Since life began on Earth, five major mass extinctions and several minor events have led to large and sudden drops in biodiversity. The Phanerozoic eon (the last 540 million years) marked a rapid growth in biodiversity via the Cambrian explosion—a period during which the majority of multicellular phyla first appeared. The next 400 million years included repeated, massive biodiversity losses classified as mass extinction events. In the Carboniferous, rainforest collapse led to a great loss of plant and animal life. The Permian–Triassic extinction event, 251 million years ago, was the worst; vertebrate recovery took 30 million years. The most recent, the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, occurred 65 million years ago and has often attracted more attention than others because it resulted in the extinction of the dinosaurs.

How many mass extinctions have happened since Life began on Earth?

five major mass extinctions

When was the period where the majority of multicellular phyla first appeared?

the Cambrian explosion

What happened in the Carboniferous?

rainforest collapse led to a great loss of plant and animal life.

When was the Permian–Triassic extinction event?

251 million years ago

How long did vertebrate recovery take?

30 million years

How many mass extinctions have happened since the Cambrian?

I'm not sure.

When was the period where the majority of biodiversity appeared?

I'm not sure.

What happened in the several minor events?

I'm not sure.

When was the first Cambrian extinction event?

I'm not sure.

How long did rainforest recovery take?

I'm not sure.


The number of species invasions has been on the rise at least since the beginning of the 1900s. Species are increasingly being moved by humans (on purpose and accidentally). In some cases the invaders are causing drastic changes and damage to their new habitats (e.g.: zebra mussels and the emerald ash borer in the Great Lakes region and the lion fish along the North American Atlantic coast). Some evidence suggests that invasive species are competitive in their new habitats because they are subject to less pathogen disturbance. Others report confounding evidence that occasionally suggest that species-rich communities harbor many native and exotic species simultaneously while some say that diverse ecosystems are more resilient and resist invasive plants and animals. An important question is, "do invasive species cause extinctions?" Many studies cite effects of invasive species on natives, but not extinctions. Invasive species seem to increase local (i.e.: alpha diversity) diversity, which decreases turnover of diversity (i.e.: beta diversity). Overall gamma diversity may be lowered because species are going extinct because of other causes, but even some of the most insidious invaders (e.g.: Dutch elm disease, emerald ash borer, chestnut blight in North America) have not caused their host species to become extinct. Extirpation, population decline, and homogenization of regional biodiversity are much more common. Human activities have frequently been the cause of invasive species circumventing their barriers, by introducing them for food and other purposes. Human activities therefore allow species to migrate to new areas (and thus become invasive) occurred on time scales much shorter than historically have been required for a species to extend its range.

What century started the increase of species invasions?

Who intentionally and unintentionally moves species around?

humans

What invaders are causing changes in the Great Lakes region?

zebra mussels and the emerald ash borer

What invaders are causing changes along the North American Atlantic coast?

lion fish

What century started the increase of habitat invasions?

I'm not sure.

Who intentionally and unintentionally moves habitats around?

I'm not sure.

What invaders are causing invasive plants in the Great Lakes region?

I'm not sure.

What invaders are causing invasive plants to be along the North American Atlantic coast?

I'm not sure.


Brazil's Atlantic Forest is considered one such hotspot, containing roughly 20,000 plant species, 1,350 vertebrates, and millions of insects, about half of which occur nowhere else.[citation needed] The island of Madagascar and India are also particularly notable. Colombia is characterized by high biodiversity, with the highest rate of species by area unit worldwide and it has the largest number of endemics (species that are not found naturally anywhere else) of any country. About 10% of the species of the Earth can be found in Colombia, including over 1,900 species of bird, more than in Europe and North America combined, Colombia has 10% of the world’s mammals species, 14% of the amphibian species, and 18% of the bird species of the world. Madagascar dry deciduous forests and lowland rainforests possess a high ratio of endemism.[citation needed] Since the island separated from mainland Africa 66 million years ago, many species and ecosystems have evolved independently.[citation needed] Indonesia's 17,000 islands cover 735,355 square miles (1,904,560 km2) and contain 10% of the world's flowering plants, 12% of mammals, and 17% of reptiles, amphibians and birds—along with nearly 240 million people. Many regions of high biodiversity and/or endemism arise from specialized habitats which require unusual adaptations, for example, alpine environments in high mountains, or Northern European peat bogs.[citation needed]

How many plant species does Brazil's Atlantic Forest contain?

20,000 plant species

How many vertebrates does Brazil's Atlantic Forest contain?

1,350 vertebrates

Which country has the highest rate of species by area unit worldwide?

Colombia

Which country has about 10% of the species on Earth?

Colombia

What island separated from mainland Africa 66 million years ago?

Madagascar

How many plant species does Africa contain?

I'm not sure.

How many vertebrates does Africa contain?

I'm not sure.

Which country has the highest rate of mammals by area unit worldwide?

I'm not sure.

Which country has about 12 percent of the species on Earth?

I'm not sure.

What island separated from Africa 240 million years ago?

I'm not sure.


The existence of a "global carrying capacity", limiting the amount of life that can live at once, is debated, as is the question of whether such a limit would also cap the number of species. While records of life in the sea shows a logistic pattern of growth, life on land (insects, plants and tetrapods)shows an exponential rise in diversity. As one author states, "Tetrapods have not yet invaded 64 per cent of potentially habitable modes, and it could be that without human influence the ecological and taxonomic diversity of tetrapods would continue to increase in an exponential fashion until most or all of the available ecospace is filled."

What limits the amount of life that can live at once on Earth?

global carrying capacity

What type of animal shows a logistic pattern of growth?

life in the sea

What type of animal shows an exponential rise in diversity?

life on land

What percentage of potentially habitable modes have Tetrapods not yet invaded?

64 per cent

What limits the amount of habitable modes on Earth?

I'm not sure.

What type of animal shows a logistic pattern of diversity?

I'm not sure.

What type of animal shows an exponential pattern of growth?

I'm not sure.

What percentage potentially habitable modes has life in the sea not yet invaded?

I'm not sure.

Without whose influence would sea growth increase?

I'm not sure.


From 1950 to 2011, world population increased from 2.5 billion to 7 billion and is forecast to reach a plateau of more than 9 billion during the 21st century. Sir David King, former chief scientific adviser to the UK government, told a parliamentary inquiry: "It is self-evident that the massive growth in the human population through the 20th century has had more impact on biodiversity than any other single factor." At least until the middle of the 21st century, worldwide losses of pristine biodiverse land will probably depend much on the worldwide human birth rate.

What was the increase in population from 1950 to 2011?

world population increased from 2.5 billion to 7 billion

What year started the increase of population to 7 billion?

From 1950

What is the forecast plateau that the population will reach during the 21st century?

more than 9 billion

Who is the former chief scientific adviser to the UK government?

Sir David King

What was the increase in population from 1957 to 2011?

I'm not sure.

What year started the increase of population to 2 billion?

I'm not sure.

What is the forecast plateau that the population will reach during the 22nd century?

I'm not sure.

Who is the former chief scientific parliamentary to the UK government?

I'm not sure.

Until at least when will worldwide loss of scientific advisers probably depend much on the worldwide birth rate?

I'm not sure.


The control of associated biodiversity is one of the great agricultural challenges that farmers face. On monoculture farms, the approach is generally to eradicate associated diversity using a suite of biologically destructive pesticides, mechanized tools and transgenic engineering techniques, then to rotate crops. Although some polyculture farmers use the same techniques, they also employ integrated pest management strategies as well as strategies that are more labor-intensive, but generally less dependent on capital, biotechnology and energy.

What is one of the great agricultural challenges that farmers face?

The control of associated biodiversity

What farms use biologically destructive pesticides

monoculture farms

What farmers use integrated pest management strategies?

polyculture farmers

What farmers are generally less dependent on capital, biotechnology and energy?

polyculture farmers

What is one of the great polyculture challenges that farmers face?

I'm not sure.

What farms use polyculture destructive pesticides?

I'm not sure.

What farmers use integrated capital management strategies?

I'm not sure.

What farmers are generally less dependent on monoculture farms?

I'm not sure.

What is the approach on a biotechnology farm?

I'm not sure.


National park and nature reserve is the area selected by governments or private organizations for special protection against damage or degradation with the objective of biodiversity and landscape conservation. National parks are usually owned and managed by national or state governments. A limit is placed on the number of visitors permitted to enter certain fragile areas. Designated trails or roads are created. The visitors are allowed to enter only for study, cultural and recreation purposes. Forestry operations, grazing of animals and hunting of animals are prohibited. Exploitation of habitat or wildlife is banned.

What types of parks receive special protection against damage or degradation?

National park and nature reserve

Who selects National parks?

governments or private organizations

What is the goal of protecting National Parks from damage?

with the objective of biodiversity and landscape conservation

Who usually owns and manages National parks?

national or state governments

What activities are prohibited in national parks?

Forestry operations, grazing of animals and hunting of animals

What types of parks receive special protection against conservation?

I'm not sure.

Who selects designated trails?

I'm not sure.

What is the goal of protecting National Parks from roads?

I'm not sure.

Who usually owns and manages roads?

I'm not sure.

What activities are prohibited on roads?

I'm not sure.


During the last century, decreases in biodiversity have been increasingly observed. In 2007, German Federal Environment Minister Sigmar Gabriel cited estimates that up to 30% of all species will be extinct by 2050. Of these, about one eighth of known plant species are threatened with extinction. Estimates reach as high as 140,000 species per year (based on Species-area theory). This figure indicates unsustainable ecological practices, because few species emerge each year.[citation needed] Almost all scientists acknowledge that the rate of species loss is greater now than at any time in human history, with extinctions occurring at rates hundreds of times higher than background extinction rates. As of 2012, some studies suggest that 25% of all mammal species could be extinct in 20 years.

Who is the German Federal Environment Minister?

Sigmar Gabriel

What year did Gabriel estimate 30% of of all species will be extinct by?

How many plant species are close to extinction?

about one eighth

2012 studies estimated what percentage of mammals could be extinct in 20 years?

Who is the German Federal Estimates Minister?

I'm not sure.

What year did Gabriel estimate 50 percent of all species will be extinct by?

I'm not sure.

How many plant species are increasingly observed?

I'm not sure.

What percentage of animals did 2007 studies estimate could be extinct in 20 years?

I'm not sure.

When did Sigmar Gabriel cite Species-area theory?

I'm not sure.


Habitat size and numbers of species are systematically related. Physically larger species and those living at lower latitudes or in forests or oceans are more sensitive to reduction in habitat area. Conversion to "trivial" standardized ecosystems (e.g., monoculture following deforestation) effectively destroys habitat for the more diverse species that preceded the conversion. In some countries lack of property rights or lax law/regulatory enforcement necessarily leads to biodiversity loss (degradation costs having to be supported by the community).[citation needed]

What is systematically related to the numbers of species?

Habitat size

What animals are more sensitive to reduction in habitat area?

Physically larger species and those living at lower latitudes or in forests or oceans

How is a standardized ecosystem formed?

monoculture following deforestation

What leads to biodiversity loss is some countries?

lack of property rights or lax law/regulatory enforcement

What is systematically related to the numbers of communities?

I'm not sure.

What animals are more sensitive to reduction of community area?

I'm not sure.

How is a community ecosystem formed?

I'm not sure.

What leads to biodiversity loss in some species?

I'm not sure.

What destroys the more diverse species?

I'm not sure.


Not all introduced species are invasive, nor all invasive species deliberately introduced. In cases such as the zebra mussel, invasion of US waterways was unintentional. In other cases, such as mongooses in Hawaii, the introduction is deliberate but ineffective (nocturnal rats were not vulnerable to the diurnal mongoose). In other cases, such as oil palms in Indonesia and Malaysia, the introduction produces substantial economic benefits, but the benefits are accompanied by costly unintended consequences.

What animal unintentionally invaded the US waterways?

the zebra mussel

What animal intentionally invaded Hawaii?

mongooses

What animals were not vulnerable to the mongoose?

nocturnal rats

What countries experienced unintended consequences from species invasion?

Indonesia and Malaysia,

What animal intentionally invaded the US waterways?

I'm not sure.

What animal unintentionally invaded Hawaii?

I'm not sure.

What animals were not vulnerable to the zebra mussel?

I'm not sure.

What countries experienced intended consequences from species invasion?

I'm not sure.

What is true about the introduction of the zebra mussel in Hawaii?

I'm not sure.


Less than 1% of all species that have been described have been studied beyond simply noting their existence. The vast majority of Earth's species are microbial. Contemporary biodiversity physics is "firmly fixated on the visible [macroscopic] world". For example, microbial life is metabolically and environmentally more diverse than multicellular life (see e.g., extremophile). "On the tree of life, based on analyses of small-subunit ribosomal RNA, visible life consists of barely noticeable twigs. The inverse relationship of size and population recurs higher on the evolutionary ladder—"to a first approximation, all multicellular species on Earth are insects". Insect extinction rates are high—supporting the Holocene extinction hypothesis.

What type of science is firmly fixated on the visible world?

Contemporary biodiversity physics

What type of life is more metabolically diverse than multicellular life?

microbial life

What type of life is more enviromentally diverse than multicellular life?

microbial life

What rate supports the Holocene extinction hypothesis?

Insect extinction rates

What type of science is firmly fixated on RNA?

I'm not sure.

What type of life is more metabolically diverse than extinction?

I'm not sure.

What type of life is more environmentally diverse than extinction?

I'm not sure.

What rate supports the Earth extinction hypothesis?

I'm not sure.

How many species that have been described have been extinct?

I'm not sure.


The number and variety of plants, animals and other organisms that exist is known as biodiversity. It is an essential component of nature and it ensures the survival of human species by providing food, fuel, shelter, medicines and other resources to mankind. The richness of biodiversity depends on the climatic conditions and area of the region. All species of plants taken together are known as flora and about 70,000 species of plants are known till date. All species of animals taken together are known as fauna which includes birds, mammals, fish, reptiles, insects, crustaceans, molluscs, etc.

What term describes the number and variety of plants, animals and other organisms in existence?

biodiversity

What ensures the survival of human species by providing food, shelter, other resources to mankind?

biodiversity

What influences richness of biodiversity?

the climatic conditions and area of the region

What term describes all the species of plants in existence?

flora

What term describes the components of insects?

I'm not sure.

What ensures the survival of human species by providing insects?

I'm not sure.

What influences richness of insects?

I'm not sure.

What term describes all the species of insects in existence?

I'm not sure.

How many species of insects are known to date?

I'm not sure.


The term biological diversity was used first by wildlife scientist and conservationist Raymond F. Dasmann in the year 1968 lay book A Different Kind of Country advocating conservation. The term was widely adopted only after more than a decade, when in the 1980s it came into common usage in science and environmental policy. Thomas Lovejoy, in the foreword to the book Conservation Biology, introduced the term to the scientific community. Until then the term "natural diversity" was common, introduced by The Science Division of The Nature Conservancy in an important 1975 study, "The Preservation of Natural Diversity." By the early 1980s TNC's Science program and its head, Robert E. Jenkins, Lovejoy and other leading conservation scientists at the time in America advocated the use of the term "biological diversity".

Which scientist first used the term biological diversity?

Raymond F. Dasmann

What book first contained the term biological diversity?

A Different Kind of Country

What decade did the term biological diversity become common usage in science and economics?

the 1980s

Who introduced the term biological diversity to the scientific community?

Thomas Lovejoy

What term was common before biological diversity?

"natural diversity"

Which scientist first used the term biology?

I'm not sure.

What book first contained the term biology?

I'm not sure.

What decade did the term biology become common usage in science and economics?

I'm not sure.

Who introduced the term biology to the scientific community?

I'm not sure.

What term was common before biology?

I'm not sure.


Biodiversity provides critical support for drug discovery and the availability of medicinal resources. A significant proportion of drugs are derived, directly or indirectly, from biological sources: at least 50% of the pharmaceutical compounds on the US market are derived from plants, animals, and micro-organisms, while about 80% of the world population depends on medicines from nature (used in either modern or traditional medical practice) for primary healthcare. Only a tiny fraction of wild species has been investigated for medical potential. Biodiversity has been critical to advances throughout the field of bionics. Evidence from market analysis and biodiversity science indicates that the decline in output from the pharmaceutical sector since the mid-1980s can be attributed to a move away from natural product exploration ("bioprospecting") in favor of genomics and synthetic chemistry, indeed claims about the value of undiscovered pharmaceuticals may not provide enough incentive for companies in free markets to search for them because of the high cost of development; meanwhile, natural products have a long history of supporting significant economic and health innovation. Marine ecosystems are particularly important, although inappropriate bioprospecting can increase biodiversity loss, as well as violating the laws of the communities and states from which the resources are taken.

What provides critical support for drug discovery and the availability of medicinal resources?

Biodiversity

What percentage of US drugs are derived from plants, animals, and micro-organisms?

at least 50%

What percentage of worldwide drugs are derived from nature?

about 80%

What field has biodiversity made critical advances in?

bionics

What provides critical support for drug discovery and the availability of economic resources?

I'm not sure.

What percentage of US drugs are derived from synthetics?

I'm not sure.

What percentage of worldwide drugs are derived from synthetics?

I'm not sure.

What field has economic resources made critical advances in?

I'm not sure.

What ecosystems are particularly natural?

I'm not sure.


In agriculture and animal husbandry, the Green Revolution popularized the use of conventional hybridization to increase yield. Often hybridized breeds originated in developed countries and were further hybridized with local varieties in the developing world to create high yield strains resistant to local climate and diseases. Local governments and industry have been pushing hybridization. Formerly huge gene pools of various wild and indigenous breeds have collapsed causing widespread genetic erosion and genetic pollution. This has resulted in loss of genetic diversity and biodiversity as a whole.

What popularized the use of conventional hybridization to increase yield?

the Green Revolution

What did the high yield strains become resistant to?

local climate and diseases

Who has been pushing for hybridization?

Local governments and industry

What caused the loss of biodiversity?

Formerly huge gene pools of various wild and indigenous breeds have collapsed causing widespread genetic erosion

What popularized the use of conventional genetic erosion to increase yield?

I'm not sure.

What did the high yield governments become resistant to?

I'm not sure.

Who has been pushing for indigenous breeds?

I'm not sure.

What caused the loss of local governments?

I'm not sure.

What do conventional breeds often originate in?

I'm not sure.


Originally based on the English alphabet, ASCII encodes 128 specified characters into seven-bit integers as shown by the ASCII chart on the right. The characters encoded are numbers 0 to 9, lowercase letters a to z, uppercase letters A to Z, basic punctuation symbols, control codes that originated with Teletype machines, and a space. For example, lowercase j would become binary 1101010 and decimal 106. ASCII includes definitions for 128 characters: 33 are non-printing control characters (many now obsolete) that affect how text and space are processed and 95 printable characters, including the space (which is considered an invisible graphic:223).

What is the ASCII based on?

English alphabet

How many specific characters are there in the ASCII code?

128 specified characters

How many are non-printing control characters?

33 are non-printing control characters

How many characters are printable characters?

95 printable characters

What is the space also known as what?

invisible graphic:223

What is based on the binary alphabet?

I'm not sure.

How many specific characters are there in the ASCII Teletype machines?

I'm not sure.

What did encoded numbers originate with?

I'm not sure.

How many definitions are printable characters?

I'm not sure.

What alphabet is invisible graphic:223 based on?

I'm not sure.


The code itself was patterned so that most control codes were together, and all graphic codes were together, for ease of identification. The first two columns (32 positions) were reserved for control characters.:220, 236 § 8,9) The "space" character had to come before graphics to make sorting easier, so it became position 20hex;:237 § 10 for the same reason, many special signs commonly used as separators were placed before digits. The committee decided it was important to support uppercase 64-character alphabets, and chose to pattern ASCII so it could be reduced easily to a usable 64-character set of graphic codes,:228, 237 § 14 as was done in the DEC SIXBIT code. Lowercase letters were therefore not interleaved with uppercase. To keep options available for lowercase letters and other graphics, the special and numeric codes were arranged before the letters, and the letter A was placed in position 41hex to match the draft of the corresponding British standard.:238 § 18 The digits 0–9 were arranged so they correspond to values in binary prefixed with 011, making conversion with binary-coded decimal straightforward.

Why was the code patterned so that most codes were together?

for ease of identification

How many positions are in the first two columns?

32 positions

What did the committee decide was important?

to support uppercase 64-character alphabets

Where was the letter A places in position?

Why were the lowercase letters patterned so that most codes were together?

I'm not sure.

How many positions are are in the first numeric codes?

I'm not sure.

What did the committee decide would help with special signs?

I'm not sure.

Where were the letters DEC in position?

I'm not sure.

Why were numeric codes converted to graphic codes?

I'm not sure.


ASCII was incorporated into the Unicode character set as the first 128 symbols, so the 7-bit ASCII characters have the same numeric codes in both sets. This allows UTF-8 to be backward compatible with 7-bit ASCII, as a UTF-8 file containing only ASCII characters is identical to an ASCII file containing the same sequence of characters. Even more importantly, forward compatibility is ensured as software that recognizes only 7-bit ASCII characters as special and does not alter bytes with the highest bit set (as is often done to support 8-bit ASCII extensions such as ISO-8859-1) will preserve UTF-8 data unchanged.

ASCII was incorporated into what other character set?

Unicode

How many of the symbols are the same in the beginning of the ASCII and Unicode?

128 symbols

What set is backward compatible with 7-bit ASCII?

ASCII was incorporated into what other extensions?

I'm not sure.

How many of the symbols are the same in the end of the ASCII and Unicode?

I'm not sure.

What set is backward with 128 symbols?

I'm not sure.

What was incorporated into the Unicode extensions?

I'm not sure.

What is a UTF-8 file containing ISO-8859-1 identical to?

I'm not sure.


When a Teletype 33 ASR equipped with the automatic paper tape reader received a Control-S (XOFF, an abbreviation for transmit off), it caused the tape reader to stop; receiving Control-Q (XON, "transmit on") caused the tape reader to resume. This technique became adopted by several early computer operating systems as a "handshaking" signal warning a sender to stop transmission because of impending overflow; it persists to this day in many systems as a manual output control technique. On some systems Control-S retains its meaning but Control-Q is replaced by a second Control-S to resume output. The 33 ASR also could be configured to employ Control-R (DC2) and Control-T (DC4) to start and stop the tape punch; on some units equipped with this function, the corresponding control character lettering on the keycap above the letter was TAPE and TAPE respectively.

What casued the automatic paper tape reader to stop?

a Control-S

What caused the automatic paper tape reader to start again?

Control-Q

What was the warning signal called that warned the sender that there was impending overflow?

handshaking

What two controls can be configured with 33 ASR?

Control-R (DC2) and Control-T (DC4)

What caused the paper tape reader to send a signal warning?

I'm not sure.

What caused the automatic paper tape reader to output control technique?

I'm not sure.

What was the warning signal that warned TAPE that there was impending overflow?

I'm not sure.

What two controls can be configured from a mobile phone?

I'm not sure.

What is impending overflow replaced by on some systems?

I'm not sure.


DEC operating systems (OS/8, RT-11, RSX-11, RSTS, TOPS-10, etc.) used both characters to mark the end of a line so that the console device (originally Teletype machines) would work. By the time so-called "glass TTYs" (later called CRTs or terminals) came along, the convention was so well established that backward compatibility necessitated continuing the convention. When Gary Kildall cloned RT-11 to create CP/M he followed established DEC convention. Until the introduction of PC DOS in 1981, IBM had no hand in this because their 1970s operating systems used EBCDIC instead of ASCII and they were oriented toward punch-card input and line printer output on which the concept of carriage return was meaningless. IBM's PC DOS (also marketed as MS-DOS by Microsoft) inherited the convention by virtue of being a clone of CP/M, and Windows inherited it from MS-DOS.

What are glass TTYs also known as?

CRTs or terminals

What did Gary Kildall clone to create CP/M?

When was the introduction of PC DOS?

What programming did IBM use in the 1970s?

EBCDIC

What was IBM's PC DOS marketed as by Microsoft?

MS-DOS

What did Gary Klidall clone to create PC DOS?

I'm not sure.

When was the introduction of IBM?

I'm not sure.

What programming did DEC use in the 1970s?

I'm not sure.

What was IBM's PC DOS marketed as by ASCII?

I'm not sure.

What is another name for Teletype machines?

I'm not sure.


C trigraphs were created to solve this problem for ANSI C, although their late introduction and inconsistent implementation in compilers limited their use. Many programmers kept their computers on US-ASCII, so plain-text in Swedish, German etc. (for example, in e-mail or Usenet) contained "{, }" and similar variants in the middle of words, something those programmers got used to. For example, a Swedish programmer mailing another programmer asking if they should go for lunch, could get "N{ jag har sm|rg}sar." as the answer, which should be "Nä jag har smörgåsar." meaning "No I've got sandwiches."

What was created to solve the problem for ANSI C?

C trigraphs

Why was their use limited?

their late introduction and inconsistent implementation in compilers

What did many programmers keep their computers on?

US-ASCII

What what happening to the words that were sent from programmers?

contained "{, }" and similar variants in the middle of words

What was created to solve the problem for Usenet?

I'm not sure.

What did many programmers keep their sandwiches on?

I'm not sure.

What was happening to the C trigraphs that were sent from programmers?

I'm not sure.

What was "{, }" supposed to mean?

I'm not sure.

What did Germans get used to?

I'm not sure.


The X3.2 subcommittee designed ASCII based on the earlier teleprinter encoding systems. Like other character encodings, ASCII specifies a correspondence between digital bit patterns and character symbols (i.e. graphemes and control characters). This allows digital devices to communicate with each other and to process, store, and communicate character-oriented information such as written language. Before ASCII was developed, the encodings in use included 26 alphabetic characters, 10 numerical digits, and from 11 to 25 special graphic symbols. To include all these, and control characters compatible with the Comité Consultatif International Téléphonique et Télégraphique (CCITT) International Telegraph Alphabet No. 2 (ITA2) standard, Fieldata, and early EBCDIC, more than 64 codes were required for ASCII.

What was ASCII based on?

teleprinter encoding systems

ASCII specifies correspondence between what?

digital bit patterns and character symbols

What does ASCII correspondence allow digital devices to do?

communicate with each other and to process, store, and communicate character-oriented information

How many graphic symbols were used before ASCII?

11 to 25 special graphic symbols

How many codes were required for ASCII?

more than 64 codes

What was the X3.2 based on?

I'm not sure.

ASCII specifies alphabetic characters by what?

I'm not sure.

What does ASCII graphic symbols allow digital devices to do?

I'm not sure.

How many graphic symbols were used before encoding systems were invented?

I'm not sure.

How many codes were required for the X3.2?

I'm not sure.


ASCII itself was first used commercially during 1963 as a seven-bit teleprinter code for American Telephone & Telegraph's TWX (TeletypeWriter eXchange) network. TWX originally used the earlier five-bit ITA2, which was also used by the competing Telex teleprinter system. Bob Bemer introduced features such as the escape sequence. His British colleague Hugh McGregor Ross helped to popularize this work –  according to Bemer, "so much so that the code that was to become ASCII was first called the Bemer-Ross Code in Europe". Because of his extensive work on ASCII, Bemer has been called "the father of ASCII."

When was ASCII first commercially used?

What was it used for?

a seven-bit teleprinter code for American Telephone & Telegraph's TWX (TeletypeWriter eXchange) network

What did TWX use before ASCII?

five-bit ITA2

Who is the father of ASCII?

Bob Bemer

What was the code first called in Europe?

Bemer-Ross Code

When was ASCII first used by Berner-Ross?

I'm not sure.

What did TWX use because to counter slow loading times of ASCII?

I'm not sure.

Who competed against ASCII?

I'm not sure.

What was the TWX first called in Europe?

I'm not sure.

Who competed against eight-bit teleprinter code?

I'm not sure.


For example, character 10 represents the "line feed" function (which causes a printer to advance its paper), and character 8 represents "backspace". RFC 2822 refers to control characters that do not include carriage return, line feed or white space as non-whitespace control characters. Except for the control characters that prescribe elementary line-oriented formatting, ASCII does not define any mechanism for describing the structure or appearance of text within a document. Other schemes, such as markup languages, address page and document layout and formatting.

What does the "line feed" function do?

causes a printer to advance its paper

What character represents the "line feed" function?

character 10

What does character 8 represent?

backspace

What does RFC 2822 refers to what kind of control characters?

control characters that do not include carriage return, line feed or white space as non-whitespace control characters

What do the "line feed" control characters do?

I'm not sure.

What markup languages represent the "line feed" function?

I'm not sure.

What does document layout does 8 represent?

I'm not sure.

RFC 2822 translates what kind of languages?

I'm not sure.

What does not define any mechanism for carriage return?

I'm not sure.


Some software assigned special meanings to ASCII characters sent to the software from the terminal. Operating systems from Digital Equipment Corporation, for example, interpreted DEL as an input character as meaning "remove previously-typed input character", and this interpretation also became common in Unix systems. Most other systems used BS for that meaning and used DEL to mean "remove the character at the cursor".[citation needed] That latter interpretation is the most common now.[citation needed]

What did some software do to the ASCII characters?

assigned special meanings

What interpretation became common in Unix systmes?

interpreted DEL as an input character as meaning "remove previously-typed input character"

What do most other systmes use the DEL to mean?

remove the character at the cursor

What did other systmes us for "remove previously-typed input character"?

BS

What did some software do to the Digital Equipment Corporation?

I'm not sure.

What interpretation became common in BS systems?

I'm not sure.

What other systems use for the terminal?

I'm not sure.

What did the first systems use DEL to mean?

I'm not sure.


Computers attached to the ARPANET included machines running operating systems such as TOPS-10 and TENEX using CR-LF line endings, machines running operating systems such as Multics using LF line endings, and machines running operating systems such as OS/360 that represented lines as a character count followed by the characters of the line and that used EBCDIC rather than ASCII. The Telnet protocol defined an ASCII "Network Virtual Terminal" (NVT), so that connections between hosts with different line-ending conventions and character sets could be supported by transmitting a standard text format over the network. Telnet used ASCII along with CR-LF line endings, and software using other conventions would translate between the local conventions and the NVT. The File Transfer Protocol adopted the Telnet protocol, including use of the Network Virtual Terminal, for use when transmitting commands and transferring data in the default ASCII mode. This adds complexity to implementations of those protocols, and to other network protocols, such as those used for E-mail and the World Wide Web, on systems not using the NVT's CR-LF line-ending convention.

What do computers attached to the ARPANET use for line endings?

CR-LF

What do computers using operating systems use for line endings?

LF

Why did Telnet define an ASCII as a Network Virtual Terminal?

so that connections between hosts with different line-ending conventions and character sets could be supported

How were the connections supported?

by transmitting a standard text format over the network

Who else adopted this practice from Telnet?

The File Transfer Protocol

What do computers attached to TENEX use for line endings?

I'm not sure.

What do computers using standard text format use for line endings?

I'm not sure.

Why did Telnet define an ASCII as EBCDIC?

I'm not sure.

How were the Network Virtual Terminals supported?

I'm not sure.

Who else adopted this practice from ASCII?

I'm not sure.


From early in its development, ASCII was intended to be just one of several national variants of an international character code standard, ultimately published as ISO/IEC 646 (1972), which would share most characters in common but assign other locally useful characters to several code points reserved for "national use." However, the four years that elapsed between the publication of ASCII-1963 and ISO's first acceptance of an international recommendation during 1967 caused ASCII's choices for the national use characters to seem to be de facto standards for the world, causing confusion and incompatibility once other countries did begin to make their own assignments to these code points.

When was ISO/IEC 646 published?

What was ASCII inteded to be?

one of several national variants of an international character code standard

When was ISO's first acceptance of an international recommendation?

What was causing the confusion and incompatibility of the code points?

ASCII's choices for the national use characters to seem to be de facto standards for the world

When was ISO's last acceptance at an international recommendation?

I'm not sure.

What was causing the confusion and incompatibility of the shared characters?

I'm not sure.

What were code points ultimately published as?

I'm not sure.

When did the publication's choices cause confusion and incompatibility?

I'm not sure.

What shared no characters in common?

I'm not sure.


Most early home computer systems developed their own 8-bit character sets containing line-drawing and game glyphs, and often filled in some or all of the control characters from 0–31 with more graphics. Kaypro CP/M computers used the "upper" 128 characters for the Greek alphabet. The IBM PC defined code page 437, which replaced the control-characters with graphic symbols such as smiley faces, and mapped additional graphic characters to the upper 128 positions. Operating systems such as DOS supported these code pages, and manufacturers of IBM PCs supported them in hardware. Digital Equipment Corporation developed the Multinational Character Set (DEC-MCS) for use in the popular VT220 terminal as one of the first extensions designed more for international languages than for block graphics. The Macintosh defined Mac OS Roman and Postscript also defined a set, both of these contained both international letters and typographic punctuation marks instead of graphics, more like modern character sets.

What did most early home computers develop?

their own 8-bit character sets

What did Kaypro CP/M computers use?

the "upper" 128 characters for the Greek alphabet

What did IBM PC replace the control-characters with?

graphic symbols such as smiley faces

What did Digital Equipment Corporation develop?

Multinational Character Set (DEC-MCS)

What did Macintosh use instead of graphics?

typographic punctuation marks

What did most early graphic characters develop?

I'm not sure.

What did IBM PC replace the code pages with?

I'm not sure.

What did Macintosh use instead of hardware?

I'm not sure.

What did Digital Equipment Corporation develop for use in game glyphs?

I'm not sure.

What replaced the Greek alphabet with graphic symbols?

I'm not sure.


ASCII (i/ˈæski/ ASS-kee), abbreviated from American Standard Code for Information Interchange, is a character-encoding scheme (the IANA prefers the name US-ASCII). ASCII codes represent text in computers, communications equipment, and other devices that use text. Most modern character-encoding schemes are based on ASCII, though they support many additional characters. ASCII was the most common character encoding on the World Wide Web until December 2007, when it was surpassed by UTF-8, which is fully backward compatibe to ASCII.

What does ASCII stand for?

American Standard Code for Information Interchange

What is the definition of ASCII?

is a character-encoding scheme

What does ASCII code represent?

text in computers, communications equipment, and other devices that use text

ASCI was the most common character encoding on the world wide web until when?

December 2007

Who surpassed ASCII?

What was ASCII designed to represent before going through major changes?

I'm not sure.

ASCII was the second most common character encoding on the world wide web until when?

I'm not sure.

Who made ASCII obselete?

I'm not sure.

What are most fully backward schemes based on?

I'm not sure.

What does most communications equipment represent?

I'm not sure.


The committee debated the possibility of a shift function (like in ITA2), which would allow more than 64 codes to be represented by a six-bit code. In a shifted code, some character codes determine choices between options for the following character codes. It allows compact encoding, but is less reliable for data transmission as an error in transmitting the shift code typically makes a long part of the transmission unreadable. The standards committee decided against shifting, and so ASCII required at least a seven-bit code.:215, 236 § 4

Why did the committee debate adding a shift function?

would allow more than 64 codes to be represented by a six-bit code

What is different in a shifted code?

some character codes determine choices between options for the following character codes

Why did they decide against shifting code?

less reliable for data transmission as an error in transmitting the shift code typically makes a long part of the transmission unreadable

What happened after they decided agasint shifting?

ASCII required at least a seven-bit code

Why did the committee debate adding a character code function?

I'm not sure.

What is different in a compact code?

I'm not sure.

Why did they decide against deleting all the code?

I'm not sure.

What happened after they decided to make all employees work the same schedule?

I'm not sure.

What allows seven-bit code?

I'm not sure.


Many more of the control codes have been given meanings quite different from their original ones. The "escape" character (ESC, code 27), for example, was intended originally to allow sending other control characters as literals instead of invoking their meaning. This is the same meaning of "escape" encountered in URL encodings, C language strings, and other systems where certain characters have a reserved meaning. Over time this meaning has been co-opted and has eventually been changed. In modern use, an ESC sent to the terminal usually indicates the start of a command sequence, usually in the form of a so-called "ANSI escape code" (or, more properly, a "Control Sequence Introducer") beginning with ESC followed by a "[" (left-bracket) character. An ESC sent from the terminal is most often used as an out-of-band character used to terminate an operation, as in the TECO and vi text editors. In graphical user interface (GUI) and windowing systems, ESC generally causes an application to abort its current operation or to exit (terminate) altogether.

What was the "escape" character originally intended for?

to allow sending other control characters as literals instead of invoking their meaning

What does modern ESC code do?

most often used as an out-of-band character used to terminate an operation

What does ESC generally mean for graphical user interfaces and windowing systems?

an application to abort its current operation or to exit (terminate) altogether

What was the "escape" character meant to stop?

I'm not sure.

What does ESC generally mean for left-brackets?

I'm not sure.

What is most often used as a command sequence?

I'm not sure.

Where does ESC generally cause an application to abort its given meanings?

I'm not sure.

What is an ESC sent to control characters usually in the form of?

I'm not sure.


Older operating systems such as TOPS-10, along with CP/M, tracked file length only in units of disk blocks and used Control-Z (SUB) to mark the end of the actual text in the file. For this reason, EOF, or end-of-file, was used colloquially and conventionally as a three-letter acronym for Control-Z instead of SUBstitute. The end-of-text code (ETX), also known as Control-C, was inappropriate for a variety of reasons, while using Z as the control code to end a file is analogous to it ending the alphabet and serves as a very convenient mnemonic aid. A historically common and still prevalent convention uses the ETX code convention to interrupt and halt a program via an input data stream, usually from a keyboard.

What did older operating systems use to mark the end of the text?

Control-Z (SUB)

What does EOF stand for?

end-of-file

What is still the conventional use of the ETX code?

to interrupt and halt a program via an input data stream, usually from a keyboard

What else is the end-of-text code known as?

Control-C

What did older operating systems use to mark control code?

I'm not sure.

What is still the conventional use of the EOF code?

I'm not sure.

What else does the end-of text code use to track file length?

I'm not sure.

Where does a control code usually come from?

I'm not sure.

What is using Z as the end of text analogous to?

I'm not sure.


ASCII developed from telegraphic codes. Its first commercial use was as a seven-bit teleprinter code promoted by Bell data services. Work on the ASCII standard began on October 6, 1960, with the first meeting of the American Standards Association's (ASA) X3.2 subcommittee. The first edition of the standard was published during 1963, underwent a major revision during 1967, and experienced its most recent update during 1986. Compared to earlier telegraph codes, the proposed Bell code and ASCII were both ordered for more convenient sorting (i.e., alphabetization) of lists, and added features for devices other than teleprinters.

What was ASCII developed from?

telegraphic codes

What was the first commercial use of ASCII?

a seven-bit teleprinter code promoted by Bell data services

When did work on the ASCII standard begin?

October 6, 1960

When was the first edition of the standard published?

When was the first major revision of the code done?

What did ASCII form a subcommittee from?

I'm not sure.

What was the first alphebetization use of ASCII?

I'm not sure.

When did work on the ASCII preliminary Bell code begin?

I'm not sure.

When was the first edition of the Bell code published?

I'm not sure.

When was the final revision of the code done?

I'm not sure.


The committee considered an eight-bit code, since eight bits (octets) would allow two four-bit patterns to efficiently encode two digits with binary-coded decimal. However, it would require all data transmission to send eight bits when seven could suffice. The committee voted to use a seven-bit code to minimize costs associated with data transmission. Since perforated tape at the time could record eight bits in one position, it also allowed for a parity bit for error checking if desired.:217, 236 § 5 Eight-bit machines (with octets as the native data type) that did not use parity checking typically set the eighth bit to 0.

Why did the committee consider a 8 bit code?

eight bits (octets) would allow two four-bit patterns to efficiently encode two digits with binary-coded decimal

Why did the committee decide on 7bit instead?

minimize costs associated with data transmission

What allowed for a parity bit for error chicking if needed?

perforated tape at the time could record eight bits in one position

Why did the committee consider a 0 bit code?

I'm not sure.

Why did the company decide on 9bit instead?

I'm not sure.

What allowed for a parity bit for data transmission if needed?

I'm not sure.

What did seven-bit machines that did not use parity typically set the eight bit to?

I'm not sure.

How many bits in one position could be recorded by binary code?

I'm not sure.


With the other special characters and control codes filled in, ASCII was published as ASA X3.4-1963, leaving 28 code positions without any assigned meaning, reserved for future standardization, and one unassigned control code.:66, 245 There was some debate at the time whether there should be more control characters rather than the lowercase alphabet.:435 The indecision did not last long: during May 1963 the CCITT Working Party on the New Telegraph Alphabet proposed to assign lowercase characters to columns 6 and 7, and International Organization for Standardization TC 97 SC 2 voted during October to incorporate the change into its draft standard. The X3.2.4 task group voted its approval for the change to ASCII at its May 1963 meeting. Locating the lowercase letters in columns 6 and 7 caused the characters to differ in bit pattern from the upper case by a single bit, which simplified case-insensitive character matching and the construction of keyboards and printers.

What was ASCII published as and when?

ASA X3.4-1963

How many code positions were left unassigned for furture standardization?

28 code positions

When was the change to ASCII made official?

May 1963

The lower case letters caused a differ in the patter, what did this cause?

simplified case-insensitive character matching and the construction of keyboards and printers

How many code positions were left lowercase for future standardization?

I'm not sure.

When was the change to ASCII rejected?

I'm not sure.

The lower case letters caused a differ in the pattern, how did this change the vote?

I'm not sure.

Who proposed to assign code positions without any meaning?

I'm not sure.

What task group voted its approval for the standardization of ASCII stock prices?

I'm not sure.


Other international standards bodies have ratified character encodings such as ISO/IEC 646 that are identical or nearly identical to ASCII, with extensions for characters outside the English alphabet and symbols used outside the United States, such as the symbol for the United Kingdom's pound sterling (£). Almost every country needed an adapted version of ASCII, since ASCII suited the needs of only the USA and a few other countries. For example, Canada had its own version that supported French characters. Other adapted encodings include ISCII (India), VISCII (Vietnam), and YUSCII (Yugoslavia). Although these encodings are sometimes referred to as ASCII, true ASCII is defined strictly only by the ANSI standard.

What is a retified versionof ASCII?

ISO/IEC 646

What type of extensions do these other character encodings have?

extensions for characters outside the English alphabet and symbols used outside the United States

Why did most countries need a adapted version of ASCII?

ASCII suited the needs of only the USA and a few other countries

Why are the other versions of ASCII not true ASCII?

true ASCII is defined strictly only by the ANSI standard

What is an identical version of ASCII?

I'm not sure.

What type of extensions do these other standard bodies have?

I'm not sure.

Why did Brasil need an adapted version of ASCII?

I'm not sure.

Why are the other versions of ASCII charging extra for extensions?

I'm not sure.

What country had it own version that supported international standards?

I'm not sure.


Probably the most influential single device on the interpretation of these characters was the Teletype Model 33 ASR, which was a printing terminal with an available paper tape reader/punch option. Paper tape was a very popular medium for long-term program storage until the 1980s, less costly and in some ways less fragile than magnetic tape. In particular, the Teletype Model 33 machine assignments for codes 17 (Control-Q, DC1, also known as XON), 19 (Control-S, DC3, also known as XOFF), and 127 (Delete) became de facto standards. The Model 33 was also notable for taking the description of Control-G (BEL, meaning audibly alert the operator) literally as the unit contained an actual bell which it rang when it received a BEL character. Because the keytop for the O key also showed a left-arrow symbol (from ASCII-1963, which had this character instead of underscore), a noncompliant use of code 15 (Control-O, Shift In) interpreted as "delete previous character" was also adopted by many early timesharing systems but eventually became neglected.

What was the most influential device that interpretated the characters?

Teletype Model 33 ASR

What was the Teletype Model 33 ASR?

a printing terminal with an available paper tape reader/punch option

When was paper tape popular?

until the 1980s

Why was paper tape better than magnetic tape?

less costly and in some ways less fragile

What code eventually became neglected?

code 15 (Control-O, Shift In)

What was the most influential devide that became de facto standard?

I'm not sure.

What competed with the Teletype Model 33 ASR?

I'm not sure.

When was paper trade classified as earned income?

I'm not sure.

Why was paper tape better than timesharing systems?

I'm not sure.

What code eventually became popularized by ASCII-1963?

I'm not sure.


The inherent ambiguity of many control characters, combined with their historical usage, created problems when transferring "plain text" files between systems. The best example of this is the newline problem on various operating systems. Teletype machines required that a line of text be terminated with both "Carriage Return" (which moves the printhead to the beginning of the line) and "Line Feed" (which advances the paper one line without moving the printhead). The name "Carriage Return" comes from the fact that on a manual typewriter the carriage holding the paper moved while the position where the typebars struck the ribbon remained stationary. The entire carriage had to be pushed (returned) to the right in order to position the left margin of the paper for the next line.

Why were problems created when transferring files between systems?

The inherent ambiguity of many control characters, combined with their historical usage

Teletype machines had to have two codes to termanate a line, what were they?

"Carriage Return" (which moves the printhead to the beginning of the line) and "Line Feed" (which advances the paper one line without moving the printhead)

Where does the name "Carriage Return" come from?

on a manual typewriter the carriage holding the paper moved while the position where the typebars struck the ribbon remained stationary

What side does the carriage have to be pushed to when starting a new line?

right

Why were problems created when beginning a line?

I'm not sure.

Teletype machines had to have entire carriages to terminate a line, what were they?

I'm not sure.

What side does the carriage have to be pushed to without moving the printhead?

I'm not sure.

What moves the printhead to the various operating systems?

I'm not sure.

Which advances the paper where the typebars strike the ribbon?

I'm not sure.


Many of the non-alphanumeric characters were positioned to correspond to their shifted position on typewriters; an important subtlety is that these were based on mechanical typewriters, not electric typewriters. Mechanical typewriters followed the standard set by the Remington No. 2 (1878), the first typewriter with a shift key, and the shifted values of 23456789- were "#$%_&'() –  early typewriters omitted 0 and 1, using O (capital letter o) and l (lowercase letter L) instead, but 1! and 0) pairs became standard once 0 and 1 became common. Thus, in ASCII !"#$% were placed in second column, rows 1–5, corresponding to the digits 1–5 in the adjacent column. The parentheses could not correspond to 9 and 0, however, because the place corresponding to 0 was taken by the space character. This was accommodated by removing _ (underscore) from 6 and shifting the remaining characters left, which corresponded to many European typewriters that placed the parentheses with 8 and 9. This discrepancy from typewriters led to bit-paired keyboards, notably the Teletype Model 33, which used the left-shifted layout corresponding to ASCII, not to traditional mechanical typewriters. Electric typewriters, notably the more recently introduced IBM Selectric (1961), used a somewhat different layout that has become standard on computers—following the IBM PC (1981), especially Model M (1984)—and thus shift values for symbols on modern keyboards do not correspond as closely to the ASCII table as earlier keyboards did. The /? pair also dates to the No. 2, and the ,< .> pairs were used on some keyboards (others, including the No. 2, did not shift , (comma) or . (full stop) so they could be used in uppercase without unshifting). However, ASCII split the ;: pair (dating to No. 2), and rearranged mathematical symbols (varied conventions, commonly -* =+) to :* ;+ -=.

When was the first typewritter with a shift key created?

What were used instead of 0 and 1?

using O (capital letter o) and l (lowercase letter L) instead

What layout did the Teletype Model 33 use?

which used the left-shifted layout corresponding to ASCII

Do shift values for symbols on modern keyboards correspond closely to the ASCII table?

do not correspond as closely

When was the first typewriter with a 0 key created?

I'm not sure.

What were used instead of underscores?

I'm not sure.

What space character did the Teletype Model 33 use?

I'm not sure.


Code 127 is officially named "delete" but the Teletype label was "rubout". Since the original standard did not give detailed interpretation for most control codes, interpretations of this code varied. The original Teletype meaning, and the intent of the standard, was to make it an ignored character, the same as NUL (all zeroes). This was useful specifically for paper tape, because punching the all-ones bit pattern on top of an existing mark would obliterate it. Tapes designed to be "hand edited" could even be produced with spaces of extra NULs (blank tape) so that a block of characters could be "rubbed out" and then replacements put into the empty space.

What is the official name of code 127?

delete

What was code 127 labeled as for the Teletype?

rubout

Why did Teletype have the code for "rubout"?

to make it an ignored character

What is the official name of an existing mark?

I'm not sure.

What was NUL named as for the Teletype?

I'm not sure.

Why did teletype have extra spaces for "rubout"?

I'm not sure.

What happened to replacements of control codes?

I'm not sure.

Why was standard code useful for paper tape?

I'm not sure.


Unfortunately, requiring two characters to mark the end of a line introduces unnecessary complexity and questions as to how to interpret each character when encountered alone. To simplify matters plain text data streams, including files, on Multics used line feed (LF) alone as a line terminator. Unix and Unix-like systems, and Amiga systems, adopted this convention from Multics. The original Macintosh OS, Apple DOS, and ProDOS, on the other hand, used carriage return (CR) alone as a line terminator; however, since Apple replaced these operating systems with the Unix-based OS X operating system, they now use line feed (LF) as well.

Why is adding two characters at the ned of a line problemsome?

introduces unnecessary complexity and questions as to how to interpret each character when encountered alone

What id Multics use to simplify plain text data?

line feed (LF) alone as a line terminator

Who adopted this practice from Multics?

Unix and Unix-like systems, and Amiga systems

What used carriage return(CR) alone as a line terminator?

Macintosh OS, Apple DOS, and ProDOS

When did Apple replace their CR with line feed (LF)?

since Apple replaced these operating systems with the Unix-based OS X operating system

Why is adding the Unix-based operating system at the end of a line problemsome?

I'm not sure.

What did characters use to simplify plain text data?

I'm not sure.

Who adopted this practice from Apple?

I'm not sure.

What used carriage return(CR) alone as a data stream?

I'm not sure.

When did Amiga stystems replace their CR with line feed (LF)?

I'm not sure.


In the human digestive system, food enters the mouth and mechanical digestion of the food starts by the action of mastication (chewing), a form of mechanical digestion, and the wetting contact of saliva. Saliva, a liquid secreted by the salivary glands, contains salivary amylase, an enzyme which starts the digestion of starch in the food; the saliva also contains mucus, which lubricates the food, and hydrogen carbonate, which provides the ideal conditions of pH (alkaline) for amylase to work. After undergoing mastication and starch digestion, the food will be in the form of a small, round slurry mass called a bolus. It will then travel down the esophagus and into the stomach by the action of peristalsis. Gastric juice in the stomach starts protein digestion. Gastric juice mainly contains hydrochloric acid and pepsin. As these two chemicals may damage the stomach wall, mucus is secreted by the stomach, providing a slimy layer that acts as a shield against the damaging effects of the chemicals. At the same time protein digestion is occurring, mechanical mixing occurs by peristalsis, which is waves of muscular contractions that move along the stomach wall. This allows the mass of food to further mix with the digestive enzymes.

What is the first step in the human digestive system?

the action of mastication (chewing)

What is saliva?

a liquid secreted by the salivary glands

What is in saliva that starts to digest the starches?

salivary amylase

What is the definition of bolus?

a small, round slurry mass

What is the action of the food morving down the esophagus into the stomach called?

peristalsis


Other animals, such as rabbits and rodents, practise coprophagia behaviours - eating specialised faeces in order to re-digest food, especially in the case of roughage. Capybara, rabbits, hamsters and other related species do not have a complex digestive system as do, for example, ruminants. Instead they extract more nutrition from grass by giving their food a second pass through the gut. Soft faecal pellets of partially digested food are excreted and generally consumed immediately. They also produce normal droppings, which are not eaten.

What is the practive of coprophagia behaviours?

eating specialised faeces in order to re-digest food

Why do some animals pass food through their gut twice?

extract more nutrition

What happens with these soft feacal pellets?

excreted and generally consumed immediately

Are normal droppings also eaten?

not eaten


Digestive systems take many forms. There is a fundamental distinction between internal and external digestion. External digestion developed earlier in evolutionary history, and most fungi still rely on it. In this process, enzymes are secreted into the environment surrounding the organism, where they break down an organic material, and some of the products diffuse back to the organism. Animals have a tube (gastrointestinal tract) in which internal digestion occurs, which is more efficient because more of the broken down products can be captured, and the internal chemical environment can be more efficiently controlled.

What are the two types of digestion?

internal and external digestion

When did external digestion develop?

earlier in evolutionary history

What still uses the external digestion system?

most fungi

What is the name of the tube that helps add in animal digestion?

gastrointestinal tract

Why is internal digection better than external?

more of the broken down products can be captured, and the internal chemical environment can be more efficiently controlled


The nitrogen fixing Rhizobia are an interesting case, wherein conjugative elements naturally engage in inter-kingdom conjugation. Such elements as the Agrobacterium Ti or Ri plasmids contain elements that can transfer to plant cells. Transferred genes enter the plant cell nucleus and effectively transform the plant cells into factories for the production of opines, which the bacteria use as carbon and energy sources. Infected plant cells form crown gall or root tumors. The Ti and Ri plasmids are thus endosymbionts of the bacteria, which are in turn endosymbionts (or parasites) of the infected plant.

What elements can transfer to plant cells?

Agrobacterium Ti or Ri plasmids

Where do transferred genes enter?

the plant cell nucleus

What do bacteria use as carbon and energy sources?

opines

What happens to infected plant cells?

end

What are endosymbionts of the bacteria?

The Ti and Ri plasmids


Teeth (singular tooth) are small whitish structures found in the jaws (or mouths) of many vertebrates that are used to tear, scrape, milk and chew food. Teeth are not made of bone, but rather of tissues of varying density and hardness, such as enamel, dentine and cementum. Human teeth have a blood and nerve supply which enables proprioception. This is the ability of sensation when chewing, for example if we were to bite into something too hard for our teeth, such as a chipped plate mixed in food, our teeth send a message to our brain and we realise that it cannot be chewed, so we stop trying.

Where are teeth found?

in the jaws (or mouths)

What are teeth used for?

to tear, scrape, milk and chew food

What are teeth made out of?

enamel, dentine and cementum

What in human teeth enables proprioception?

a blood and nerve supply

What happens when you bite something you cant chew?

our teeth send a message to our brain and we realise that it cannot be chewed, so we stop trying.


The abomasum is the fourth and final stomach compartment in ruminants. It is a close equivalent of a monogastric stomach (e.g., those in humans or pigs), and digesta is processed here in much the same way. It serves primarily as a site for acid hydrolysis of microbial and dietary protein, preparing these protein sources for further digestion and absorption in the small intestine. Digesta is finally moved into the small intestine, where the digestion and absorption of nutrients occurs. Microbes produced in the reticulo-rumen are also digested in the small intestine.

What is the fourth and final stomach compartment in ruminants?

The abomasum

What is the abomasums close equivalent?

a monogastric stomach

What does this site serve primarily as?

a site for acid hydrolysis of microbial and dietary protein, preparing these protein sources for further digestion and absorption in the small intestine.

What happens to digesta when it moves to the small intestine?

the digestion and absorption of nutrients occurs

What is also digested in the small intestine?

Microbes produced in the reticulo-rumen are also digested in the small intestine


An earthworm's digestive system consists of a mouth, pharynx, esophagus, crop, gizzard, and intestine. The mouth is surrounded by strong lips, which act like a hand to grab pieces of dead grass, leaves, and weeds, with bits of soil to help chew. The lips break the food down into smaller pieces. In the pharynx, the food is lubricated by mucus secretions for easier passage. The esophagus adds calcium carbonate to neutralize the acids formed by food matter decay. Temporary storage occurs in the crop where food and calcium carbonate are mixed. The powerful muscles of the gizzard churn and mix the mass of food and dirt. When the churning is complete, the glands in the walls of the gizzard add enzymes to the thick paste, which helps chemically breakdown the organic matter. By peristalsis, the mixture is sent to the intestine where friendly bacteria continue chemical breakdown. This releases carbohydrates, protein, fat, and various vitamins and minerals for absorption into the body.

What does a earthworms digestive systme consist of?

a mouth, pharynx, esophagus, crop, gizzard, and intestine.

What does an earthworm eat?

dead grass, leaves, and weeds

What helps the earthworm grab grass leaves and weeds?

The mouth is surrounded by strong lips

What is the food coated with for easier passage?

mucus

What part of the earthworm helps churn and mix the dirt and food?

The powerful muscles of the gizzard


Digestion of some fats can begin in the mouth where lingual lipase breaks down some short chain lipids into diglycerides. However fats are mainly digested in the small intestine. The presence of fat in the small intestine produces hormones that stimulate the release of pancreatic lipase from the pancreas and bile from the liver which helps in the emulsification of fats for absorption of fatty acids. Complete digestion of one molecule of fat (a triglyceride) results a mixture of fatty acids, mono- and di-glycerides, as well as some undigested triglycerides, but no free glycerol molecules.

Where does the digestions of some fats start?

in the mouth

Where are fats mainly digested?

the small intestine

What happens when there is a presence of fat in the small intestine?

produces hormones that stimulate the release of pancreatic lipase from the pancreas and bile from the liver

What does bile from the liver help do?

helps in the emulsification of fats for absorption of fatty acids

What is one molecule of fat?

a triglyceride


Digestion is the breakdown of large insoluble food molecules into small water-soluble food molecules so that they can be absorbed into the watery blood plasma. In certain organisms, these smaller substances are absorbed through the small intestine into the blood stream. Digestion is a form of catabolism that is often divided into two processes based on how food is broken down: mechanical and chemical digestion. The term mechanical digestion refers to the physical breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller pieces which can subsequently be accessed by digestive enzymes. In chemical digestion, enzymes break down food into the small molecules the body can use.

What is digestion?

the breakdown of large insoluble food molecules into small water-soluble food molecules so that they can be absorbed into the watery blood plasma

In some organisms, how are these molecules absorbed?

these smaller substances are absorbed through the small intestine into the blood stream

What are the two ways that food is broken down?

mechanical and chemical digestion

What is mechanical digestion?

the physical breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller pieces which can subsequently be accessed by digestive enzymes

What is chemical digestion?

enzymes break down food into the small molecules the body can use


Different phases of digestion take place including: the cephalic phase , gastric phase, and intestinal phase. The cephalic phase occurs at the sight, thought and smell of food, which stimulate the cerebral cortex. Taste and smell stimuli are sent to the hypothalamus and medulla oblongata. After this it is routed through the vagus nerve and release of acetylcholine. Gastric secretion at this phase rises to 40% of maximum rate. Acidity in the stomach is not buffered by food at this point and thus acts to inhibit parietal (secretes acid) and G cell (secretes gastrin) activity via D cell secretion of somatostatin. The gastric phase takes 3 to 4 hours. It is stimulated by distension of the stomach, presence of food in stomach and decrease in pH. Distention activates long and myenteric reflexes. This activates the release of acetylcholine, which stimulates the release of more gastric juices. As protein enters the stomach, it binds to hydrogen ions, which raises the pH of the stomach. Inhibition of gastrin and gastric acid secretion is lifted. This triggers G cells to release gastrin, which in turn stimulates parietal cells to secrete gastric acid. Gastric acid is about 0.5% hydrochloric acid (HCl), which lowers the pH to the desired pH of 1-3. Acid release is also triggered by acetylcholine and histamine. The intestinal phase has two parts, the excitatory and the inhibitory. Partially digested food fills the duodenum. This triggers intestinal gastrin to be released. Enterogastric reflex inhibits vagal nuclei, activating sympathetic fibers causing the pyloric sphincter to tighten to prevent more food from entering, and inhibits local reflexes.

What are three digestions phases?

the cephalic phase , gastric phase, and intestinal phase

Where does the cephalic phase occur?

at the sight, thought and smell of food, which stimulate the cerebral cortex

Where are taste and smell stimuli sent to?

the hypothalamus and medulla oblongata

How long does the gastric phase take?

3 to 4 hours

How is the gastric phase stimulated to start?

by distension of the stomach, presence of food in stomach and decrease in pH


In a channel transupport system, several proteins form a contiguous channel traversing the inner and outer membranes of the bacteria. It is a simple system, which consists of only three protein subunits: the ABC protein, membrane fusion protein (MFP), and outer membrane protein (OMP)[specify]. This secretion system transports various molecules, from ions, drugs, to proteins of various sizes (20 - 900 kDa). The molecules secreted vary in size from the small Escherichia coli peptide colicin V, (10 kDa) to the Pseudomonas fluorescens cell adhesion protein LapA of 900 kDa.

What happens in a chennel transupport system?

several proteins form a contiguous channel traversing the inner and outer membranes of the bacteria

What three protien subunites are in the chennel transupport system?

the ABC protein, membrane fusion protein (MFP), and outer membrane protein (OMP)[specify]

What does this secretion system transport?

various molecules, from ions, drugs, to proteins of various sizes


In addition to the use of the multiprotein complexes listed above, Gram-negative bacteria possess another method for release of material: the formation of outer membrane vesicles. Portions of the outer membrane pinch off, forming spherical structures made of a lipid bilayer enclosing periplasmic materials. Vesicles from a number of bacterial species have been found to contain virulence factors, some have immunomodulatory effects, and some can directly adhere to and intoxicate host cells. While release of vesicles has been demonstrated as a general response to stress conditions, the process of loading cargo proteins seems to be selective.

What other method does Gram-negative bacters use to release material?

the formation of outer membrane vesicles

What happens with the pinch off part of the outer membrane?

, forming spherical structures made of a lipid bilayer enclosing periplasmic materials

What does the release of vesicles seem to demenstrate?

response to stress conditions

What virulence factors do some bacterial species have?

some have immunomodulatory effects, and some can directly adhere to and intoxicate host cells


Underlying the process is muscle movement throughout the system through swallowing and peristalsis. Each step in digestion requires energy, and thus imposes an "overhead charge" on the energy made available from absorbed substances. Differences in that overhead cost are important influences on lifestyle, behavior, and even physical structures. Examples may be seen in humans, who differ considerably from other hominids (lack of hair, smaller jaws and musculature, different dentition, length of intestines, cooking, etc.).

What muscle movements are used for digestion?

swallowing and peristalsis

What does every stpe of digestion require?

energy

What does needing energy to digest impose?

an "overhead charge"

Over head charges influence what?

lifestyle, behavior, and even physical structures


Digestion begins in the mouth with the secretion of saliva and its digestive enzymes. Food is formed into a bolus by the mechanical mastication and swallowed into the esophagus from where it enters the stomach through the action of peristalsis. Gastric juice contains hydrochloric acid and pepsin which would damage the walls of the stomach and mucus is secreted for protection. In the stomach further release of enzymes break down the food further and this is combined with the churning action of the stomach. The partially digested food enters the duodenum as a thick semi-liquid chyme. In the small intestine, the larger part of digestion takes place and this is helped by the secretions of bile, pancreatic juice and intestinal juice. The intestinal walls are lined with villi, and their epithelial cells is covered with numerous microvilli to improve the absorption of nutrients by increasing the surface area of the intestine.

Where does digestion begin?

in the mouth with the secretion of saliva and its digestive enzymes

What is food formed into before it is swallowed?

a bolus

Where does food go after the esophagus?

the stomach

What is the action of food being moved into the stomach?

peristalsis

What does gastric juice consist of?

hydrochloric acid and pepsin


Lactase is an enzyme that breaks down the disaccharide lactose to its component parts, glucose and galactose. Glucose and galactose can be absorbed by the small intestine. Approximately 65 percent of the adult population produce only small amounts of lactase and are unable to eat unfermented milk-based foods. This is commonly known as lactose intolerance. Lactose intolerance varies widely by ethnic heritage; more than 90 percent of peoples of east Asian descent are lactose intolerant, in contrast to about 5 percent of people of northern European descent.

What is lactase?

an enzyme that breaks down the disaccharide lactose to its component parts

What are lactoses component parts?

glucose and galactose

Where are glucose and galactose absorbed?

small intestine

What percent of the population are unable to eat unfermented milk-based foods?

Approximately 65 percent

What is knon as when you are  unable to eat unfermented milk-based foods?

lactose intolerance


After some time (typically 1–2 hours in humans, 4–6 hours in dogs, 3–4 hours in house cats),[citation needed] the resulting thick liquid is called chyme. When the pyloric sphincter valve opens, chyme enters the duodenum where it mixes with digestive enzymes from the pancreas and bile juice from the liver and then passes through the small intestine, in which digestion continues. When the chyme is fully digested, it is absorbed into the blood. 95% of absorption of nutrients occurs in the small intestine. Water and minerals are reabsorbed back into the blood in the colon (large intestine) where the pH is slightly acidic about 5.6 ~ 6.9. Some vitamins, such as biotin and vitamin K (K2MK7) produced by bacteria in the colon are also absorbed into the blood in the colon. Waste material is eliminated from the rectum during defecation.

What is the resulting thick liquid called?

chyme

What does chyme mix with in the duodenum?

digestive enzymes from the pancreas and bile juice from the liver

Where does hyme go after the duodenum?

the small intestine

Where is chyme absorbed into?

blood

Where does 95% of absobtion of nutrients occur?

the small intestine


In mammals, preparation for digestion begins with the cephalic phase in which saliva is produced in the mouth and digestive enzymes are produced in the stomach. Mechanical and chemical digestion begin in the mouth where food is chewed, and mixed with saliva to begin enzymatic processing of starches. The stomach continues to break food down mechanically and chemically through churning and mixing with both acids and enzymes. Absorption occurs in the stomach and gastrointestinal tract, and the process finishes with defecation.

What is the firs phase in preparation for digestion  in mammals?

the cephalic phase

What is the cephalic phase?

saliva is produced in the mouth and digestive enzymes are produced in the stomach

What digestions begin in the mouth?

Mechanical and chemical digestion

What happens in the stomach after the food is chewed and mixed with starches?

The stomach continues to break food down mechanically and chemically through churning and mixing with both acids and enzymes

Where does absorption occur?

in the stomach and gastrointestinal tract


Protein digestion occurs in the stomach and duodenum in which 3 main enzymes, pepsin secreted by the stomach and trypsin and chymotrypsin secreted by the pancreas, break down food proteins into polypeptides that are then broken down by various exopeptidases and dipeptidases into amino acids. The digestive enzymes however are mostly secreted as their inactive precursors, the zymogens. For example, trypsin is secreted by pancreas in the form of trypsinogen, which is activated in the duodenum by enterokinase to form trypsin. Trypsin then cleaves proteins to smaller polypeptides.

Where does protein digestion occur?

in the stomach and duodenum

What are the three main enzymes that break down food?

pepsin secreted by the stomach and trypsin and chymotrypsin

What are digestive enzymes mostly secreted as?

inactive precursors, the zymogens

What are dipeptidases broken down into?

amino acids

What organ secretes chymotrypsin?

the pancreas


Gymnasts sprint down a runway, which is a maximum of 25 meters in length, before hurdling onto a spring board. The gymnast is allowed to choose where they start on the runway. The body position is maintained while "punching" (blocking using only a shoulder movement) the vaulting platform. The gymnast then rotates to a standing position. In advanced gymnastics, multiple twists and somersaults may be added before landing. Successful vaults depend on the speed of the run, the length of the hurdle, the power the gymnast generates from the legs and shoulder girdle, the kinesthetic awareness in the air, and the speed of rotation in the case of more difficult and complex vaults.

What is the maximum length of a runway?

25 meters

Who gets to chose where a gymnast starts to run on the runway?

The gymnast

What position is the gymnast when in the air?

a standing position

What are later added to the landing by advanced gymnasts?

multiple twists and somersaults

What do successful vaults depend on other than speed of the run?

the length of the hurdle, the power the gymnast generates from the legs and shoulder girdle, the kinesthetic awareness in the air, and the speed of rotation

When does a gymnast put both hands in the air?

I'm not sure.

What is kicking?

I'm not sure.

What do the judges choose?

I'm not sure.

What is it called when gymnasts do routines with their team?

I'm not sure.


According to FIG rules, only women compete in rhythmic gymnastics. This is a sport that combines elements of ballet, gymnastics, dance, and apparatus manipulation. The sport involves the performance of five separate routines with the use of five apparatus; ball, ribbon, hoop, clubs, rope—on a floor area, with a much greater emphasis on the aesthetic rather than the acrobatic. There are also group routines consisting of 5 gymnasts and 5 apparatuses of their choice. Rhythmic routines are scored out of a possible 30 points; the score for artistry (choreography and music) is averaged with the score for difficulty of the moves and then added to the score for execution.

What rules state that only women can compete in rhythmic gymastics?

FIG

What does rhythmic gymastics combine together?

ballet, gymnastics, dance, and apparatus manipulation

What five seperate apparatuses are used in the five separate routines?

ball, ribbon, hoop, clubs, rope

Which is more focused on, aesthetics or acrobatics?

aesthetic

How many possible points are there for rhythmic routines?

30 points

What rules determine what women are allowed to wear?

I'm not sure.

What places a greater emphasis on the acrobatic rather than the aesthetic?

I'm not sure.

What items do men use?

I'm not sure.

What sport combines elements of jumping, bars, and tumbling?

I'm not sure.

How many points do gymnasts need to get to the second round?

I'm not sure.


Aesthetic Group Gymnastics (AGG) was developed from the Finnish "naisvoimistelu". It differs from Rhythmic Gymnastics in that body movement is large and continuous and teams are larger' Athletes do not use apparatus in international AGG competitions compared to Rhythmic Gymnastics where ball, ribbon, hoop and clubs are used on the floor area. The sport requires physical qualities such as flexibility, balance, speed, strength, coordination and sense of rhythm where movements of the body are emphasized through the flow, expression and aesthetic appeal. A good performance is characterized by uniformity and simultaneity. The competition program consists of versatile and varied body movements, such as body waves, swings, balances, pivots, jumps and leaps, dance steps, and lifts. The International Federation of Aesthetic Group Gymnastics (IFAGG) was established in 2003.

What does AGG stand for?

Aesthetic Group Gymnastics

Why is AGG different than Rhythmic Gymnastics?

body movement is large and continuous and teams are larger'

Do athletes use apparatuses in the international AGG competitions?

do not use apparatus in international AGG competitions

What physical qualities are needed for rhythmic gymastics?

flexibility, balance, speed, strength, coordination and sense of rhythm

What year was the Federsation of Aesthetic Group Gymnastics established?

What is another name for Rhythmic Gymnastics?

I'm not sure.

What is used on the floor area in AGG?

I'm not sure.

What characterized a bad performance?

I'm not sure.

In what year did AGG begin?

I'm not sure.

What language does the word expression come from?

I'm not sure.


This apparatus may be made of hemp or a synthetic material which retains the qualities of lightness and suppleness. Its length is in proportion to the size of the gymnast. The rope should, when held down by the feet, reach both of the gymnasts' armpits. One or two knots at each end are for keeping hold of the rope while doing the routine. At the ends (to the exclusion of all other parts of the rope) an anti-slip material, either coloured or neutral may cover a maximum of 10 cm (3.94 in). The rope must be coloured, either all or partially and may either be of a uniform diameter or be progressively thicker in the center provided that this thickening is of the same material as the rope. The fundamental requirements of a rope routine include leaps and skipping. Other elements include swings, throws, circles, rotations and figures of eight. In 2011, the FIG decided to nullify the use of rope in rhythmic gymnastic competitions.

What is the rope made out of that the gymnists uses in their routine?

hemp or a synthetic material

How long is the rope?

Its length is in proportion to the size of the gymnast

What are at the ends of the ropes to help the gymnists hold it?

One or two knots at each end are for keeping hold of the rope while doing the routine.

What other requirement is there for the rope?

The rope must be coloured, either all or partially and may either be of a uniform diameter or be progressively thicker in the center

When did FIG decide to nullify the use of ropes in competition?

What is made out of cotton and reeds?

I'm not sure.

Why are the ropes covered in powder?

I'm not sure.

What is the anti-slip material made from?

I'm not sure.

In what year were ropes first used in the Gymnastic World Championships?

I'm not sure.

What is the length of gymnast head bands?

I'm not sure.


The Federation of International Gymnastics (FIG) was founded in Liege in 1881. By the end of the nineteenth century, men's gymnastics competition was popular enough to be included in the first "modern" Olympic Games in 1896. From then on until the early 1950s, both national and international competitions involved a changing variety of exercises gathered under the rubric, gymnastics, that would seem strange to today's audiences and that included for example, synchronized team floor calisthenics, rope climbing, high jumping, running, and horizontal ladder. During the 1920s, women organized and participated in gymnastics events. The first women's Olympic competition was primitive, only involving synchronized calisthenics and track and field. These games were held in 1928, in Amsterdam.

Where was the FIG founded?

Liege

What year was FIG founded?

When was gymnastics included in the Olympics?

When were the first women's Olympic competitions held?

Where were the first women's Olympic competitions held?

in Amsterdam

What year was the BIT founded?

I'm not sure.

Where were the first Olympic Games held?

I'm not sure.

What events were in the first men's gymnastics?

I'm not sure.

When did athletes start getting medals?

I'm not sure.

When did the first South American country compete in the Olympic Games?

I'm not sure.


In the vaulting events, gymnasts sprint down a 25 metres (82 ft) runway, jump onto a spring filled board or perform a roundoff, or handspring entry onto a springboard (run/ take-off segment), land momentarily, inverted on the hands on the vaulting horse, or vaulting table (pre flight segment), then propel themselves forward or backward, off of this platform to a two footed landing (post flight segment). Every gymnast starts at a different point on the vault runway depending on their height and strength. The post flight segment may include one or more multiple saltos or somersaults, and/or twisting movements. A round-off entry vault, called a Yurchenko, is the most common vault in elite level gymnastics. When performing a yurchenko, gymnasts "round-off" so hands are on the runway while the feet land on the springboard (beatboard). From the roundoff position the gymnast travels backwards and executes a backhandspring so that the hands land on the vaulting table. The gymnast then blocks off the vaulting platform into various twisting and/or somersaulting combinations. The post flight segment brings the gymnast to her feet.

How long is the run way in vaulting?

25 metres (82 ft)

How man feet do vaulters land on?

a two footed landing

What determines where a vaulter starts on the runway?

their height and strength

What is a round-off entry vault called?

Yurchenko

What is the most common vault in elite level gymnastics?

yurchenko

What factors in to a gymnast's score?

I'm not sure.

What do gymnasts do while waiting for their turn?

I'm not sure.

What vault leaves gymnasts in a hand stand?

I'm not sure.

In what kind of events do gymnasts jump through fire?

I'm not sure.

What is the most dangerous vault in elite gymnastics?

I'm not sure.


A gymnast's score comes from deductions taken from their start value. The start value of a routine is based on the difficulty of the elements the gymnast attempts and whether or not the gymnast meets composition requirements. The composition requirements are different for each apparatus; this score is called the D score. Deductions in execution and artistry are taken from 10.0. This score is called the E score. The final score is calculated by taking deductions from the E score, and adding the result to the D score. Since 2007, the scoring system has changed by adding bonus plus the execution and then adding those two together to get the final score.

How are gymnasts scored?

from deductions taken from their start value

How is the start vaule determined?

e start value of a routine is based on the difficulty of the elements the gymnast attempts and whether or not the gymnast meets composition requirements

What is this score called?

D score

Deductions in execution and artistry are taken from what score?

What were added to scoring in 2007?

adding bonus plus the execution and then adding those two together to get the final score

What is another name for a 10.0?

I'm not sure.

What is it called when a gymnast barely passes?

I'm not sure.

What score is determined by the fans?

I'm not sure.

When was the E score first implemented?

I'm not sure.

What deductions are taken from the E score?

I'm not sure.


The technical rules for the Japanese version of men's rhythmic gymnastics came around the 1970s. For individuals, only four types of apparatus are used: the double rings, the stick, the rope, and the clubs. Groups do not use any apparatus. The Japanese version includes tumbling performed on a spring floor. Points are awarded based a 10-point scale that measures the level of difficulty of the tumbling and apparatus handling. On November 27–29, 2003, Japan hosted first edition of the Men's Rhythmic Gymnastics World Championship.

When were the technical rules for the Japanses version of men's rhythmic gymnastics formed?

How many apparatuses are used?

only four types

What are the types of apparatuses used?

the double rings, the stick, the rope, and the clubs

What apparatuses do groups use?

Groups do not use any apparatus

When did Japan hold the first of the Men's Rhythmic Gymnastics World Champtionship?

November 27–29, 2003

When did the technical rules for women's rhythmic gymnastics come around?

I'm not sure.

What does the Soviet version include?

I'm not sure.

When did China first host the Men's Rhythmic Gymnastics World Championship?

I'm not sure.

What apparatus types are only used in Japan?

I'm not sure.

Who hosted the first Gymnastics World Championship?

I'm not sure.


The word gymnastics derives from the common Greek adjective γυμνός (gymnos) meaning "naked", by way of the related verb γυμνάζω (gymnazo), whose meaning is to train naked", "train in gymnastic exercise", generally "to train, to exercise". The verb had this meaning, because athletes in ancient times exercised and competed without clothing. It came into use in the 1570s, from Latin gymnasticus, from Greek gymnastikos "fond of or skilled in bodily exercise," from gymnazein "to exercise or train" (see gymnasium).

What Greek word did gymnastics derive from?

γυμνός (gymnos) meaning "naked"

What does the  verb gymnazo mean?

to train naked", "train in gymnastic exercise", generally "to train, to exercise"

Why was this verb used?

because athletes in ancient times exercised and competed without clothing

When did the word come into use?

When did gymnasts start competing with clothing?

I'm not sure.

What does the word gymnoto mean?

I'm not sure.

What greek noun means "naked"?

I'm not sure.

What language does gymnazein come from?

I'm not sure.

What word means playing in the gymnasium?

I'm not sure.


By 1954, Olympic Games apparatus and events for both men and women had been standardized in modern format, and uniform grading structures (including a point system from 1 to 15) had been agreed upon. At this time, Soviet gymnasts astounded the world with highly disciplined and difficult performances, setting a precedent that continues. The new medium of television has helped publicize and initiate a modern age of gymnastics. Both men's and women's gymnastics now attract considerable international interest, and excellent gymnasts can be found on every continent. Nadia Comăneci received the first perfect score, at the 1976 Summer Olympics held in Montreal, Canada. She was coached in Romania by coach, (Hungarian ethnicity), Béla Károlyi. Comaneci scored four of her perfect tens on the uneven bars, two on the balance beam and one in the floor exercise. Even with Nadia's perfect scores, the Romanians lost the gold medal to the Soviet Union. Nevertheless, Comaneci became an Olympic icon.

What year was the Olympic Games apparatus and events standardized?

What is the grading structure?

a point system from 1 to 15

Who set the first precedent that continues this day?

Soviet gymnasts

Who recieved the first perfect score?

Nadia Comăneci

What year and where was the first perfect score given?

1976 Summer Olympics held in Montreal, Canada

When did men and women start wearing matching uniforms?

I'm not sure.

Who wanted the Olympic games to be held every year?

I'm not sure.

What medium gave gymnasts a bad reputation?

I'm not sure.

Who received a perfect score at the 1980 Olympics?

I'm not sure.

Who was the first gymnastics judge?

I'm not sure.