a proliferation of categories, such as mulatto and octoroon. The criteria for membership in these races diverged in the late 19th century. During Reconstruction, increasing numbers of Americans began to consider anyone with "one drop" of known "Black blood" to be Black, regardless of appearance.3 By the early 20th century, this notion was made statutory in many states.4 Amerindians continue to be defined by a certain percentage of "Indian blood" (called blood quantum). To be White one had to have perceived "pure" White ancestry. The one-drop rule or hypodescent rule refers to the convention of defining a person as racially black if he or she has any known African ancestry. This rule meant that those that were mixed race but with some discernible African ancestry were defined as black. The one-drop rule is specific to not only those with African ancestry but to the United States, making it a particularly African-American experience.

Groups of people have been classified as belonging to difference races since what part of the U.S.'s history?

early

What did efforts to track mixing between different groups lead to?

a proliferation of categories

When did the criteria for membership in mixed race groups diverge?

in the late 19th century

When did increasing numbers of Americans consider anyone with even a drop of "Black blood" to be Black?

During Reconstruction

What is a particularly African-American experience because it's specific to only the United States?

The one-drop rule


The term "Hispanic" as an ethnonym emerged in the 20th century with the rise of migration of laborers from the Spanish-speaking countries of Latin America to the United States. Today, the word "Latino" is often used as a synonym for "Hispanic". The definitions of both terms are non-race specific, and include people who consider themselves to be of distinct races (Black, White, Amerindian, Asian, and mixed groups). However, there is a common misconception in the US that Hispanic/Latino is a race or sometimes even that national origins such as Mexican, Cuban, Colombian, Salvadoran, etc. are races. In contrast to "Latino" or "Hispanic", "Anglo" refers to non-Hispanic White Americans or non-Hispanic European Americans, most of whom speak the English language but are not necessarily of English descent.

When did the term "Hispanic" begin being used?

the 20th century

What is the word "Latino" often used as a synonym for?

Hispanic

How are the terms Hispanic and Latino not specific?

non-race specific

What is common misconception in the US about what some national origins are?

races

Anglo can refer to non-Hispanic European Americans who speak English but are not necessarily what?

of English descent


Wang, Štrkalj et al. (2003) examined the use of race as a biological concept in research papers published in China's only biological anthropology journal, Acta Anthropologica Sinica. The study showed that the race concept was widely used among Chinese anthropologists. In a 2007 review paper, Štrkalj suggested that the stark contrast of the racial approach between the United States and China was due to the fact that race is a factor for social cohesion among the ethnically diverse people of China, whereas "race" is a very sensitive issue in America and the racial approach is considered to undermine social cohesion - with the result that in the socio-political context of US academics scientists are encouraged not to use racial categories, whereas in China they are encouraged to use them.

What is the name of China's only anthropology journal?

Acta Anthropologica Sinica

Who is the race concept widely used by?

Chinese anthropologists

What is race a factor of for the ethnically diverse people of China?

social cohesion

Why does race undermine social cohesion in America?

sensitive issue

What are academics in China encouraged to use that their American counterparts are not?

racial categories


Kaszycka et al. (2009) in 2002–2003 surveyed European anthropologists' opinions toward the biological race concept. Three factors, country of academic education, discipline, and age, were found to be significant in differentiating the replies. Those educated in Western Europe, physical anthropologists, and middle-aged persons rejected race more frequently than those educated in Eastern Europe, people in other branches of science, and those from both younger and older generations." The survey shows that the views on race are sociopolitically (ideologically) influenced and highly dependent on education."

What years did Kaszycka survey Eureopean anthropolgists' opinions toward the biological race concept?

How many factors were found to be significant in differentiating the responses of European anthropologists?

Three

What did the people educated in Western Europe reject more frequently than those educated in Eastern Europe?

race

How are views on race influenced?

ideologically

What are views on race highly dependent on?

education


One result of debates over the meaning and validity of the concept of race is that the current literature across different disciplines regarding human variation lacks consensus, though within some fields, such as some branches of anthropology, there is strong consensus. Some studies use the word race in its early essentialist taxonomic sense. Many others still use the term race, but use it to mean a population, clade, or haplogroup. Others eschew the concept of race altogether, and use the concept of population as a less problematic unit of analysis.

What does the current literature regarding human variation lack?

consensus

What do some studies use the word race in the sense of?

taxonomic

What term do some use to mean population, clade, or haplogroup?

race

What do some eschew altogether?

the concept of race

What is a less problematic unit of analysis?

concept of population


Eduardo Bonilla-Silva, Sociology professor at Duke University, remarks, "I contend that racism is, more than anything else, a matter of group power; it is about a dominant racial group (whites) striving to maintain its systemic advantages and minorities fighting to subvert the racial status quo."  The types of practices that take place under this new color-blind racism is subtle, institutionalized, and supposedly not racial. Color-blind racism thrives on the idea that race is no longer an issue in the United States. There are contradictions between the alleged color-blindness of most whites and the persistence of a color-coded system of inequality.

Where is Eduardo Bonilla-Silver a Sociology professor?

Duke University

What does Bonilla-Silva contend racism is about more than anything else?

group power

Who does Bonilla-Silva think is the dominant racial group?

whites

What idea does color-blind racism thrive on?

that race is no longer an issue

What exists between the alleged color-blindness of most whites and the persistence of a system of inequality?

contradictions


The concept of biological race has declined significantly in frequency of use in physical anthropology in the United States during the 20th century. A majority of physical anthropologists in the United States have rejected the concept of biological races. Since 1932, an increasing number of college textbooks introducing physical anthropology have rejected race as a valid concept: from 1932 to 1976, only seven out of thirty-two rejected race; from 1975 to 1984, thirteen out of thirty-three rejected race; from 1985 to 1993, thirteen out of nineteen rejected race. According to one academic journal entry, where 78 percent of the articles in the 1931 Journal of Physical Anthropology employed these or nearly synonymous terms reflecting a bio-race paradigm, only 36 percent did so in 1965, and just 28 percent did in 1996.

What concept's use has declined significantly in the U.S. during the 20th century?

biological race

The majority of what group in the U.S. has rejected the concept of biological races?

physical anthropologists

What textbooks introducing anthropology have rejected race as a valid concept since 1932?

college

How many books out of 33, from 1975 to 1984, rejected race?

thirteen

What percentage of articles in 1996 employed a bio-race paradigm?

28 percent


According to the 2000 edition of a popular physical anthropology textbook, forensic anthropologists are overwhelmingly in support of the idea of the basic biological reality of human races. Forensic physical anthropologist and professor George W. Gill has said that the idea that race is only skin deep "is simply not true, as any experienced forensic anthropologist will affirm" and "Many morphological features tend to follow geographic boundaries coinciding often with climatic zones. This is not surprising since the selective forces of climate are probably the primary forces of nature that have shaped human races with regard not only to skin color and hair form but also the underlying bony structures of the nose, cheekbones, etc. (For example, more prominent noses humidify air better.)" While he can see good arguments for both sides, the complete denial of the opposing evidence "seems to stem largely from socio-political motivation and not science at all". He also states that many biological anthropologists see races as real yet "not one introductory textbook of physical anthropology even presents that perspective as a possibility. In a case as flagrant as this, we are not dealing with science but rather with blatant, politically motivated censorship".

What group of anthropologists overwhelmingly support the idea of human races?

forensic

What does George W. Gill think about the veracity of the idea that race is only skin deep?

simply not true

What are probably the primary forces of nature which shaped human races?

selective forces of climate

What does Gill think the complete denial of opposing evidence stems from?

socio-political motivation

What does Gill attribute the lack of presenting the perspective as a possibility to?

politically motivated censorship


"Race" is still sometimes used within forensic anthropology (when analyzing skeletal remains), biomedical research, and race-based medicine. Brace has criticized this, the practice of forensic anthropologists for using the controversial concept "race" out of convention when they in fact should be talking about regional ancestry. He argues that while forensic anthropologists can determine that a skeletal remain comes from a person with ancestors in a specific region of Africa, categorizing that skeletal as being "black" is a socially constructed category that is only meaningful in the particular context of the United States, and which is not itself scientifically valid.

What type of anthropology is "race" sometimes still used within?

forensic

What term would Brace prefer forensic anthropologists use?

regional ancestry

What can forensic anthropologists determine about the ancestors of someone from their skeletal remains?

specific region

What does Brace feel the term "black" in meaningful in?

particular context

Why is it bad that a category is merely socially constructed?

is not itself scientifically valid


The authors of the study also examined 77 college textbooks in biology and 69 in physical anthropology published between 1932 and 1989. Physical anthropology texts argued that biological races exist until the 1970s, when they began to argue that races do not exist. In contrast, biology textbooks did not undergo such a reversal but many instead dropped their discussion of race altogether. The authors attributed this to biologists trying to avoid discussing the political implications of racial classifications, instead of discussing them, and to the ongoing discussions in biology about the validity of the concept "subspecies". The authors also noted that some widely used textbooks in biology such as Douglas J. Futuyama's 1986 "Evolutionary Biology" had abandoned the race concept, "The concept of race, masking the overwhelming genetic similarity of all peoples and the mosaic patterns of variation that do not correspond to racial divisions, is not only socially dysfunctional but is biologically indefensible as well (pp. 5 18-5 19)." (Lieberman et al. 1992, pp. 316–17)

How many college textbooks in biology did the authors of the study examine?

Up until when did physical anthropology texts still argue that biological races exist?

the 1970s

What did biology textbooks drop altogether?

their discussion of race

What were biologists trying to avoid discussing the political implications of?

racial classifications

What did Douglas J. Futuyama consider the concept of race as not only being socially dysfunctional but this as well?

biologically indefensible


Morning (2008) looked at high school biology textbooks during the 1952-2002 period and initially found a similar pattern with only 35% directly discussing race in the 1983–92 period from initially 92% doing so. However, this has increased somewhat after this to 43%. More indirect and brief discussions of race in the context of medical disorders have increased from none to 93% of textbooks. In general, the material on race has moved from surface traits to genetics and evolutionary history. The study argues that the textbooks' fundamental message about the existence of races has changed little.

What did Morning find when he looked at biology textbooks during the 1952-2002 period?

similar pattern

How many of the textbooks between 1983 and 1992 discussed race?

After 1992, what did the percentage of textbooks discussing race increase to?

What percentage have discussions of race in the context of medical disorders increased from zero to?

What does the study argue about the fundamental message regarding the existence of races?

changed little


In the United States, federal government policy promotes the use of racially categorized data to identify and address health disparities between racial or ethnic groups. In clinical settings, race has sometimes been considered in the diagnosis and treatment of medical conditions. Doctors have noted that some medical conditions are more prevalent in certain racial or ethnic groups than in others, without being sure of the cause of those differences. Recent interest in race-based medicine, or race-targeted pharmacogenomics, has been fueled by the proliferation of human genetic data which followed the decoding of the human genome in the first decade of the twenty-first century. There is an active debate among biomedical researchers about the meaning and importance of race in their research. Proponents of the use of racial categories in biomedicine argue that continued use of racial categorizations in biomedical research and clinical practice makes possible the application of new genetic findings, and provides a clue to diagnosis.

Who promotes the use of racially categorized data in the United States?

federal government

What has race sometimes been used in clinical settings to diagnose and treat?

medical conditions

What have doctors noted about some medical conditions in certain racial groups?

more prevalent

What fueled the recent interest in race-based medicine?

proliferation of human genetic data

What do proponents of the use of racial categories in biomedicine think it makes possible?

application of new genetic findings,


Other researchers point out that finding a difference in disease prevalence between two socially defined groups does not necessarily imply genetic causation of the difference. They suggest that medical practices should maintain their focus on the individual rather than an individual's membership to any group. They argue that overemphasizing genetic contributions to health disparities carries various risks such as reinforcing stereotypes, promoting racism or ignoring the contribution of non-genetic factors to health disparities. International epidemiological data show that living conditions rather than race make the biggest difference in health outcomes even for diseases that have "race-specific" treatments. Some studies have found that patients are reluctant to accept racial categorization in medical practice.

What does finding a difference in disease prevalence between two socially defined groups not necessarily imply?

genetic causation of the difference

What do some research suggest medical practices should maintain their focus on?

the individual

What is a risk of overemphasizing genetic contributions to health issues?

reinforcing stereotypes

What is makes more of a difference than race in health outcomes for "race specific" diseases?

living conditions

What have some studies found patients reluctant to accept in medical practice?

racial categorization


In an attempt to provide general descriptions that may facilitate the job of law enforcement officers seeking to apprehend suspects, the United States FBI employs the term "race" to summarize the general appearance (skin color, hair texture, eye shape, and other such easily noticed characteristics) of individuals whom they are attempting to apprehend. From the perspective of law enforcement officers, it is generally more important to arrive at a description that will readily suggest the general appearance of an individual than to make a scientifically valid categorization by DNA or other such means. Thus, in addition to assigning a wanted individual to a racial category, such a description will include: height, weight, eye color, scars and other distinguishing characteristics.

What does the FBI feel providing general descriptions helps to facilitate?

job of law enforcement officers

What does the FBI employ the term race to summarize?

general appearance

What does law enforcement feel appearance characteristics of individuals help them do to those individuals?

apprehend

What is more important for law enforcement in categorizing instead of DNA?

arrive at a description

What does a description of a wanted individual include beyond their racial category?

height, weight, eye color, scars and other distinguishing characteristics.


Criminal justice agencies in England and Wales use at least two separate racial/ethnic classification systems when reporting crime, as of 2010. One is the system used in the 2001 Census when individuals identify themselves as belonging to a particular ethnic group: W1 (White-British), W2 (White-Irish), W9 (Any other white background); M1 (White and black Caribbean), M2 (White and black African), M3 (White and Asian), M9 (Any other mixed background); A1 (Asian-Indian), A2 (Asian-Pakistani), A3 (Asian-Bangladeshi), A9 (Any other Asian background); B1 (Black Caribbean), B2 (Black African), B3 (Any other black background); O1 (Chinese), O9 (Any other). The other is categories used by the police when they visually identify someone as belonging to an ethnic group, e.g. at the time of a stop and search or an arrest: White – North European (IC1), White – South European (IC2), Black (IC3), Asian (IC4), Chinese, Japanese, or South East Asian (IC5), Middle Eastern (IC6), and Unknown (IC0). "IC" stands for "Identification Code;" these items are also referred to as Phoenix classifications. Officers are instructed to "record the response that has been given" even if the person gives an answer which may be incorrect; their own perception of the person's ethnic background is recorded separately. Comparability of the information being recorded by officers was brought into question by the Office for National Statistics (ONS) in September 2007, as part of its Equality Data Review; one problem cited was the number of reports that contained an ethnicity of "Not Stated."

How many separate classification systems do agencies in England and Wales use?

at least two

When did individuals self-identify as belonging to a particular ethnic group?

the 2001 Census

How do police identify someone as belonging to an ethnic group?

visually

What does IC stand for?

Identification Code

What ethnicity term was one problem cited about the number of reports containing it?

Not Stated


In the United States, the practice of racial profiling has been ruled to be both unconstitutional and a violation of civil rights. There is active debate regarding the cause of a marked correlation between the recorded crimes, punishments meted out, and the country's populations. Many consider de facto racial profiling an example of institutional racism in law enforcement. The history of misuse of racial categories to impact adversely one or more groups and/or to offer protection and advantage to another has a clear impact on debate of the legitimate use of known phenotypical or genotypical characteristics tied to the presumed race of both victims and perpetrators by the government.

Where has the practice of racial profiling been ruled to be unconstitutional?

United States

What is a violation of civil rights in the United States?

racial profiling

What do many consider an example of institutional racism in law enforcement?

de facto racial profiling

How has the misuse of racial categories historically impacted one or more groups?

adversely

What has impacted the debate on the legitimate use of known phenotypical characteristics?

misuse of racial categories


Mass incarceration in the United States disproportionately impacts African American and Latino communities. Michelle Alexander, author of The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness (2010), argues that mass incarceration is best understood as not only a system of overcrowded prisons. Mass incarceration is also, "the larger web of laws, rules, policies, and customs that control those labeled criminals both in and out of prison." She defines it further as "a system that locks people not only behind actual bars in actual prisons, but also behind virtual bars and virtual walls", illustrating the second-class citizenship that is imposed on a disproportionate number of people of color, specifically African-Americans. She compares mass incarceration to Jim Crow laws, stating that both work as racial caste systems.

What impacts African American and Latino communities in disproportionate numbers?

Mass incarceration

Who is the author of "The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness"?

Michelle Alexander

What type of bars and walls beyond physical ones does Alexander think people are behind?

virtual

Who does Alexander think a second class citizenship is imposed upon disproportionately?

people of color

What type of caste system is mass incarceration compared to?

racial


Similarly, forensic anthropologists draw on highly heritable morphological features of human remains (e.g. cranial measurements) to aid in the identification of the body, including in terms of race. In a 1992 article, anthropologist Norman Sauer noted that anthropologists had generally abandoned the concept of race as a valid representation of human biological diversity, except for forensic anthropologists. He asked, "If races don't exist, why are forensic anthropologists so good at identifying them?" He concluded:

What morphological features do forensic anthropologists draw on?

highly heritable

What measurement can aid in the identification of a human body?

cranial

Who noted in a 1992 article that anthropologists had generally abandoned the concept of race as valid?

Norman Sauer

What group still uses race as a valid means to represent human biological diversity?

forensic anthropologists

What are forensic anthropologists very good at identifying?

races


Abu el-Haj argues that genomics and the mapping of lineages and clusters liberates "the new racial science from the older one by disentangling ancestry from culture and capacity."[citation needed] As an example, she refers to recent work by Hammer et al., which aimed to test the claim that present-day Jews are more closely related to one another than to neighbouring non-Jewish populations. Hammer et al. found that the degree of genetic similarity among Jews shifted depending on the locus investigated, and suggested that this was the result of natural selection acting on particular loci. They focused on the non-recombining Y-chromosome to "circumvent some of the complications associated with selection".

What does mapping clusters disentangle ancestry from?

culture

Hammer and others recently aimed to test what claim about how closely related present-day Jews are to what group?

neighbouring non-Jewish populations

What shifted depending on the locus investigated?

the degree of genetic similarity among Jews

What was suggested the reason for the degree of genetic shift among Jews was the result of?

natural selection acting on particular loci

What chromosome was focused on to circumvent some of the complications associated with selection?

Y


As another example, she points to work by Thomas et al., who sought to distinguish between the Y chromosomes of Jewish priests (Kohanim), (in Judaism, membership in the priesthood is passed on through the father's line) and the Y chromosomes of non-Jews. Abu el-Haj concluded that this new "race science" calls attention to the importance of "ancestry" (narrowly defined, as it does not include all ancestors) in some religions and in popular culture, and people's desire to use science to confirm their claims about ancestry; this "race science", she argues, is fundamentally different from older notions of race that were used to explain differences in human behaviour or social status:

Thomas and others sought to distinguish between what chromosome of Jewish priests and that of non-Jews?

Y

What does the new "race science" call attention to the importance of?

ancestry

What do people desire to use science to confirm?

their claims about ancestry

What is fundamentally different from older notions of race?

race science

How were older notions of race used?

to explain differences in human behaviour or social status


One problem with these assignments is admixture. Many people have a highly varied ancestry. For example, in the United States, colonial and early federal history were periods of numerous interracial relationships, both outside and inside slavery. This has resulted in a majority of people who identify as African American having some European ancestors. Similarly, many people who identify as white have some African ancestors. In a survey in a northeastern U.S. university of college students who identified as "white", about 30% were estimated to have up to 10% African ancestry.

What is a problem with racial assignments?

admixture

How many people have a varied ancestry?

Many

When were periods of numerous interracial relationships in the U.S.?

colonial and early federal history

Who do many people who identify as white have for ancestors?

African

What percentage of African ancestry were 30% of college students identifying as white estimated to have?


Since the 19th century, the built-up area of Paris has grown far beyond its administrative borders; together with its suburbs, the whole agglomeration has a population of 10,550,350 (Jan. 2012 census). Paris' metropolitan area spans most of the Paris region and has a population of 12,341,418 (Jan. 2012 census), or one-fifth of the population of France. The administrative region covers 12,012 km² (4,638 mi²), with approximately 12 million inhabitants as of 2014, and has its own regional council and president.

What is the aggregate population of Paris?

From what census is this information from?

2012 census

What is the population of Paris' metropolitan area?

How many kilometers does the administrative region cover?

12,012 km²

As of 2014 how many inhabitants lived in the administrative region?

12 million


Paris is the home of the most visited art museum in the world, the Louvre, as well as the Musée d'Orsay, noted for its collection of French Impressionist art, and the Musée National d'Art Moderne, a museum of modern and contemporary art. The notable architectural landmarks of Paris include Notre Dame Cathedral (12th century); the Sainte-Chapelle (13th century); the Eiffel Tower (1889); and the Basilica of Sacré-Cœur on Montmartre (1914). In 2014 Paris received 22.4 million visitors, making it one of the world's top tourist destinations. Paris is also known for its fashion, particularly the twice-yearly Paris Fashion Week, and for its haute cuisine, and three-star restaurants. Most of France's major universities and grandes écoles are located in Paris, as are France's major newspapers, including Le Monde, Le Figaro, and Libération.

What is the most visited art museum in the world?

Louvre

what is the Musee de Orsay known for?

French Impressionist art

In what year was the Eiffel Tower built?

How many visitors did Paris receive in 2014?

22.4 million

In what century was the Notre Dame Cathedral built?


Paris is home to the association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français. The 80,000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros. Paris played host to the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics, the 1938 and 1998 FIFA World Cups, and the 2007 Rugby World Cup. Every July, the Tour de France of cycling finishes in the city.

What is the name of the football club in Paris?

Paris Saint-Germain

What is the name of the rugby union in Paris?

Stade Français

How many seats are in Stade de France?

In what year did Paris host the World Cup?

In what month is the Tour de France?

July


By the end of the Western Roman Empire, the town was known simply as Parisius in Latin and Paris in French. Christianity was introduced in the middle of the 3rd century AD. According to tradition, it was brought by Saint Denis, the first Bishop of Paris. When he refused to renounce his faith, he was beheaded on the hill which became known as the "Mountain of Martyrs" (Mons Martyrum), eventually "Montmartre". His burial place became an important religious shrine; the Basilica of Saint-Denis was built there and became the burial place of the French Kings.

What was Paris known as in Latin?

Parisius

In what century was Christianity introduced?

Who brought Christianity to Paris?

Saint Denis

What is the name of Saint Denis burial place?

Basilica of Saint-Denis

Where was Saint Denis beheaded?

Mountain of Martyrs


Clovis the Frank, the first king of the Merovingian dynasty, made the city his capital from 508. A gradual immigration by the Franks also occurred in Paris in the beginning of the Frankish domination of Gaul which created the Parisian Francien dialects. Fortification of the Île-de-France failed to prevent sacking by Vikings in 845 but Paris' strategic importance—with its bridges preventing ships from passing—was established by successful defence in the Siege of Paris (885–86). In 987 Hugh Capet, Count of Paris (comte de Paris), Duke of the Franks (duc des Francs) was elected King of the Franks (roi des Franks). Under the rule of the Capetian kings, Paris gradually became the largest and most prosperous city in France.

who was the first king of the Merovingian dynasty?

Clovis the Frank

In what year was Hugh Capet elected as king?

What helped establish a successful defense in the Siege of Paris?

bridges

The domination of what helped create the Parisian dialect?

Gaul


By the end of the 12th century, Paris had become the political, economic, religious, and cultural capital of France. The Île de la Cité was the site of the royal palace. In 1163, during the reign of Louis VII, Maurice de Sully, bishop of Paris, undertook the construction of the Notre Dame Cathedral at its eastern extremity. The Left Bank was the site of the University of Paris, a corporation of students and teachers formed in the mid-12th century to train scholars first in theology, and later in canon law, medicine and the arts.

What was the site of the royal palace in the 12th century?

Île de la Cité

Who was in charge of the construction of the Notre Dame Cathedral?

Maurice de Sully

Where was the University of Paris located?

The Left Bank

Under who's reign was the construction of Notre Dame Cathedral?

Louis VII


During the Hundred Years' War, the army of the Duke of Burgundy and a force of about two hundred English soldiers occupied Paris from May 1420 until 1436. They repelled an attempt by Joan of Arc to liberate the city in 1429. A century later, during the French Wars of Religion, Paris was a stronghold of the Catholic League. On 24 August 1572, Paris was the site of the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre, when thousands of French Protestants were killed. The last of these wars, the eighth one, ended in 1594, after Henri IV had converted to Catholicism and was finally able to enter Paris as he supposedly declared Paris vaut bien une messe ("Paris is well worth a Mass"). The city had been neglected for decades; by the time of his assassination in 1610, Henry IV had rebuilt the Pont Neuf, the first Paris bridge with sidewalks and not lined with buildings, linked with a new wing the Louvre to the Tuileries Palace, and created the first Paris residential square, the Place Royale, now Place des Vosges.

In what years did the English soldiers occupy Paris during the Hundred Years War?

1420 until 1436

Who tried to liberate the city in 1429?

Joan of Arc

What was the date of the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre?

24 August 1572

In what year was Henri IV assassinated?

Who was responsible for rebuilding Paris in the 1600's

Henry IV


Louis XIV distrusted the Parisians and moved his court to Versailles in 1682, but his reign also saw an unprecedented flourishing of the arts and sciences in Paris. The Comédie-Française, the Academy of Painting, and the French Academy of Sciences were founded and made their headquarters in the city. To show that the city was safe against attack, he had the city walls demolished, replacing them with Grands Boulevards. To leave monuments to his reign, he built the Collège des Quatre-Nations, Place Vendôme, Place des Victoires, and began Les Invalides.

In what year did Louis XIV move his court to Versailles?

What monuments did Louis XIV have constructed?

Collège des Quatre-Nations, Place Vendôme, Place des Victoires, and began Les Invalides.

What was the reason behind demolishing the city walls?

To show that the city was safe against attack

In what city was the French Academy of Science founded

Paris


Louis XVI and the royal family were brought to Paris and made virtual prisoners within the Tuileries Palace. In 1793, as the revolution turned more and more radical, the king, queen, and the mayor were guillotined, along with more than 16,000 others (throughout France), during the Reign of Terror. The property of the aristocracy and the church was nationalised, and the city's churches were closed, sold or demolished. A succession of revolutionary factions ruled Paris until 9 November 1799 (coup d'état du 18 brumaire), when Napoléon Bonaparte seized power as First Consul.

Where did Louis XVI and his family live?

Tuileries Palace

When did Napoleon Bonaparte gain power as the First Consul?

9 November 1799

Approximately how many people were executed during the Reign of Terror?


Louis-Philippe was overthrown by a popular uprising in the streets of Paris in 1848. His successor, Napoleon III, and the newly appointed prefect of the Seine, Georges-Eugène Haussmann, launched a gigantic public works project to build wide new boulevards, a new opera house, a central market, new aqueducts, sewers, and parks, including the Bois de Boulogne and Bois de Vincennes. In 1860, Napoleon III also annexed the surrounding towns and created eight new arrondissements, expanding Paris to its current limits.

In what year was Louis-Phillipe over thrown?

In what year did Napoleon III create new arrondissements?

Who was Napoleon III's prefect of the Siene?

Georges-Eugène Haussmann


Late in the 19th century, Paris hosted two major international expositions: the 1889 Universal Exposition, was held to mark the centennial of the French Revolution and featured the new Eiffel Tower; and the 1900 Universal Exposition, which gave Paris the Pont Alexandre III, the Grand Palais, the Petit Palais and the first Paris Métro line. Paris became the laboratory of Naturalism (Émile Zola) and Symbolism (Charles Baudelaire and Paul Verlaine), and of Impressionism in art (Courbet, Manet, Monet, Renoir.)

What type of art did Courbet, Manet, Monet and Renoir create?

Impressionism

What was the purpose of the 1889 Universal Exposition?

to mark the centennial of the French Revolution

Where was the Eiffel Tower revealed?

1889 Universal Exposition

What type of art was created by Charles Baudelaire and Paul Verlaine?

Symbolism


During the First World War, Paris sometimes found itself on the front line; 600 to 1,000 Paris taxis played a small but highly important symbolic role in transporting 6,000 soldiers to the front line at the First Battle of the Marne. The city was also bombed by Zeppelins and shelled by German long-range guns. In the years after the war, known as Les Années Folles, Paris continued to be a mecca for writers, musicians and artists from around the world, including Ernest Hemingway, Igor Stravinsky, James Joyce, Josephine Baker, Sidney Bechet and the surrealist Salvador Dalí.

How many soldiers did Parisian Taxis transport to the front line at the First Battle of the Marne?

What are the years after the war commonly known as?

Les Années Folles

Who are some popular artists, writers and musicians that resided in Paris after the war?

Ernest Hemingway, Igor Stravinsky, James Joyce, Josephine Baker, Sidney Bechet and the surrealist Salvador Dalí.


On 14 June 1940, the German army marched into Paris, which had been declared an "open city". On 16–17 July 1942, following German orders, the French police and gendarmes arrested 12,884 Jews, including 4,115 children, and confined them during five days at the Vel d'Hiv (Vélodrome d'Hiver), from which they were transported by train to the extermination camp at Auschwitz. None of the children came back. On 25 August 1944, the city was liberated by the French 2nd Armoured Division and the 4th Infantry Division of the United States Army. General Charles de Gaulle led a huge and emotional crowd down the Champs Élysées towards Notre Dame de Paris, and made a rousing speech from the Hôtel de Ville.

On what date did the German army declare Paris as an open city?

14 June 1940

How many Jews were arrested following German orders?

Where were the Jews confined prior to being transported to Auschwitz?

Vel d'Hiv

How many children came back from Auschwitz?

On what date was the city liberated?

25 August 1944


In the 1950s and the 1960s, Paris became one front of the Algerian War for independence; in August 1961, the pro-independence FLN targeted and killed 11 Paris policemen, leading to the imposition of a curfew on Muslims of Algeria (who, at that time, were French citizens). On 17 October 1961, an unauthorised but peaceful protest demonstration of Algerians against the curfew led to violent confrontations between the police and demonstrators, in which at least 40 people were killed, including some thrown into the Seine. The anti-independence Organisation de l'armée secrète (OAS), for their part, carried out a series of bombings in Paris throughout 1961 and 1962.

How many police officers did the pro-independence FLN kill in August of 1961?

What was the result of the police officer killing?

curfew on Muslims of Algeria

How many people were killed during the demonstrations against the curfew?

at least 40

Who carried out bombings throughout Paris between 1961 and 1962?

Organisation de l'armée secrète


Most of the postwar's presidents of the Fifth Republic wanted to leave their own monuments in Paris; President Georges Pompidou started the Centre Georges Pompidou (1977), Valéry Giscard d'Estaing began the Musée d'Orsay (1986); President François Mitterrand, in power for 14 years, built the Opéra Bastille (1985-1989), the Bibliothèque nationale de France (1996), the Arche de la Défense (1985-1989), and the Louvre Pyramid with its underground courtyard (1983-1989); Jacques Chirac (2006), the Musée du quai Branly.

In what year was the Centre Georges Pompidou erected?

What did Valery Giscard d'Estaing have erected?

Musée d'Orsay

How many years was Francois Mitterrand in power?

What did Jacques Chirac have built?

Musée du quai Branly

In what year was the Musee de quai Branly built?


In the early 21st century, the population of Paris began to increase slowly again, as more young people moved into the city. It reached 2.25 million in 2011. In March 2001, Bertrand Delanoë became the first socialist mayor of Paris. In 2007, in an effort to reduce car traffic in the city, he introduced the Vélib', a system which rents bicycles for the use of local residents and visitors. Bertrand Delanoë also transformed a section of the highway along the left bank of the Seine into an urban promenade and park, the Promenade des Berges de la Seine, which he inaugurated in June 2013.

What was the population of Paris in 2011?

2.25 million

Who was the first socialist mayor of Paris?

Bertrand Delanoë

What is the system called that allows local residents to rent bicycles?

Vélib'

When was the Promenade des Berges de la Seine inaugurated?

June 2013


On 7 January 2015, two French Muslim extremists attacked the Paris headquarters of Charlie Hebdo and killed thirteen people, and on 9 January, a third terrorist killed four hostages during an attack at a Jewish grocery store at Porte de Vincennes. On 11 January an estimated 1.5 million people marched in Paris–along with international political leaders–to show solidarity against terrorism and in defence of freedom of speech. Ten months later, 13 November 2015, came a series of coordinated terrorist attacks in Paris and Saint-Denis claimed by the 'Islamic state' organisation ISIL ('Daesh', ISIS); 130 people were killed by gunfire and bombs, and more than 350 were injured. Seven of the attackers killed themselves and others by setting off their explosive vests. On the morning of 18 November three suspected terrorists, including alleged planner of the attacks Abdelhamid Abaaoud, were killed in a shootout with police in the Paris suburb of Saint-Denis. President Hollande declared France to be in a three-month state of emergency.

On what date did two Muslim extremists attack Charlie Hebdo?

7 January 2015

How many people were killed at the Charlie Hebdo attack?

thirteen

How many people marched on January 11 against terrorism?

1.5 million

Which Islamic organisation took responsibility for the attacks?

ISIL

How did the attackers kill themselves?

setting off their explosive vests


Paris is located in northern central France. By road it is 450 kilometres (280 mi) south-east of London, 287 kilometres (178 mi) south of Calais, 305 kilometres (190 mi) south-west of Brussels, 774 kilometres (481 mi) north of Marseille, 385 kilometres (239 mi) north-east of Nantes, and 135 kilometres (84 mi) south-east of Rouen. Paris is located in the north-bending arc of the river Seine and includes two islands, the Île Saint-Louis and the larger Île de la Cité, which form the oldest part of the city. The river's mouth on the English Channel (La Manche) is about 233 mi (375 km) downstream of the city, established around 7600 BC. The city is spread widely on both banks of the river. Overall, the city is relatively flat, and the lowest point is 35 m (115 ft) above sea level. Paris has several prominent hills, the highest of which is Montmartre at 130 m (427 ft). Montmartre gained its name from the martyrdom of Saint Denis, first bishop of Paris, atop the Mons Martyrum, "Martyr's mound", in 250.

Where in France is Paris located?

northern central

How many kilometers is it away from London?

What major river is located in Paris?

Seine

What is the largest island in Paris?

Île de la Cité

What is the largest hill in Paris?

Montmartre


Excluding the outlying parks of Bois de Boulogne and Bois de Vincennes, Paris covers an oval measuring about 87 km2 (34 sq mi) in area, enclosed by the 35 km (22 mi) ring road, the Boulevard Périphérique. The city's last major annexation of outlying territories in 1860 not only gave it its modern form but also created the 20 clockwise-spiralling arrondissements (municipal boroughs). From the 1860 area of 78 km2 (30 sq mi), the city limits were expanded marginally to 86.9 km2 (33.6 sq mi) in the 1920s. In 1929, the Bois de Boulogne and Bois de Vincennes forest parks were officially annexed to the city, bringing its area to about 105 km2 (41 sq mi). The metropolitan area of the city is 2,300 km2 (890 sq mi).

What road encircles Paris?

Boulevard Périphérique

How large is the metropolitan area of Paris?

2,300 km2

In what year was Paris' last annexation of outlying territories?

How many arrondissements are there?

In what year were Bois de Boulogne and Bois de Vincennes annexed?


Paris has a typical Western European oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfb ) which is affected by the North Atlantic Current. The overall climate throughout the year is mild and moderately wet. Summer days are usually warm and pleasant with average temperatures hovering between 15 and 25 °C (59 and 77 °F), and a fair amount of sunshine. Each year, however, there are a few days where the temperature rises above 32 °C (90 °F). Some years have even witnessed long periods of harsh summer weather, such as the heat wave of 2003 when temperatures exceeded 30 °C (86 °F) for weeks, surged up to 40 °C (104 °F) on some days and seldom cooled down at night. More recently, the average temperature for July 2011 was 17.6 °C (63.7 °F), with an average minimum temperature of 12.9 °C (55.2 °F) and an average maximum temperature of 23.7 °C (74.7 °F).

Which current affects Paris' weather?

North Atlantic Current

How is Paris' climate categorized?

mild and moderately wet

What are the average temperatures for summer?

between 15 and 25 °C

What was the average temperature for July 2011?

17.6 °C


Spring and autumn have, on average, mild days and fresh nights but are changing and unstable. Surprisingly warm or cool weather occurs frequently in both seasons. In winter, sunshine is scarce; days are cold but generally above freezing with temperatures around 7 °C (45 °F). Light night frosts are however quite common, but the temperature will dip below −5 °C (23 °F) for only a few days a year. Snow falls every year, but rarely stays on the ground. The city sometimes sees light snow or flurries with or without accumulation.

What is the average temperature during winter?

7 °C

Does Paris see snow?

sometimes sees light snow or flurries

How often does the temperature drop below -5 C

a few days a year


The mayor of Paris is elected indirectly by Paris voters; the voters of each arrondissement elect the Conseil de Paris (Council of Paris), composed of 163 members. Each arrondissement has a number of members depending upon its population, from 10 members for each of the least-populated arrondissements (1st through 9th) to 36 members for the most populated (the 15th). The elected council members select the mayor. Sometimes the candidate who receives the most votes city-wide is not selected if the other candidate has won the support of the majority of council members. Mayor Bertrand Delanoë (2001-2014) was elected by only a minority of city voters, but a majority of council members. Once elected, the council plays a largely passive role in the city government; it meets only once a month. The current council is divided between a coalition of the left of 91 members, including the socialists, communists, greens, and extreme left; and 71 members for the centre right, plus a few members from smaller parties.

How many members are there in the Conseil de Paris?

How was Mayor Bertand Delanoe elected

majority of council members

How often does the council meet?

once a month

What years was Bertrand Delanoe Mayor?


The budget of the city for 2013 was €7.6 billion, of which 5.4 billion went for city administration, while €2.2 billion went for investment. The largest part of the budget (38 percent) went for public housing and urbanism projects; 15 percent for roads and transport; 8 percent for schools (which are mostly financed by the state budget); 5 percent for parks and gardens; and 4 percent for culture. The main source of income for the city is direct taxes (35 percent), supplemented by a 13-percent real estate tax; 19 percent of the budget comes in a transfer from the national government.

What was the budget of the city in 2013

€7.6 billion

How much of the budget was allocated for city administration?

5.4 billion

What percent of the budget goes towards public housing and urbanism projects?

What is the main source of income for Paris?

taxes

What percentage of the budget is allocated for schools?


The Métropole du Grand Paris, or Metropolis of Greater Paris, formally came into existence on January 1, 2016. It is an administrative structure for cooperation between the City of Paris and its nearest suburbs. It includes the City of Paris, plus the communes, or towns of the three departments of the inner suburbs; Hauts-de-Seine, Seine-Saint-Denis and Val-de-Marne; plus seven communes in the outer suburbs, including Argenteuil in Val d'Oise and Paray-Vieille-Poste in Essonne, which were added to include the major airports of Paris. The Metropole covers 814 square kilometers and has a population of 6.945 million persons.

When did the Metropole du Grand Paris come into existence?

January 1, 2016

How large is the Metropole?

814 square kilometers

What is the population of the metropole?

6.945 million

What three departments of the inner suburbs are included in the metropole?

Hauts-de-Seine, Seine-Saint-Denis and Val-de-Marne

How many communes of the outer suburbs are included in the metropole?

seven


The new structure is administered by a Metropolitan Council of 210 members, not directly elected, but chosen by the councils of the member Communes. By 2020 its basic competencies will include urban planning, housing, and protection of the environment. The first president of the metropolitan council, Patrick Ollier, a Republican and the mayor of the town of Rueil-Malmaison, was elected on January 22, 2016. Though the Metropole has a population of nearly seven million persons and accounts for 25 percent of the GDP of France, it has a very small budget; just 65 million Euros, compared with eight billion Euros for the City of Paris.

How many members are in the Metropolitan Council?

Who was the first president of the metropolitan council?

Patrick Ollier

What town was Patrick Ollier a mayor of?

Rueil-Malmaison

What party does Patrick Ollier associate with?

Republican

What is the budget for Metropole?

65 million Euros


The Region of Île de France, including Paris and its surrounding communities, is governed by the Regional Council, which has its headquarters in the 7th arrondissement of Paris. It is composed of 209 members representing the different communes within the region. On December 15, 2015, a list of candidates of the Union of the Right, a coalition of centrist and right-wing parties, led by Valérie Pécresse, narrowly won the regional election, defeating a coalition of Socialists and ecologists. The Socialists had governed the region for seventeen years. In 2016, the new regional council will have 121 members from the Union of the Right, 66 from the Union of the Left and 22 from the extreme right National Front.

In which district is the Regional Coucil housed?

For how many years did the socialists governed the region?

seventeen

How many council members will they have in 2016 from the union of the Right?

Who led the Union of the Right?

Valérie Pécresse


France's highest courts are located in Paris. The Court of Cassation, the highest court in the judicial order, which reviews criminal and civil cases, is located in the Palais de Justice on the Île de la Cité, while the Conseil d'État, which provides legal advice to the executive and acts as the highest court in the administrative order, judging litigation against public bodies, is located in the Palais-Royal in the 1st arrondissement. The Constitutional Council, an advisory body with ultimate authority on the constitutionality of laws and government decrees, also meets in the Montpensier wing of the Palais Royal.

Where are France's highest courts located?

Paris

What is the highest court in the judicial order?

Court of Cassation

Where does the Constitutional Council meet?

Montpensier wing of the Palais Royal

Where is the Coutt of Cassation located?

Palais de Justice

Where does the Consiel d'Etat meet?

Palais-Royal


Paris and its region host the headquarters of several international organisations including UNESCO, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the International Chamber of Commerce, the Paris Club, the European Space Agency, the International Energy Agency, the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie, the European Union Institute for Security Studies, the International Bureau of Weights and Measures, the International Exhibition Bureau and the International Federation for Human Rights.

Where is the headquarters for UNESCO?

Paris

Where is the head quarters for the International Federation for Human Rights?

Paris

Where is the head quarters for the European Space Agency?

Paris


The security of Paris is mainly the responsibility of the Prefecture of Police of Paris, a subdivision of the Ministry of the Interior of France. It supervises the units of the National Police who patrol the city and the three neighbouring departments. It is also responsible for providing emergency services, including the Paris Fire Brigade. Its headquarters is on Place Louis Lépine on the Île de la Cité. There are 30,200 officers under the prefecture, and a fleet of more than 6,000 vehicles, including police cars, motorcycles, fire trucks, boats and helicopters. In addition to traditional police duties, the local police monitors the number of discount sales held by large stores (no more than two a year are allowed) and verify that, during summer holidays, at least one bakery is open in every neighbourhood. The national police has its own special unit for riot control and crowd control and security of public buildings, called the Compagnies Républicaines de Sécurité (CRS), a unit formed in 1944 right after the liberation of France. Vans of CRS agents are frequently seen in the centre of the city when there are demonstrations and public events.

Who is responsible for the security of Paris?

Prefecture of Police of Paris

Where is the headquarters for the Prefecture of Police of Paris?

Place Louis Lépine on the Île de la Cité

How many officers are in the Prefecture of Police of Paris?

When was the Compagnies Republicaines de Securite formed?

How many vehicles are in the fleet?


Most French rulers since the Middle Ages made a point of leaving their mark on a city that, contrary to many other of the world's capitals, has never been destroyed by catastrophe or war. In modernising its infrastructure through the centuries, Paris has preserved even its earliest history in its street map.[citation needed] At its origin, before the Middle Ages, the city was composed around several islands and sandbanks in a bend of the Seine; of those, two remain today: the île Saint-Louis, the île de la Cité; a third one is the 1827 artificially created île aux Cygnes. Modern Paris owes much to its late 19th century Second Empire remodelling by the Baron Haussmann: many of modern Paris' busiest streets, avenues and boulevards today are a result of that city renovation. Paris also owes its style to its aligned street-fronts, distinctive cream-grey "Paris stone" building ornamentation, aligned top-floor balconies, and tree-lined boulevards. The high residential population of its city centre makes it much different from most other western global cities.

Who remodeled Paris in the 19th century?

Baron Haussmann

Which two islands remain in Paris today?

île Saint-Louis, the île de la Cité

When was ile aux Cygnes created?


Paris' urbanism laws have been under strict control since the early 17th century, particularly where street-front alignment, building height and building distribution is concerned. In recent developments, a 1974-2010 building height limitation of 37 metres (121 ft) was raised to 50 m (160 ft) in central areas and 180 metres (590 ft) in some of Paris' peripheral quarters, yet for some of the city's more central quarters, even older building-height laws still remain in effect. The 210 metres (690 ft) Montparnasse tower was both Paris and France's tallest building until 1973, but this record has been held by the La Défense quarter Tour First tower in Courbevoie since its 2011 construction. A new project for La Defense, called Hermitage Plaza, launched in 2009, proposes to build two towers, 85 and 86 stories or 320 metres high, which would be the tallest buildings in the European Union, just slightly shorter than the Eiffel Tower. They were scheduled for completion in 2019 or 2020, but as of January 2015 construction had not yet begun, and there were questions in the press about the future of the project.

What is the current height limitation in Paris in central areas?

50 m

Until 1973, what was Paris; tallest building?

Montparnasse

What is the name of the project for La Defense called that has not yet been started?

Hermitage Plaza

When was the Hermitage Plaza launched?

How many towers were planned to be built?

two


Parisian examples of European architecture date back more than a millennium; including the Romanesque church of the Abbey of Saint-Germain-des-Prés (1014-1163); the early Gothic Architecture of the Basilica of Saint-Denis (1144), the Notre Dame Cathedral (1163-1345), the Flamboyant Gothic of Saint Chapelle (1239-1248), the Baroque churches of Saint-Paul-Saint-Louis (1627-1641) and Les Invalides (1670-1708). The 19th century produced the neoclassical church of La Madeleine (1808-1842); the Palais Garnier Opera House (1875); the neo-Byzantine Basilica of Sacré-Cœur (1875-1919), and the exuberant Belle Époque modernism of the Eiffel Tower (1889). Striking examples of 20th century architecture include the Centre Georges Pompidou by Richard Rogers and Renzo Piano (1977), and the Louvre Pyramid by I.M. Pei (1989). Contemporary architecture includes the Musée du Quai Branly by Jean Nouvel (2006) and the new contemporary art museum of the Louis Vuitton Foundation by Frank Gehry (2014).

When was La Madeleine built?

When was teh Palais Garnier Opera House built?

When was the Eiffel Tower built?

Who built the art museum of the Louis Vuitton Foundation?

Frank Gehry

Who built the Louvre Pyramid?

I.M. Pei


In 2012 the Paris agglomeration (urban area) counted 28,800 people without a fixed residence, an increase of 84 percent since 2001; it represents 43 percent of the homeless in all of France. Forty-one percent were women, and 29 percent were accompanied by children. Fifty-six percent of the homeless were born outside France, the largest number coming from Africa and Eastern Europe. The city of Paris has sixty homeless shelters, called Centres d'hébergement et de réinsertion sociale or CHRS, which are funded by the city and operated by private charities and associations.

What was the population of the urban area of Paris in 2012 without a fixed residence?

What percentage of homelessness in France does Paris house?

What percentage of homeless people are women?

How many homeless shelters are in Paris?

sixty

Who funds these homeless shelters?

the city


Aside from the 20th century addition of the Bois de Boulogne, Bois de Vincennes and Paris heliport, Paris' administrative limits have remained unchanged since 1860. The Seine département had been governing Paris and its suburbs since its creation in 1790, but the rising suburban population had made it difficult to govern as a unique entity. This problem was 'resolved' when its parent "District de la région parisienne" (Paris region) was reorganised into several new departments from 1968: Paris became a department in itself, and the administration of its suburbs was divided between the three departments surrounding it. The Paris region was renamed "Île-de-France" in 1977, but the "Paris region" name is still commonly used today. Paris was reunited with its suburbs on January 1, 2016 when the Métropole du Grand Paris came into existence.

What are they only two additions to Paris' administrative limits since 1860?

Bois de Boulogne, Bois de Vincennes

When was the Siene department created?

WHen was District de la region parisienne reorganised?

What was the Paris region renamed to?

"Île-de-France"

When was Paris reunited with its suburbs?

January 1, 2016