The past century had seen the Greek world dominated by the three primary successor kingdoms of Alexander the Great's empire: Ptolemaic Egypt, Macedonia and the Seleucid Empire. In 202 BC, internal problems led to a weakening of Egypt's position, thereby disrupting the power balance among the successor states. Macedonia and the Seleucid Empire agreed to an alliance to conquer and divide Egypt. Fearing this increasingly unstable situation, several small Greek kingdoms sent delegations to Rome to seek an alliance. The delegation succeeded, even though prior Greek attempts to involve Rome in Greek affairs had been met with Roman apathy. Our primary source about these events, the surviving works of Polybius, do not state Rome's reason for getting involved. Rome gave Philip an ultimatum to cease his campaigns against Rome's new Greek allies. Doubting Rome's strength (a reasonable doubt, given Rome's performance in the First Macedonian War) Philip ignored the request, and Rome sent an army of Romans and Greek allies, beginning the Second Macedonian War. Despite his recent successes against the Greeks and earlier successes against Rome, Philip's army buckled under the pressure from the Roman-Greek army. In 197 BC, the Romans decisively defeated Philip at the Battle of Cynoscephalae, and Philip was forced to give up his recent Greek conquests. The Romans declared the "Peace of the Greeks", believing that Philip's defeat now meant that Greece would be stable. They pulled out of Greece entirely, maintaining minimal contacts with their Greek allies.

What was declared by the Romans now that the Philip had been defeated?

"Peace of the Greeks"

Where did the Romans remove their troops from after Philip's loss?

Greece

What request of Rome was ignored by Philip V that quickly led to the start of the Second Macedonian War?

an ultimatum to cease his campaigns against Rome's new Greek allies

In what year did Philip lose the Battle of Cynoscephalae?

197 BC

What was Philip forced to return after his loss in the Battle of Cynoscephalae?

his recent Greek conquests


With Egypt and Macedonia weakened, the Seleucid Empire made increasingly aggressive and successful attempts to conquer the entire Greek world. Now not only Rome's allies against Philip, but even Philip himself, sought a Roman alliance against the Seleucids. The situation was made worse by the fact that Hannibal was now a chief military advisor to the Seleucid emperor, and the two were believed to be planning an outright conquest not just of Greece, but of Rome itself. The Seleucids were much stronger than the Macedonians had ever been, because they controlled much of the former Persian Empire, and by now had almost entirely reassembled Alexander the Great's former empire.

Who had now been appointed as a military advisor to the emperor of Seleucid?

Hannibal

What was thought to be the plan of Hannibal and the emperor of Seleucid?

an outright conquest not just of Greece, but of Rome itself

Which empire currently controlled the majority of the former Persian Empire?

Seleucids

Who had managed to recreate nearly the entirety of the empire of Alexander the Great?

Seleucids

Which former enemy wanted an alliance with the Romans?

Philip


Fearing the worst, the Romans began a major mobilization, all but pulling out of recently pacified Spain and Gaul. They even established a major garrison in Sicily in case the Seleucids ever got to Italy. This fear was shared by Rome's Greek allies, who had largely ignored Rome in the years after the Second Macedonian War, but now followed Rome again for the first time since that war. A major Roman-Greek force was mobilized under the command of the great hero of the Second Punic War, Scipio Africanus, and set out for Greece, beginning the Roman-Syrian War. After initial fighting that revealed serious Seleucid weaknesses, the Seleucids tried to turn the Roman strength against them at the Battle of Thermopylae (as they believed the 300 Spartans had done centuries earlier). Like the Spartans, the Seleucids lost the battle, and were forced to evacuate Greece. The Romans pursued the Seleucids by crossing the Hellespont, which marked the first time a Roman army had ever entered Asia. The decisive engagement was fought at the Battle of Magnesia, resulting in a complete Roman victory. The Seleucids sued for peace, and Rome forced them to give up their recent Greek conquests. Although they still controlled a great deal of territory, this defeat marked the decline of their empire, as they were to begin facing increasingly aggressive subjects in the east (the Parthians) and the west (the Greeks). Their empire disintegrated into a rump over the course of the next century, when it was eclipsed by Pontus. Following Magnesia, Rome again withdrew from Greece, assuming (or hoping) that the lack of a major Greek power would ensure a stable peace. In fact, it did the opposite.

Which town in Italy now housed a large Roman garrison?

Sicily

Why was a garrison implented in Italy by the Romans?

in case the Seleucids ever got to Italy

Who had been defeated in the Battle of Thermopylae?

the Seleucids

Why did the Romans decide to withdraw their forces from Greece?

assuming (or hoping) that the lack of a major Greek power would ensure a stable peace

What loss started a decline of the Seleucids Empire?

Battle of Magnesia


In 179 BC Philip died. His talented and ambitious son, Perseus, took the throne and showed a renewed interest in conquering Greece. With her Greek allies facing a major new threat, Rome declared war on Macedonia again, starting the Third Macedonian War. Perseus initially had some success against the Romans. However, Rome responded by sending a stronger army. This second consular army decisively defeated the Macedonians at the Battle of Pydna in 168 BC and the Macedonians duly capitulated, ending the war.

In what year did Philip pass away?

179 BC

Who was next in line to the throne at the time of Philip's death?

Perseus

In what year were did the Macedonians lose The Battle of Pydna?

168 BC

How did Rome respond to their successive losses against the Macedonians?

by sending a stronger army

Who had initially begun the Third Macedonian War?

Rome


Convinced now that the Greeks (and therefore the rest of the region) would not have peace if left alone, Rome decided to establish its first permanent foothold in the Greek world, and divided the Kingdom of Macedonia into four client republics. Yet, Macedonian agitation continued. The Fourth Macedonian War, 150 to 148 BC, was fought against a Macedonian pretender to the throne who was again destabilizing Greece by trying to re-establish the old kingdom. The Romans swiftly defeated the Macedonians at the Second battle of Pydna.

How many republics was the Kingdom of Macedonia splintered into?

four client republics

In what year did the Fourt Macedonian War end?

148 BC

Who did Rome fight in the Fourth Macedonian War?

a Macedonian pretender to the throne

What effect did the establishment of the kingdom of Macedonia have on Greece?

destabilizing

Who could claim victory at the Second Battle of Pydna?

The Romans


The Jugurthine War of 111–104 BC was fought between Rome and Jugurtha of the North African kingdom of Numidia. It constituted the final Roman pacification of Northern Africa, after which Rome largely ceased expansion on the continent after reaching natural barriers of desert and mountain. Following Jugurtha's usurpation of the throne of Numidia, a loyal ally of Rome since the Punic Wars, Rome felt compelled to intervene. Jugurtha impudently bribed the Romans into accepting his usurpation. Jugurtha was finally captured not in battle but by treachery.

What war is considered to be the last Roman pacification in Northern Africa?

The Jugurthine War

What eventually caused Jugurtha to become a captive?

treachery

When did the Jugurthine War end?

104 BC

Who attempted to usurp the throne of Numidia?

Jugurtha

Who did Jugurtha have to bribe in order for them to accept him as the new leader of Numidia?

the Romans


In 121 BC, Rome came into contact with two Celtic tribes (from a region in modern France), both of which they defeated with apparent ease. The Cimbrian War (113–101 BC) was a far more serious affair than the earlier clashes of 121 BC. The Germanic tribes of the Cimbri and the Teutons migrated from northern Europe into Rome's northern territories, and clashed with Rome and her allies. At the Battle of Aquae Sextiae and the Battle of Vercellae both tribes were virtually annihilated, which ended the threat.

When did the Cimbrian War end?

101 BC

In what year did Rome come into contact with a couple Celtic tribes?

121 BC

What war began in the year 113 BC?

The Cimbrian War

Where did the tribes that were almost annihilated in the Battle of Vercellae hail from?

northern Europe


The extensive campaigning abroad by Roman generals, and the rewarding of soldiers with plunder on these campaigns, led to a general trend of soldiers becoming increasingly loyal to their generals rather than to the state. Rome was also plagued by several slave uprisings during this period, in part because vast tracts of land had been given over to slave farming in which the slaves greatly outnumbered their Roman masters. In the 1st century BC at least twelve civil wars and rebellions occurred. This pattern continued until 27 BC, when Octavian (later Augustus) successfully challenged the Senate's authority, and was made princeps (first citizen).

How were soldiers rewarded by Roman generals?

with plunder

Who saw increased loyalty from the Roman soldiers?

their generals

Who was greater in numbers than the Roman slave masters?

the slaves

Around how many rebellious uprisings and civil wars happened in the 1st century BC?

twelve

Which individual later became princeps after having challenged the senate?

Octavian


Between 135 BC and 71 BC there were three "Servile Wars" involving slave uprisings against the Roman state. The third and final uprising was the most serious, involving ultimately between 120,000 and 150,000 slaves under the command of the gladiator Spartacus. In 91 BC the Social War broke out between Rome and its former allies in Italy when the allies complained that they shared the risk of Rome's military campaigns, but not its rewards. Although they lost militarily, the allies achieved their objectives with legal proclamations which granted citizenship to more than 500,000 Italians.

How many slaves at most were under the command of Spartacus?

When was the beginning of the Social War?

91 BC

How many Italians became citizens after the loss of the Social War?

more than 500,000

How many slave uprisings were there between the years of 135 BC and 71 BC?

three

Ultimately what started the Social War?

allies complained that they shared the risk of Rome's military campaigns, but not its rewards


The internal unrest reached its most serious state, however, in the two civil wars that were caused by the clash between generals Gaius Marius and Lucius Cornelius Sulla starting from 88 BC. In the Battle of the Colline Gate at the very door of the city of Rome, a Roman army under Sulla bested an army of the Marius supporters and entered the city. Sulla's actions marked a watershed in the willingness of Roman troops to wage war against one another that was to pave the way for the wars which ultimately overthrew the Republic, and caused the founding of the Roman Empire.

What type of war was caused by the clash of two generals?

civil wars

In what year did Marius and Sull begin to clash?

88 BC

In what specific section of Rome did the Battle of the Colline Gate take place?

very door of the city

Who was defeated in the Battle of the Colline Gate?

an army of the Marius supporters

What can be considered one of the causes that led to the downfall of the Roman Republic?

the willingness of Roman troops to wage war against one another


Mithridates the Great was the ruler of Pontus, a large kingdom in Asia Minor (modern Turkey), from 120 to 63 BC. Mithridates antagonised Rome by seeking to expand his kingdom, and Rome for her part seemed equally eager for war and the spoils and prestige that it might bring. In 88 BC, Mithridates ordered the killing of a majority of the 80,000 Romans living in his kingdom. The massacre was the official reason given for the commencement of hostilities in the First Mithridatic War. The Roman general Lucius Cornelius Sulla forced Mithridates out of Greece proper, but then had to return to Italy to answer the internal threat posed by his rival, Gaius Marius. A peace was made between Rome and Pontus, but this proved only a temporary lull.

Who was the leader of Pontus in the year 85 BC?

Mithridates the Great

With which individual did Lucius Cornelius have a rivalry?

Gaius Marius

How did the ruler of Pontus anger Rome?

by seeking to expand his kingdom

When was the last year of Mithridates the Great's reign?

63 BC

How many Romans lived in Mithridate the Great's kingdom in 88 BC?


During his term as praetor in the Iberian Peninsula (modern Portugal and Spain), Pompey's contemporary Julius Caesar defeated two local tribes in battle. After his term as consul in 59 BC, he was appointed to a five-year term as the proconsular Governor of Cisalpine Gaul (part of current northern Italy), Transalpine Gaul (current southern France) and Illyria (part of the modern Balkans). Not content with an idle governorship, Caesar strove to find reason to invade Gaul (modern France and Belgium), which would give him the dramatic military success he sought. When two local tribes began to migrate on a route that would take them near (not into) the Roman province of Transalpine Gaul, Caesar had the barely sufficient excuse he needed for his Gallic Wars, fought between 58 BC and 49 BC.

Who held  a term as praetor in the Iberian Peninsula?

Julius Caesar

Why did Julius Caesar wish to invade Gaul?

would give him the dramatic military success he sought

When did Julius Caesar's term as consul end?

59 BC

What military leader was Julius Caesar a contemporary of?

Pompey

What was the reasoning Julius Caesar used to start the Gallic Wars?

two local tribes began to migrate on a route that would take them near (not into) the Roman province of Transalpine Gaul


By 59 BC an unofficial political alliance known as the First Triumvirate was formed between Gaius Julius Caesar, Marcus Licinius Crassus, and Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus ("Pompey the Great") to share power and influence. In 53 BC, Crassus launched a Roman invasion of the Parthian Empire (modern Iraq and Iran). After initial successes, he marched his army deep into the desert; but here his army was cut off deep in enemy territory, surrounded and slaughtered at the Battle of Carrhae in which Crassus himself perished. The death of Crassus removed some of the balance in the Triumvirate and, consequently, Caesar and Pompey began to move apart. While Caesar was fighting in Gaul, Pompey proceeded with a legislative agenda for Rome that revealed that he was at best ambivalent towards Caesar and perhaps now covertly allied with Caesar's political enemies. In 51 BC, some Roman senators demanded that Caesar not be permitted to stand for consul unless he turned over control of his armies to the state, which would have left Caesar defenceless before his enemies. Caesar chose civil war over laying down his command and facing trial.

When was the invasion of the Parthian Empire begun?

53 BC

Who started the invasion of the Parthian Empire?

Crassus

In what battle did Marcus Licinius Crassus die?

the Battle of Carrhae

Who was believed to have had a secret allegiance with enemies of Julius Caesar?

Pompey

What did the senators request of Caesar in order for him to stand for consul?

turned over control of his armies to the state


By the spring of 49 BC, the hardened legions of Caesar crossed the river Rubicon, the legal boundary of Roman Italy beyond which no commander might bring his army, and swept down the Italian peninsula towards Rome, while Pompey ordered the abandonment of Rome. Afterwards Caesar turned his attention to the Pompeian stronghold of Hispania (modern Spain) but decided to tackle Pompey himself in Greece. Pompey initially defeated Caesar, but failed to follow up on the victory, and was decisively defeated at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC, despite outnumbering Caesar's forces two to one, albeit with inferior quality troops. Pompey fled again, this time to Egypt, where he was murdered.

During what year did Caesar's armies cross the river Rubicon?

49 BC

Who would be seen as having been defeated in the Battle of Pharsalus?

Pompey

In which year did The Battle of Pharsalus take place?

48 BC

In what country did Pompey die in?

Egypt

Who decided to attack Pompey in Greece?

Caesar


Caesar was now the primary figure of the Roman state, enforcing and entrenching his powers. His enemies feared that he had ambitions to become an autocratic ruler. Arguing that the Roman Republic was in danger, a group of senators hatched a conspiracy and assassinated Caesar at a meeting of the Senate in March 44 BC.  Mark Antony, Caesar's lieutenant, condemned Caesar's assassination, and war broke out between the two factions. Antony was denounced as a public enemy, and Caesar's adopted son and chosen heir, Gaius Octavianus, was entrusted with the command of the war against him. At the Battle of Mutina Mark Antony was defeated by the consuls Hirtius and Pansa, who were both killed.

Who was now considered to be the primary figure in the Roman state?

Caesar

Which group of people conspired against Caesar in order to have him assassinated?

senators

When did Julius Caesar die?

March 44 BC

Which former lieutenant of Caesar was considered a public threat after Caesar was assassinated?

Mark Antony

Why did the Roman senators wish to have Caesar assassinated?

the Roman Republic was in danger


However, civil war flared again when the Second Triumvirate of Octavian, Lepidus and Mark Antony failed. The ambitious Octavian built a power base of patronage and then launched a campaign against Mark Antony. At the naval Battle of Actium off the coast of Greece, Octavian decisively defeated Antony and Cleopatra. Octavian was granted a series of special powers including sole "imperium" within the city of Rome, permanent consular powers and credit for every Roman military victory, since all future generals were assumed to be acting under his command. In 27 BC Octavian was granted the use of the names "Augustus" and "Princeps", indicating his primary status above all other Romans, and he adopted the title "Imperator Caesar" making him the first Roman Emperor.

What failure caused the the flares of civil war to spark up again?

Second Triumvirate of Octavian

Who defeated Cleopatra and Mark Antony at the Battle of Actium?

Octavian

In what year was Octavian first allowed to use the names Augustus and Princeps?

27 BC

Who has been designated as the first Emperor of Rome?

Octavian

Which individual was granted permanent consular powers?

Octavian


The last king of the Roman Kingdom, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, was overthrown in 509 BC by a group of noblemen led by Lucius Junius Brutus. Tarquin made a number of attempts to retake the throne, including the Tarquinian conspiracy, the war with Veii and Tarquinii and finally the war between Rome and Clusium, all of which failed to achieve Tarquin's objectives. The most important constitutional change during the transition from kingdom to republic concerned the chief magistrate. Before the revolution, a king would be elected by the senators for a life term. Now, two consuls were elected by the citizens for an annual term. Each consul would check his colleague, and their limited term in office would open them up to prosecution if they abused the powers of their office. Consular political powers, when exercised conjointly with a consular colleague, were no different from those of the old king.

Who was considered to be the last king of the Roman Kingdom?

Lucius Tarquinius Superbus

When did the last king of the Roman Kingdom lose his seat of power?

509 BC

Who would elect a king in the Roman Kingdom prior to the revolution?

senators

What was the length of a term that a king would be elected for in the Roman Kingdom?

life term

Who were the joint consulars considered to be an equal of politically?

old king


In 494 BC, the city was at war with two neighboring tribes. The plebeian soldiers refused to march against the enemy, and instead seceded to the Aventine Hill. The plebeians demanded the right to elect their own officials. The patricians agreed, and the plebeians returned to the battlefield. The plebeians called these new officials "plebeian tribunes". The tribunes would have two assistants, called "plebeian aediles". During the 5th century BC, a series of reforms were passed. The result of these reforms was that any law passed by the plebeian would have the full force of law. In 443 BC, the censorship was created. From 375 BC to 371 BC, the republic experienced a constitutional crisis during which the tribunes used their vetoes to prevent the election of senior magistrates.

In what year was the city in conflict with two nearby tribes?

494 BC

Which group of people requested the ability to elect officials?

The plebeians

Who used the vetoes that they had been given to prevent the appointment of magistrates?

the tribunes

What were the assistants to the plebeian tribunes named?

plebeian aediles

During what century were reformed passed that allowed laws passed by the plebeians to have the full force of the law?

5th century BC


After the consulship had been opened to the plebeians, the plebeians were able to hold both the dictatorship and the censorship. Plebiscites of 342 BC placed limits on political offices; an individual could hold only one office at a time, and ten years must elapse between the end of his official term and his re-election. Further laws attempted to relieve the burden of debt from plebeians by banning interest on loans. In 337 BC, the first plebeian praetor was elected. During these years, the tribunes and the senators grew increasingly close. The senate realised the need to use plebeian officials to accomplish desired goals. To win over the tribunes, the senators gave the tribunes a great deal of power and the tribunes began to feel obligated to the senate. As the tribunes and the senators grew closer, plebeian senators were often able to secure the tribunate for members of their own families. In time, the tribunate became a stepping stone to higher office.

What year were limits placed upon plebeians that prevented them from holding more than one office concurrently?

342 BC

What could no longer be associated with debt after laws were passed preventing it?

interest

What year saw the election of a plebeian to the office of praetor?

337 BC

How did senators attempt to gain the favor of the tribunes?

gave the tribunes a great deal of power

What was considered a pathway to holding a higher office?

the tribunate


Shortly before 312 BCE, the Plebeian Council enacted the Plebiscitum Ovinium. During the early republic, only consuls could appoint new senators. This initiative, however, transferred this power to the censors. It also required the censor to appoint any newly elected magistrate to the senate. By this point, plebeians were already holding a significant number of magisterial offices. Thus, the number of plebeian senators probably increased quickly. However, it remained difficult for a plebeian to enter the senate if he was not from a well-known political family, as a new patrician-like plebeian aristocracy emerged. The old nobility existed through the force of law, because only patricians were allowed to stand for high office. The new nobility existed due to the organization of society. As such, only a revolution could overthrow this new structure.

In what year was the Plebiscitum Ovinium initiative enacted?

before 312 BCE

Who had already held a large amount of magisterial offices?

plebeians

Who was allowed to be elected to high office positions?

only patricians

What initiative provided censors with the abillity to appoint new senators?

Plebiscitum Ovinium

Who could a newly elected magistrate expect to be appointed by?

the censor


By 287 BC, the economic condition of the average plebeian had become poor. The problem appears to have centered around widespread indebtedness. The plebeians demanded relief, but the senators refused to address their situation. The result was the final plebeian secession. The plebeians seceded to the Janiculum hill. To end the secession, a dictator was appointed. The dictator passed a law (the Lex Hortensia), which ended the requirement that the patrician senators must agree before any bill could be considered by the Plebeian Council. This was not the first law to require that an act of the Plebeian Council have the full force of law. The Plebeian Council acquired this power during a modification to the original Valerian law in 449 BC. The significance of this law was in the fact that it robbed the patricians of their final weapon over the plebeians. The result was that control over the state fell, not onto the shoulders of voters, but to the new plebeian nobility.

What was the economic status of your typical plebeian in 287 BC?

poor

Who refused to concern themselves with the plebeians debt situation?

senators

What law was passed that allowed the Plebeian Council to consider a bill without the approval of the patrician senators?

the Lex Hortensia

What did the patrician senators refusal to address the accumulating debt of the plebeians lead to?

the final plebeian secession


The plebeians had finally achieved political equality with the patricians. However, the plight of the average plebeian had not changed. A small number of plebeian families achieved the same standing that the old aristocratic patrician families had always had, but the new plebeian aristocrats became as uninterested in the plight of the average plebeian as the old patrician aristocrats had always been. The plebeians rebelled by leaving Rome and refusing to return until they had more rights. The patricians then noticed how much they needed the plebeians and accepted their terms. The plebeians then returned to Rome and continued their work.

Which group of people were now considered to be politically equal with the plebeians?

patricians

Which group of people rebelled by vacating Rome?

The plebeians

How many plebeian families had an identical standing as the old aristocratic patrician families?

A small number

What did the rebelling plebeians want before they returned to Rome?

more rights


The Hortensian Law deprived the patricians of their last weapon against the plebeians, and thus resolved the last great political question of the era. No such important political changes occurred between 287 BC and 133 BC. The important laws of this era were still enacted by the senate. In effect, the plebeians were satisfied with the possession of power, but did not care to use it. The senate was supreme during this era because the era was dominated by questions of foreign and military policy. This was the most militarily active era of the Roman Republic.

Why was the senate considered to be supreme during this time?

because the era was dominated by questions of foreign and military policy

What years did no important political changes happen during?

287 BC and 133 BC

What group of people often failed to use the power that was given to them?

the plebeians

Who enacted crucial laws during this period of time?

the senate

What was a political element that satiated the plebeians?

the possession of power


In the final decades of this era many plebeians grew poorer. The long military campaigns had forced citizens to leave their farms to fight, while their farms fell into disrepair. The landed aristocracy began buying bankrupted farms at discounted prices. As commodity prices fell, many farmers could no longer operate their farms at a profit. The result was the ultimate bankruptcy of countless farmers. Masses of unemployed plebeians soon began to flood into Rome, and thus into the ranks of the legislative assemblies. Their poverty usually led them to vote for the candidate who offered them the most. A new culture of dependency was emerging, in which citizens would look to any populist leader for relief.

What had caused citizens to vacate their farms?

long military campaigns

How could a candidate assure the vote of a poverty stricken plebeian?

offered them the most

What type of culture was a side effect of the rampant poverty of the average plebeian?

culture of dependency

What caused the bankruptcy of many farmers during this era?

commodity prices fell

Who had bought the now bankrupt farms?

landed aristocracy


Tiberius Gracchus was elected tribune in 133 BC. He attempted to enact a law which would have limited the amount of land that any individual could own. The aristocrats, who stood to lose an enormous amount of money, were bitterly opposed to this proposal. Tiberius submitted this law to the Plebeian Council, but the law was vetoed by a tribune named Marcus Octavius. Tiberius then used the Plebeian Council to impeach Octavius. The theory, that a representative of the people ceases to be one when he acts against the wishes of the people, was counter to Roman constitutional theory. If carried to its logical end, this theory would remove all constitutional restraints on the popular will, and put the state under the absolute control of a temporary popular majority. His law was enacted, but Tiberius was murdered with 300 of his associates when he stood for reelection to the tribunate.

To what position was Tiberius Gracchus elected?

tribune

Who had tried to enact a law that places a limit on the amount of property any single individual could possess?

Tiberius Gracchus

When was Tiberius Gracchus murdered?

when he stood for reelection to the tribunate

Which tribune was impeached by the Plebeian Council?

Marcus Octavius

What was considered to be the opposite of Roman constitutional theory?

that a representative of the people ceases to be one when he acts against the wishes of the people


Tiberius' brother Gaius was elected tribune in 123 BC. Gaius Gracchus' ultimate goal was to weaken the senate and to strengthen the democratic forces. In the past, for example, the senate would eliminate political rivals either by establishing special judicial commissions or by passing a senatus consultum ultimum ("ultimate decree of the senate"). Both devices would allow the Senate to bypass the ordinary due process rights that all citizens had. Gaius outlawed the judicial commissions, and declared the senatus consultum ultimum to be unconstitutional. Gaius then proposed a law which would grant citizenship rights to Rome's Italian allies. This last proposal was not popular with the plebeians and he lost much of his support. He stood for election to a third term in 121 BC, but was defeated and then murdered by representatives of the senate with 3,000 of his supporters on Capitoline Hill in Rome. Though the senate retained control, the Gracchi had strengthened the political influence of the plebeians.

In what year was Gaius elected to office?

123 BC

What is considered to be the end game of Gaius Gracchus?

weaken the senate and to strengthen the democratic forces

Who brought forward a law that would given citizenship right to Italian allies of Rome?

Gaius

Which elected official lost the election in 121 BC?

Gaius

What was the location of the Gaius Gracchus murder?

Capitoline Hill in Rome


In 118 BC, King Micipsa of Numidia (current-day Algeria and Tunisia) died. He was succeeded by two legitimate sons, Adherbal and Hiempsal, and an illegitimate son, Jugurtha. Micipsa divided his kingdom between these three sons. Jugurtha, however, turned on his brothers, killing Hiempsal and driving Adherbal out of Numidia. Adherbal fled to Rome for assistance, and initially Rome mediated a division of the country between the two brothers. Eventually, Jugurtha renewed his offensive, leading to a long and inconclusive war with Rome. He also bribed several Roman commanders, and at least two tribunes, before and during the war. His nemesis, Gaius Marius, a legate from a virtually unknown provincial family, returned from the war in Numidia and was elected consul in 107 BC over the objections of the aristocratic senators. Marius invaded Numidia and brought the war to a quick end, capturing Jugurtha in the process. The apparent incompetence of the Senate, and the brilliance of Marius, had been put on full display. The populares party took full advantage of this opportunity by allying itself with Marius.

Who was the illegitimate offspring of the King Micipsa of Numidia?

Jugurtha

Who was Jugurtha's rival?

Gaius Marius

When was Gaius Marius elected to the position of consul?

107 BC

Who did not agree with the election of Gaius Marius?

aristocratic senators

Which individual did the populares part have an allegiance with?

Marius


Several years later, in 88 BC, a Roman army was sent to put down an emerging Asian power, king Mithridates of Pontus. The army, however, was defeated. One of Marius' old quaestors, Lucius Cornelius Sulla, had been elected consul for the year, and was ordered by the senate to assume command of the war against Mithridates. Marius, a member of the "populares" party, had a tribune revoke Sulla's command of the war against Mithridates. Sulla, a member of the aristocratic ("optimates") party, brought his army back to Italy and marched on Rome. Sulla was so angry at Marius' tribune that he passed a law intended to permanently weaken the tribunate. He then returned to his war against Mithridates. With Sulla gone, the populares under Marius and Lucius Cornelius Cinna soon took control of the city.

In what year was a Roman army dispatched to terminate the King of Pontus?

88 BC

Who was ordered by the senate to become commander in the conflict with King Mithridates?

Lucius Cornelius Sulla

Who had successfully passed a law whose sole purpose was to lessen the power of the tribunate?

Sulla

What political party did Lucius Cornelius Sulla belong to?

populares

What happened after Sulla returned to the conflict with Mithridates?

Marius and Lucius Cornelius Cinna soon took control of the city


During the period in which the populares party controlled the city, they flouted convention by re-electing Marius consul several times without observing the customary ten-year interval between offices. They also transgressed the established oligarchy by advancing unelected individuals to magisterial office, and by substituting magisterial edicts for popular legislation. Sulla soon made peace with Mithridates. In 83 BC, he returned to Rome, overcame all resistance, and recaptured the city. Sulla and his supporters then slaughtered most of Marius' supporters. Sulla, having observed the violent results of radical popular reforms, was naturally conservative. As such, he sought to strengthen the aristocracy, and by extension the senate. Sulla made himself dictator, passed a series of constitutional reforms, resigned the dictatorship, and served one last term as consul. He died in 78 BC.

How many years was normal to span between offices prior to the populares controlling the city?

ten-year interval

In what year did Sulla succesfully take over the populares controlled city?

83 BC

Who were slaughtered upon the arrival of Sulla in Rome?

most of Marius' supporters

In what year did Sulla die?

78 BC

Which leader had achieved peace with Mithridates?

Sulla


In 77 BC, the senate sent one of Sulla's former lieutenants, Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus ("Pompey the Great"), to put down an uprising in Spain. By 71 BC, Pompey returned to Rome after having completed his mission. Around the same time, another of Sulla's former lieutenants, Marcus Licinius Crassus, had just put down the Spartacus-led gladiator/slave revolt in Italy. Upon their return, Pompey and Crassus found the populares party fiercely attacking Sulla's constitution. They attempted to forge an agreement with the populares party. If both Pompey and Crassus were elected consul in 70 BC, they would dismantle the more obnoxious components of Sulla's constitution. The two were soon elected, and quickly dismantled most of Sulla's constitution.

Where in the year 77 BC was an uprising?

Spain

Which former lieutenant of Sulla had dismantled most of the constitution that Sulla had crafted?

Pompey

In what year was the election held that let Pompey and Crassus obtain the seat of consul?

70 BC

Who was the instigator in the slave revolt in Italy?

Spartacus

When did Pompey return to Rome after having quelled the uprising in Spain?

71 BC


Around 66 BC, a movement to use constitutional, or at least peaceful, means to address the plight of various classes began. After several failures, the movement's leaders decided to use any means that were necessary to accomplish their goals. The movement coalesced under an aristocrat named Lucius Sergius Catilina. The movement was based in the town of Faesulae, which was a natural hotbed of agrarian agitation. The rural malcontents were to advance on Rome, and be aided by an uprising within the city. After assassinating the consuls and most of the senators, Catiline would be free to enact his reforms. The conspiracy was set in motion in 63 BC. The consul for the year, Marcus Tullius Cicero, intercepted messages that Catiline had sent in an attempt to recruit more members. As a result, the top conspirators in Rome (including at least one former consul) were executed by authorisation (of dubious constitutionality) of the senate, and the planned uprising was disrupted. Cicero then sent an army, which cut Catiline's forces to pieces.

When did the movement that considered the use of peaceful means to solve the plight of lesser classes begin?

Around 66 BC

How many former consuls in Rome were executed as a result of a conspiracy?

one former consul

What town was a common site of agitation within the area?

Faesulae

Who can lay claim to the destruction of Lucius Sergius Catilina's forces?

Cicero

Which individual had planned an uprising that ideally would see the death of most of the Roman senators?

Lucius Sergius Catilina


In 62 BC, Pompey returned victorious from Asia. The Senate, elated by its successes against Catiline, refused to ratify the arrangements that Pompey had made. Pompey, in effect, became powerless. Thus, when Julius Caesar returned from a governorship in Spain in 61 BC, he found it easy to make an arrangement with Pompey. Caesar and Pompey, along with Crassus, established a private agreement, now known as the First Triumvirate. Under the agreement, Pompey's arrangements would be ratified. Caesar would be elected consul in 59 BC, and would then serve as governor of Gaul for five years. Crassus was promised a future consulship.

In which year would Julius Caesar hope to be elected to the position of consul?

59 BC

What was the name of the private agreement between Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus?

First Triumvirate

What was Crassus agree to receive in the First Triumvirate agreement?

a future consulship

When did Julius Caesar return to Rome?

61 BC

What provided the Roman senate with exuberance?

successes against Catiline


Caesar became consul in 59 BC. His colleague, Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, was an extreme aristocrat. Caesar submitted the laws that he had promised Pompey to the assemblies. Bibulus attempted to obstruct the enactment of these laws, and so Caesar used violent means to ensure their passage. Caesar was then made governor of three provinces. He facilitated the election of the former patrician Publius Clodius Pulcher to the tribunate for 58 BC. Clodius set about depriving Caesar's senatorial enemies of two of their more obstinate leaders in Cato and Cicero. Clodius was a bitter opponent of Cicero because Cicero had testified against him in a sacrilege case. Clodius attempted to try Cicero for executing citizens without a trial during the Catiline conspiracy, resulting in Cicero going into self-imposed exile and his house in Rome being burnt down. Clodius also passed a bill that forced Cato to lead the invasion of Cyprus which would keep him away from Rome for some years. Clodius also passed a law to expand the previous partial grain subsidy to a fully free grain dole for citizens.

Who had tried to prevent the enactment of the laws that Caesar had proposed?

Bibulus

What type of case saw Cicero testify against Clodius?

sacrilege case

Who enacted a law that would increase the partial grain subsidy?

Clodius

Which individual lost his home to a fire?

Cicero

Who was elected to the tribunate in 58 BC?

Publius Clodius Pulcher


Clodius formed armed gangs that terrorised the city and eventually began to attack Pompey's followers, who in response funded counter-gangs formed by Titus Annius Milo. The political alliance of the triumvirate was crumbling. Domitius Ahenobarbus ran for the consulship in 55 BC promising to take Caesar's command from him. Eventually, the triumvirate was renewed at Lucca. Pompey and Crassus were promised the consulship in 55 BC, and Caesar's term as governor was extended for five years. Crassus led an ill-fated expedition with legions led by his son, Caesar's lieutenant, against the Kingdom of Parthia. This resulted in his defeat and death at the Battle of Carrhae. Finally, Pompey's wife, Julia, who was Caesar's daughter, died in childbirth. This event severed the last remaining bond between Pompey and Caesar.

Who was responsible for the attacks on followers of Pompey?

Clodius

What political position were Pompey and Crassus assured they would receive in 55 BC?

consul

What caused the death of Julius Caesar's female offspring?

childbirth

Which individual ran for consul in 55 BC?

Domitius Ahenobarbus

Who was responsible for an expedition against the Parthian Kingdom?

Crassus


Beginning in the summer of 54 BC, a wave of political corruption and violence swept Rome. This chaos reached a climax in January of 52 BC, when Clodius was murdered in a gang war by Milo. On 1 January 49 BC, an agent of Caesar presented an ultimatum to the senate. The ultimatum was rejected, and the senate then passed a resolution which declared that if Caesar did not lay down his arms by July of that year, he would be considered an enemy of the Republic. Meanwhile, the senators adopted Pompey as their new champion against Caesar. On 7 January of 49 BC, the senate passed a senatus consultum ultimum, which vested Pompey with dictatorial powers. Pompey's army, however, was composed largely of untested conscripts. On 10 January, Caesar crossed the Rubicon with his veteran army (in violation of Roman laws) and marched towards Rome. Caesar's rapid advance forced Pompey, the consuls and the senate to abandon Rome for Greece. Caesar entered the city unopposed.

In which year did Clodius die?

52 BC

Who was responsible for the death of Clodius?

Milo

Who did the senators decide would aid them in their conflict with Caesar?

Pompey

What type of powers were granted to Pompey by the senate?

dictatorial

Ultimately what forced the senate to abandon Rome and flee to Greece?

Caesar's rapid advance


Caesar held both the dictatorship and the tribunate, and alternated between the consulship and the proconsulship. In 48 BC, Caesar was given permanent tribunician powers. This made his person sacrosanct, gave him the power to veto the senate, and allowed him to dominate the Plebeian Council. In 46 BC, Caesar was given censorial powers, which he used to fill the senate with his own partisans. Caesar then raised the membership of the Senate to 900. This robbed the senatorial aristocracy of its prestige, and made it increasingly subservient to him. While the assemblies continued to meet, he submitted all candidates to the assemblies for election, and all bills to the assemblies for enactment. Thus, the assemblies became powerless and were unable to oppose him.

In Rome during this time who was considered to hold both the dictatorship and the position of the tribunate?

Caesar

What power could Caesar use against the senate should he choose?

power to veto

In what year was Caesar given the power of a censor?

46 BC

What is considered to have counteracted the prestige of the senatorial aristocracy?

raised the membership of the Senate to 900


Caesar was assassinated on March 15, 44 BC. The assassination was led by Gaius Cassius and Marcus Brutus. Most of the conspirators were senators, who had a variety of economic, political, or personal motivations for carrying out the assassination. Many were afraid that Caesar would soon resurrect the monarchy and declare himself king. Others feared loss of property or prestige as Caesar carried out his land reforms in favor of the landless classes. Virtually all the conspirators fled the city after Caesar's death in fear of retaliation. The civil war that followed destroyed what was left of the Republic.

On what date was Caesar killed?

March 15, 44 BC

Who comprised most of the members of the conspiracy to assassinate Caesar?

senators

What did some members of the conspiracy believe Caesar would bring back?

the monarchy

Who did Gaius Cassius and Marcus Brutus lead the conspiracy against?

Caesar

Why did many members of the senate flee the city after Caesar's death?

fear of retaliation


After the assassination, Mark Antony formed an alliance with Caesar's adopted son and great-nephew, Gaius Octavian. Along with Marcus Lepidus, they formed an alliance known as the Second Triumvirate. They held powers that were nearly identical to the powers that Caesar had held under his constitution. As such, the Senate and assemblies remained powerless, even after Caesar had been assassinated. The conspirators were then defeated at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC. Eventually, however, Antony and Octavian fought against each other in one last battle. Antony was defeated in the naval Battle of Actium in 31 BC, and he committed suicide with his lover, Cleopatra. In 29 BC, Octavian returned to Rome as the unchallenged master of the Empire and later accepted the title of Augustus ("Exalted One"). He was convinced that only a single strong ruler could restore order in Rome.

Who was soon allied with Caesar's adopted son following his death?

Mark Antony

In what year did the Battle of Philippi end?

42 BC

How did Mark Antony die?

he committed suicide

What was the alliance that was formed with Marcus Lepidus named?

the Second Triumvirate

In what battle did Mark Antony see defeat?

Battle of Actium


As with most ancient civilizations, Rome's military served the triple purposes of securing its borders, exploiting peripheral areas through measures such as imposing tribute on conquered peoples, and maintaining internal order. From the outset, Rome's military typified this pattern and the majority of Rome's wars were characterized by one of two types. The first is the foreign war, normally begun as a counter-offensive or defense of an ally. The second is the civil war, which plagued the Roman Republic in its final century. Roman armies were not invincible, despite their formidable reputation and host of victories. Over the centuries the Romans "produced their share of incompetents" who led Roman armies into catastrophic defeats. Nevertheless, it was generally the fate of the greatest of Rome's enemies, such as Pyrrhus and Hannibal, to win early battles but lose the war. The history of Rome's campaigning is, if nothing else, a history of obstinate persistence overcoming appalling losses.

Who in Rome was responsible for imposing tribute on nations that they had conquered?

Rome's military

What could be considered a trait of Rome's military campaigns?

obstinate persistence

What was considered a problem in the Roman Republic during its last century?

civil war

What would often lead Rome to wage war in foreign lands?

defense of an ally


During this period, Roman soldiers seem to have been modelled after those of the Etruscans to the north, who themselves seem to have copied their style of warfare from the Greeks. Traditionally, the introduction of the phalanx formation into the Roman army is ascribed to the city's penultimate king, Servius Tullius (ruled 578 to 534 BC). According to Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, the front rank was composed of the wealthiest citizens, who were able to purchase the best equipment. Each subsequent rank consisted of those with less wealth and poorer equipment than the one before it.

Who introduced the phalanx formation into Rome's army?

Servius Tullius

Were Roman soldiers expected to purchase their own equipment?

wealthiest citizens, who were able to purchase the best equipment

Who were contained in the first rank of the phalanx formation?

wealthiest citizens

From what people did it appear the Etruscans had model their form of warfare on?

Greeks

Where did Dionysius hail from?

Halicarnassus


One disadvantage of the phalanx was that it was only effective when fighting in large, open spaces, which left the Romans at a disadvantage when fighting in the hilly terrain of central Italian peninsula. In the 4th century BC, the Romans abandoned the phalanx in favour of the more flexible manipular formation. This change is sometimes attributed to Marcus Furius Camillus and placed shortly after the Gallic invasion of 390 BC; it is more likely, however, that they were copied from Rome's Samnite enemies to the south, possibly as a result of Samnite victories during the Second Samnite War (326 to 304 BC).

What was a detriment of using the phalanx formation?

only effective when fighting in large, open spaces

In what century was the phalanx formation finally discarded by the Roman people?

4th century BC

What fighting formation would eventually replace the phalanx in battle?

manipular formation

Where is the likely source of the change to the manipular formation?

copied from Rome's Samnite enemies

What type of ground could be found in the central Italian peninsula?

hilly terrain


The heavy infantry of the maniples were supported by a number of light infantry and cavalry troops, typically 300 horsemen per manipular legion. The cavalry was drawn primarily from the richest class of equestrians. There was an additional class of troops who followed the army without specific martial roles and were deployed to the rear of the third line. Their role in accompanying the army was primarily to supply any vacancies that might occur in the maniples. The light infantry consisted of 1,200 unarmoured skirmishing troops drawn from the youngest and lower social classes. They were armed with a sword and a small shield, as well as several light javelins.

How many horseman were likely to be found in a single manipular legion?

300 horsemen

Where could you expect the extensive amount of cavalry troops to be sourced from?

richest class of equestrians

What often neglected social class was the light infantry comprised of?

lower social classes.

Small shields could be found in what section of the infantry?

light infantry

What type of infantry joined light, and the cavalry in battle?

heavy infantry


Rome's military confederation with the other peoples of the Italian peninsula meant that half of Rome's army was provided by the Socii, such as the Etruscans, Umbrians, Apulians, Campanians, Samnites, Lucani, Bruttii, and the various southern Greek cities. Polybius states that Rome could draw on 770,000 men at the beginning of the Second Punic War, of which 700,000 were infantry and 70,000 met the requirements for cavalry. Rome's Italian allies would be organized in alae, or wings, roughly equal in manpower to the Roman legions, though with 900 cavalry instead of 300.

Where did Rome receive half of their army from?

the Socii

How many calvary did Rome's Italian allies use?

900 cavalry

How many soldiers were available to Rome at the start of the Second Punic War?

770,000 men

What did Rome's Italian allies call their battle formation?

alae

What allowed Rome to source some of their military from other nearby areas?

military confederation with the other peoples


The extraordinary demands of the Punic Wars, in addition to a shortage of manpower, exposed the tactical weaknesses of the manipular legion, at least in the short term. In 217 BC, near the beginning of the Second Punic War, Rome was forced to effectively ignore its long-standing principle that its soldiers must be both citizens and property owners. During the 2nd century BC, Roman territory saw an overall decline in population, partially due to the huge losses incurred during various wars. This was accompanied by severe social stresses and the greater collapse of the middle classes. As a result, the Roman state was forced to arm its soldiers at the expense of the state, which it had not had to do in the past.

During what century did Roman controlled areas see a decline in their populations?

2nd century BC

What caused the Roman state to provide armaments to their army?

greater collapse of the middle classes

What were soldiers expected to own prior to the year 217 BC?

property

What was considered an attributing factor to the decline of the Roman population?

huge losses incurred during various wars


In process known as the Marian reforms, Roman consul Gaius Marius carried out a programme of reform of the Roman military. In 107 BC, all citizens, regardless of their wealth or social class, were made eligible for entry into the Roman army. This move formalised and concluded a gradual process that had been growing for centuries, of removing property requirements for military service. The distinction between the three heavy infantry classes, which had already become blurred, had collapsed into a single class of heavy legionary infantry. The heavy infantry legionaries were drawn from citizen stock, while non-citizens came to dominate the ranks of the light infantry. The army's higher-level officers and commanders were still drawn exclusively from the Roman aristocracy.

Who was now able to join military service in 107 BC?

all citizens

Where would legionaries in the Roman army likely to be sourced from?

citizen stock

Who would likely make up the majority of the Roman army's light infantry?

non-citizens

Which consul was responsible for the reforms that allowed all citizens access to join the Roman army?

Gaius Marius

What was the process that removed the property requirement for the Roman military called?

Marian reforms


The legions of the late Republic were, structurally, almost entirely heavy infantry. The legion's main sub-unit was called a cohort and consisted of approximately 480 infantrymen. The cohort was therefore a much larger unit than the earlier maniple sub-unit, and was divided into six centuries of 80 men each. Each century was separated further into 10 "tent groups" of 8 men each. The cavalry troops were used as scouts and dispatch riders rather than battlefield cavalry. Legions also contained a dedicated group of artillery crew of perhaps 60 men. Each legion was normally partnered with an approximately equal number of allied (non-Roman) troops.

Around how many units could be expected to be contained within a cohort?

480 infantrymen

How many troops were placed into each tent group?

8 men

Who would now be used as scouts instead of fighting alongside the army in the battlefield?

cavalry troops

What designation of troops was considered to make up the majority of a legion?

cohort


After having declined in size following the subjugation of the Mediterranean, the Roman navy underwent short-term upgrading and revitalisation in the late Republic to meet several new demands. Under Caesar, an invasion fleet was assembled in the English Channel to allow the invasion of Britannia; under Pompey, a large fleet was raised in the Mediterranean Sea to clear the sea of Cilician pirates. During the civil war that followed, as many as a thousand ships were either constructed or pressed into service from Greek cities.

In which sea was a large amount of naval vessels sent in order to remove Cilician pirates?

Mediterranean Sea

Around how many ships were sent into service from Greek cities?

as many as a thousand ships

Who was ultimately responsible for the naval ships that were sent to the English Channel?

Caesar

What was the driving force behind the revitalization of the Roman naval forces?

to meet several new demands

What aspect of the Roman military saw a decline in size after the subjugation of the Mediterranean?

Roman navy


The senate's ultimate authority derived from the esteem and prestige of the senators. This esteem and prestige was based on both precedent and custom, as well as the caliber and reputation of the senators. The senate passed decrees, which were called senatus consulta. These were officially "advice" from the senate to a magistrate. In practice, however, they were usually followed by the magistrates. The focus of the Roman senate was usually directed towards foreign policy. Though it technically had no official role in the management of military conflict, the senate ultimately was the force that oversaw such affairs. The power of the senate expanded over time as the power of the legislative assemblies declined, and the senate took a greater role in ordinary law-making. Its members were usually appointed by Roman Censors, who ordinarily selected newly elected magistrates for membership in the senate, making the senate a partially elected body. During times of military emergency, such as the civil wars of the 1st century BC, this practice became less prevalent, as the Roman Dictator, Triumvir or the senate itself would select its members.

What was the general source of the Roman senate's authority?

the esteem and prestige of the senators

Who was responsible for overseeing a military action?

the senate

What was a motion that was enacted by the senate called?

senatus consulta

What area was the likely focal point of the Roman senate?

foreign policy

What governing Roman body would self-select their own members during times of great distress?

the senate itself would select its members


The legal status of Roman citizenship was limited and was a vital prerequisite to possessing many important legal rights such as the right to trial and appeal, to marry, to vote, to hold office, to enter binding contracts, and to special tax exemptions. An adult male citizen with the full complement of legal and political rights was called "optimo jure." The optimo jure elected their assemblies, whereupon the assemblies elected magistrates, enacted legislation, presided over trials in capital cases, declared war and peace, and forged or dissolved treaties. There were two types of legislative assemblies. The first was the comitia ("committees"), which were assemblies of all optimo jure. The second was the concilia ("councils"), which were assemblies of specific groups of optimo jure.

What was the main requirement of seeking a trial in the Roman courts?

legal status of Roman citizenship

Who would be expected to oversee a capital case in the Roman courts?

assemblies

Which designation of people made up the entirety of the members of a comitia?

optimo jure

Who did the assemblies elected by the optimo jure elect?

magistrates

What type of assembly could specific groupings of optimo jure be found in?

concilia


Citizens were organized on the basis of centuries and tribes, which would each gather into their own assemblies. The Comitia Centuriata ("Centuriate Assembly") was the assembly of the centuries (i.e. soldiers). The president of the Comitia Centuriata was usually a consul. The centuries would vote, one at a time, until a measure received support from a majority of the centuries. The Comitia Centuriata would elect magistrates who had imperium powers (consuls and praetors). It also elected censors. Only the Comitia Centuriata could declare war, and ratify the results of a census. It also served as the highest court of appeal in certain judicial cases.

What Roman assembly elected both magistrates and censors?

Comitia Centuriata

What profession of people made up the entireity of the Comitia Centuriata?

centuries

Would the Comitia Centuriata occasionally be called upon to serve as the highest court of appeal?

It also served as the highest court of appeal in certain judicial cases

Which elected official had imperium powers?

magistrates


The assembly of the tribes (i.e. the citizens of Rome), the Comitia Tributa, was presided over by a consul, and was composed of 35 tribes. The tribes were not ethnic or kinship groups, but rather geographical subdivisions. The order that the thirty-five tribes would vote in was selected randomly by lot. Once a measure received support from a majority of the tribes, the voting would end. While it did not pass many laws, the Comitia Tributa did elect quaestors, curule aediles, and military tribunes. The Plebeian Council was identical to the assembly of the tribes, but excluded the patricians (the elite who could trace their ancestry to the founding of Rome). They elected their own officers, plebeian tribunes and plebeian aediles. Usually a plebeian tribune would preside over the assembly. This assembly passed most laws, and could also act as a court of appeal.

How many tribes were considered to be in the Comitia Tributa?

35 tribes

How were the assembly of tribes segregated into specific tribes?

geographical subdivisions

What assembly was responsible for the election of quaestors?

the Comitia Tributa

When would the assembly of tribes cease voting?

Once a measure received support from a majority of the tribes

Who would be responsible for the election of a plebeian tribune?

a plebeian


Each republican magistrate held certain constitutional powers. Only the People of Rome (both plebeians and patricians) had the right to confer these powers on any individual magistrate. The most powerful constitutional power was imperium. Imperium was held by both consuls and praetors. Imperium gave a magistrate the authority to command a military force. All magistrates also had the power of coercion. This was used by magistrates to maintain public order. While in Rome, all citizens had a judgement against coercion. This protection was called provocatio (see below). Magistrates also had both the power and the duty to look for omens. This power would often be used to obstruct political opponents.

Who had the right to grant powers to a magistrate?

People of Rome

What is considered to be the most authoritative constitutional power?

imperium

What did the constitutional power of imperium grant a magistrate?

authority to command a military force

What would be one of the duties that a newly elected magistrate could expect to perform?

to look for omens

What power was in possession of every single magistrate in Rome?

power of coercion


One check on a magistrate's power was his collegiality. Each magisterial office would be held concurrently by at least two people. Another such check was provocatio. Provocatio was a primordial form of due process. It was a precursor to habeas corpus. If any magistrate tried to use the powers of the state against a citizen, that citizen could appeal the decision of the magistrate to a tribune. In addition, once a magistrate's one-year term of office expired, he would have to wait ten years before serving in that office again. This created problems for some consuls and praetors, and these magistrates would occasionally have their imperium extended. In effect, they would retain the powers of the office (as a promagistrate), without officially holding that office.

How long concurrently could an elected magistrate serve in office?

one-year

How many people would serve concurrently in a single magisterial office?

at least two people

What form of due process was a harbinger of our vary own habeas corpus?

Provocatio

What would you call a magistrate who had his powers of imperium continued?

promagistrate

Who would a Roman go see in an attempt to reverse the decision of a magistrate?

a tribune


The consuls of the Roman Republic were the highest ranking ordinary magistrates; each consul served for one year. Consuls had supreme power in both civil and military matters. While in the city of Rome, the consuls were the head of the Roman government. They would preside over the senate and the assemblies. While abroad, each consul would command an army. His authority abroad would be nearly absolute. Praetors administered civil law and commanded provincial armies. Every five years, two censors were elected for an 18-month term, during which they would conduct a census. During the census, they could enroll citizens in the senate, or purge them from the senate. Aediles were officers elected to conduct domestic affairs in Rome, such as managing public games and shows. The quaestors would usually assist the consuls in Rome, and the governors in the provinces. Their duties were often financial.

Which official had supremacy in both civil and military matters?

Consuls

Who was responsible for the adminstration of civil laws?

Praetors

Who was responsible for the handling of the Roman census?

two censors

How long could an elected censor remain in office for?

18-month term

What officer primarily had duties over finance matters?

quaestors


Since the tribunes were considered to be the embodiment of the plebeians, they were sacrosanct. Their sacrosanctity was enforced by a pledge, taken by the plebeians, to kill any person who harmed or interfered with a tribune during his term of office. All of the powers of the tribune derived from their sacrosanctity. One consequence was that it was considered a capital offense to harm a tribune, to disregard his veto, or to interfere with a tribune. In times of military emergency, a dictator would be appointed for a term of six months. Constitutional government would be dissolved, and the dictator would be the absolute master of the state. When the dictator's term ended, constitutional government would be restored.

How long could a dictator be appointed for in times of certain emergencies?

six months

What would happen during the commencement of a dictator's term?

Constitutional government would be dissolved

What type of offense was the harm of a tribute treated as?

capital offense

What was the ultimate source of the tribunes powers?

their sacrosanctity


Life in the Roman Republic revolved around the city of Rome, and its famed seven hills. The city also had several theatres, gymnasiums, and many taverns, baths and brothels. Throughout the territory under Rome's control, residential architecture ranged from very modest houses to country villas, and in the capital city of Rome, to the residences on the elegant Palatine Hill, from which the word "palace" is derived. The vast majority of the population lived in the city center, packed into apartment blocks.[citation needed]

Where did the bulk of the cities populace live?

the city center

What type of housing could be located in the city center?

apartment blocks

From what local area in Rome is the word palace borrowed from?

Palatine Hill

How many areas in Rome could be called hills?

seven


Many aspects of Roman culture were borrowed from the Greeks. In architecture and sculpture, the difference between Greek models and Roman paintings are apparent. The chief Roman contributions to architecture were the arch and the dome. Rome has also had a tremendous impact on European cultures following it. Its significance is perhaps best reflected in its endurance and influence, as is seen in the longevity and lasting importance of works of Virgil and Ovid. Latin, the Republic's primary language, remains used for liturgical purposes by the Roman Catholic Church, and up to the 19th century was used extensively in scholarly writings in, for example, science and mathematics. Roman law laid the foundations for the laws of many European countries and their colonies.[citation needed]

What culture did Rome have an extreme amount of influence on?

European cultures

What language was commonly used in scholarly mathematical writings prior to the 19th century?

Latin

From which people were many facets of Roman culture copied from?

Greeks

What was considered to be the dominant language in the Roman Republic?

Latin


Slavery and slaves were part of the social order; there were slave markets where they could be bought and sold. Many slaves were freed by the masters for services rendered; some slaves could save money to buy their freedom. Generally, mutilation and murder of slaves was prohibited by legislation. However, Rome did not have a law enforcement arm. All actions were treated as "torts," which were brought by an accuser who was forced to prove the entire case himself. If the accused were a noble and the victim, not a noble, the likelihood of finding for the accused was small. At most, the accused might have to pay a fine for killing a slave. It is estimated that over 25% of the Roman population was enslaved.

Around what percentage of the Roman populace were thought to be slaves?

over 25%

Where in the Roman Republic could slaves be acquired?

slave markets

Were slave masters allowed to free their slaves in the Roman Republic?

Many slaves were freed by the masters for services rendered

What branch of law did Rome lack?

law enforcement

Who was responsible for seeking justice in the Roman courts?

an accuser who was forced to prove the entire case himself


Men typically wore a toga, and women a stola. The woman's stola differed in looks from a toga, and was usually brightly coloured. The cloth and the dress distinguished one class of people from the other class. The tunic worn by plebeians, or common people, like shepherds and slaves, was made from coarse and dark material, whereas the tunic worn by patricians was of linen or white wool. A knight or magistrate would wear an augusticlavus, a tunic bearing small purple studs. Senators wore tunics with broad red stripes, called tunica laticlavia. Military tunics were shorter than the ones worn by civilians. Boys, up until the festival of Liberalia, wore the toga praetexta, which was a toga with a crimson or purple border. The toga virilis, (or toga pura) was worn by men over the age of 16 to signify their citizenship in Rome. The toga picta was worn by triumphant generals and had embroidery of their skill on the battlefield. The toga pulla was worn when in mourning.[citation needed]

What article of clothing could generally be found on a male Roman?

a toga

What garment was worn by male gendered adults to convey their status as a citizen of Rome?

toga virilis

What was typically worn after the loss of a loved one in the Roman Republic?

The toga pulla

Which official would wear a garment containing broad red striping?

Senators

How did a womans garment typically vary from a mans in the Roman Republic?

usually brightly coloured


The staple foods were generally consumed around 11 o'clock, and consisted of bread, lettuce, cheese, fruits, nuts, and cold meat left over from the dinner the night before.[citation needed] The Roman poet Horace mentions another Roman favorite, the olive, in reference to his own diet, which he describes as very simple: "As for me, olives, endives, and smooth mallows provide sustenance." The family ate together, sitting on stools around a table. Fingers were used to eat solid foods and spoons were used for soups.[citation needed]

When were the staple foods in the Roman republic typically eaten at?

11 o'clock

What did people in the Roman Republic use to consume solid foods?

Fingers were used

What type of food was cheese considered to be in Rome?

staple

What form of expression did the Roman Horace practice?

poet

What did Romans sit on when they had a meal at home?

stools


Wine was considered the basic drink, consumed at all meals and occasions by all classes and was quite inexpensive. Cato the Elder once advised cutting his rations in half to conserve wine for the workforce. Many types of drinks involving grapes and honey were consumed as well. Drinking on an empty stomach was regarded as boorish and a sure sign for alcoholism, the debilitating physical and psychological effects of which were known to the Romans. An accurate accusation of being an alcoholic was an effective way to discredit political rivals. Prominent Roman alcoholics included Mark Antony, and Cicero's own son Marcus (Cicero Minor). Even Cato the Younger was known to be a heavy drinker.[citation needed]

What beverage was consumed by all the classes in the Roman Republic?

Wine

What was considered a compelling way to defame poltical rivals?

An accurate accusation of being an alcoholic

During what meals was wine commonly drank?

all meals

What was considered an indication of alcoholism in the Roman Republic?

Drinking on an empty stomach


Following various military conquests in the Greek East, Romans adapted a number of Greek educational precepts to their own fledgling system. They began physical training to prepare the boys to grow as Roman citizens and for eventual recruitment into the army. Conforming to discipline was a point of great emphasis. Girls generally received instruction from their mothers in the art of spinning, weaving, and sewing. Schooling in a more formal sense was begun around 200 BC. Education began at the age of around six, and in the next six to seven years, boys and girls were expected to learn the basics of reading, writing and counting. By the age of twelve, they would be learning Latin, Greek, grammar and literature, followed by training for public speaking. Oratory was an art to be practiced and learnt, and good orators commanded respect.[citation needed]

How did Romans develop their male children as Roman citizens?

physical training

Who could be expected to obtain guidance in the art of weaving?

Girls

What Roman art involved speeches made to the public?

Oratory

When did academic schooling begin in the Roman Republic?

around 200 BC

What caused the Romans to conform several educational concepts to their own system?

various military conquests in the Greek East


The native language of the Romans was Latin. Although surviving Latin literature consists almost entirely of Classical Latin, an artificial and highly stylised and polished literary language from the 1st century BC, the actual spoken language was Vulgar Latin, which significantly differed from Classical Latin in grammar, vocabulary, and eventually pronunciation. Rome's expansion spread Latin throughout Europe, and over time Vulgar Latin evolved and dialectised in different locations, gradually shifting into a number of distinct Romance languages. Many of these languages, including French, Italian, Portuguese, Romanian and Spanish, flourished, the differences between them growing greater over time. Although English is Germanic rather than Roman in origin, English borrows heavily from Latin and Latin-derived words.[citation needed]

What was the primary language of the Romans?

Latin

What type of language is French considered to be?

Romance languages

What type of Latin was likely spoken in Rome?

Vulgar Latin

How would Vulgar Latin eventually differ from Classical Latin?

pronunciation

Which Germanic originating language densely acquired aspects from Latin?

English


Roman literature was from its very inception influenced heavily by Greek authors. Some of the earliest works we possess are of historical epics telling the early military history of Rome. As the republic expanded, authors began to produce poetry, comedy, history, and tragedy. Virgil represents the pinnacle of Roman epic poetry. His Aeneid tells the story of flight of Aeneas from Troy and his settlement of the city that would become Rome.[citation needed] Lucretius, in his On the Nature of Things, attempted to explicate science in an epic poem. The genre of satire was common in Rome, and satires were written by, among others, Juvenal and Persius. The rhetorical works of Cicero are considered[by whom?] to be some of the best bodies of correspondence recorded in antiquity.[citation needed]

Who was responsible for massively affecting Roman literature?

Greek authors

Who was the author of the epic poem Aeneid?

Virgil

What style of literature could commonly be found in Roman works?

poetry

Which epic poem tells the tale of the founding of the city that one day would become Rome?

Aeneid

What Roman poet attempted to develop science in their poetry?

Lucretius


Music was a major part of everyday life.[citation needed] The word itself derives from Greek μουσική (mousike), "(art) of the Muses". Many private and public events were accompanied by music, ranging from nightly dining to military parades and manoeuvres. In a discussion of any ancient music, however, non-specialists and even many musicians have to be reminded that much of what makes our modern music familiar to us is the result of developments only within the last 1,000 years; thus, our ideas of melody, scales, harmony, and even the instruments we use may not have been familiar to Romans who made and listened to music many centuries earlier.[citation needed]

What was considered to be dominant part of normal life?

Music

What language does the word Music see it's origins in?

Greek

Could events in the Roman Republic often include music?

Many private and public events were accompanied by music

What do many people consider to be the source of our modern musics familiarity with us?

developments only within the last 1,000 years


Over time, Roman architecture was modified as their urban requirements changed, and the civil engineering and building construction technology became developed and refined. The Roman concrete has remained a riddle, and even after more than 2,000 years some Roman structures still stand magnificently. The architectural style of the capital city was emulated by other urban centers under Roman control and influence. Roman cities were well planned, efficiently managed and neatly maintained.[citation needed]

What was a primary cause of the modification of Roman architectural elements?

urban requirements changed

What Roman construction material has continued to be a mystery to this day?

Roman concrete

Do any Roman structures still exist in our time?

even after more than 2,000 years some Roman structures still stand magnificently

What facet of the capital city was emulated by other urban centers in the Roman Republic?

The architectural style


The city of Rome had a place called the Campus Martius ("Field of Mars"), which was a sort of drill ground for Roman soldiers. Later, the Campus became Rome's track and field playground. In the campus, the youth assembled to play and exercise, which included jumping, wrestling, boxing and racing.[citation needed] Equestrian sports, throwing, and swimming were also preferred physical activities.[citation needed] In the countryside, pastimes included fishing and hunting.[citation needed] Board games played in Rome included dice (Tesserae or Tali), Roman Chess (Latrunculi), Roman Checkers (Calculi), Tic-tac-toe (Terni Lapilli), and Ludus duodecim scriptorum and Tabula, predecessors of backgammon. Other activities included chariot races, and musical and theatrical performances.[citation needed]

What was the name of the area in which youth played and exercised?

Campus Martius

What could you also call Rome's Campus Maritus?

Field of Mars

What is the Roman board game Tabula a precursor to?

backgammon

What was Roman version of Chess called?

Latrunculi


Roman religious beliefs date back to the founding of Rome, around 800 BC. However, the Roman religion commonly associated with the republic and early empire did not begin until around 500 BC, when Romans came in contact with Greek culture, and adopted many of the Greek religious beliefs. Private and personal worship was an important aspect of religious practices. In a sense, each household was a temple to the gods. Each household had an altar (lararium), at which the family members would offer prayers, perform rites, and interact with the household gods. Many of the gods that Romans worshiped came from the Proto-Indo-European pantheon, others were based on Greek gods. The two most famous deities were Jupiter (the king God) and Mars (the god of war). With its cultural influence spreading over most of the Mediterranean, Romans began accepting foreign gods into their own culture, as well as other philosophical traditions such as Cynicism and Stoicism.

When did the Roman religion that is generally identified with the republic first established?

around 500 BC

Who did the Romans adapt several of their religious convictions from?

Greek

Where did a large amount of the deities that were worshiped in Roman civilization come from?

Proto-Indo-European pantheon

What religious element could be found in all Roman households?

an altar

What in Roman society was considered to be a temple to the gods?

each household


It is generally considered that the Pacific War began on 7/8 December 1941, on which date Japan invaded Thailand and attacked the British possessions of Malaya, Singapore, and Hong Kong as well as the United States military bases in Hawaii, Wake Island, Guam and the Philippines. Some historians contend that the conflict in Asia can be dated back to 7 July 1937 with the beginning of the Second Sino-Japanese War between the Empire of Japan and the Republic of China, or possibly 19 September 1931, beginning with the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. However, it is more widely accepted that the Pacific War itself started in early December 1941, with the Sino-Japanese War then becoming part of it as a theater of the greater World War II.[nb 9]

When do most people believe the Pacific War began?

early December 1941

On what date did Japan attack Pearl Harbor?

7/8 December 1941

When did the Second Sino-Japanese War begin?

7 July 1937

Which countries did the Second Sino-Japanese War encompass?

Empire of Japan and the Republic of China

Has Japan ever attacked Thailand?

Japan invaded Thailand

What is the generally accepted date the Pacific War started?

7/8 December 1941

When did Japan invade Manchuria?

19 September 1931

What nation initiated hostilities?

Japan

What was the Pacific War theater part of after December 1941?

World War II

When did Japan invade China?

7 July 1937


The Pacific War saw the Allied powers pitted against the Empire of Japan, the latter briefly aided by Thailand and to a much lesser extent by its Axis allies, Germany and Italy. The war culminated in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and other large aerial bomb attacks by the United States Army Air Forces, accompanied by the Soviet invasion of Manchuria on 8 August 1945, resulting in the Japanese announcement of intent to surrender on 15 August 1945. The formal and official surrender of Japan took place aboard the battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay on 2 September 1945. Following its defeat, Japan's Shinto Emperor stepped down as the divine leader through the Shinto Directive, because the Allied Powers believed this was the major political cause of Japan's military aggression and deconstruction process soon took place to install a new liberal-democratic constitution to the Japanese public as the current Constitution of Japan.

What events ended the war with Japan?

atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki

On what date did Japan surrender?

2 September 1945

Where did Japan's surrender occur?

aboard the battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay

What changed in the ruling of Japan after the war?

a new liberal-democratic constitution

What was the process called whereby the leader of Japan stepped down?

Shinto Directive

What nation were the allies against?

Japan

What nations comprised the Axis?

Germany and Italy

What cities were destroyed by atom bombs?

Hiroshima and Nagasaki

When did the Soviet Union invade Manchuria?

8 August 1945


Japan used the name Greater East Asia War (大東亜戦争, Dai Tō-A Sensō?), as chosen by a cabinet decision on 10 December 1941, to refer to both the war with the Western Allies and the ongoing war in China. This name was released to the public on 12 December, with an explanation that it involved Asian nations achieving their independence from the Western powers through armed forces of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. Japanese officials integrated what they called the Japan–China Incident (日支事変, Nisshi Jihen?) into the Greater East Asia War.

By what name was the war with Japan referred?

Greater East Asia War

What did Japanese officials call the war?

Japan–China Incident

What was the reason Japan gave for the war?

achieving their independence from the Western powers

What date was the new name of the war released?

12 December

What name did Japan call the war?

Greater East Asia War

When did Japan adobt the name for the war?

10 December 1941

What was Japan's publicised war goal?

independence from the Western powers

What did Japan call the occupied group of Asian nations?

Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere

How was the name of the war chosen by Japan?

by a cabinet decision


The Axis states which assisted Japan included the authoritarian government of Thailand in World War II, which quickly formed a temporary alliance with the Japanese in 1941, as the Japanese forces were already invading the peninsula of southern Thailand. The Phayap Army sent troops to invade and occupy northeastern Burma, which was former Thai territory that had been annexed by Britain much earlier. Also involved were the Japanese puppet states of Manchukuo and Mengjiang (consisting of most of Manchuria and parts of Inner Mongolia respectively), and the collaborationist Wang Jingwei regime (which controlled the coastal regions of China).

What role did Thailand play in the war?

temporary alliance

Which group controlled Chinese costal regions?

Wang Jingwei regime

Which army invaded Burma?

Phayap Army

Burma was formerly annexed by what country?

Britain

What states assisting Japan was Thailand a part of?

Axis

What year did Thailand form an alliance with Japan?

What army invaded northeastern Burma?

Phayap Army

What were the Japanese puppet states?

Manchukuo and Mengjiang

Who controlled the coast of China?

Wang Jingwei regime


The official policy of the U.S. Government is that Thailand was not an ally of the Axis, and that the United States was not at war with Thailand. The policy of the U.S. Government ever since 1945 has been to treat Thailand not as a former enemy, but rather as a country which had been forced into certain actions by Japanese blackmail, before being occupied by Japanese troops. Thailand has been treated by the United States in the same way as such other Axis-occupied countries as Belgium, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Greece, Norway, Poland, and the Netherlands.

Did the U.S. believe that Thailand was an Axis ally?

not an ally

What does the U.S. believe caused Thailand to help Japan?

blackmail

Is Thailand treated differently than other Axis countries?

the same way

According to the USA, what country did Japan blackmail?

Thailand

What nations were occupied by the Axis?

Belgium, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Greece, Norway, Poland, and the Netherlands

After 1945, how did the USA treat Thailand?

not as a former enemy

Who occupied Thailand according to the USA?

Japanese troops


Japan conscripted many soldiers from its colonies of Korea and Formosa (Taiwan). To a small extent, some Vichy French, Indian National Army, and Burmese National Army forces were active in the area of the Pacific War. Collaborationist units from Hong Kong (reformed ex-colonial police), Philippines, Dutch East Indies (the PETA) and Dutch Guinea, British Malaya and British Borneo, Inner Mongolia and former French Indochina (after the overthrow of Vichy French regime) as well as Timorese militia also assisted Japanese war efforts.

Where did many of Japan's soldiers come from?

Korea and Formosa

What type of soldiers came from Hong Kong?

Collaborationist units

What other Asian country, a group of islands, helped the Japanese?

Philippines

What colonies did Japan conscript soldiers from?

Korea and Formosa

What French forces assisted Japan?

Vichy

Who were the collaborators assisting Japan in Hong King?

ex-colonial police


The major Allied participants were the United States, the Republic of China, the United Kingdom (including the armed forces of British India, the Fiji Islands, Samoa, etc.), Australia, the Commonwealth of the Philippines, the Netherlands (as the possessor of the Dutch East Indies and the western part of New Guinea), New Zealand, and Canada, all of whom were members of the Pacific War Council. Mexico, Free France and many other countries also took part, especially forces from other British colonies.

Did Mexico play a part in the war?

took part

On which side of the war were the Chinese?

United States

What other major continent participated as an ally of the U.S.?

Australia

What colonies did the Netherlands possess?

Dutch East Indies and the western part of New Guinea

What large Asian country was allied with the United States?

Republic of China

What was the name of the Philippines nation?

Commonwealth of the Philippines

What nation possessed the Dutch East Indies?

Netherlands

What nation possessed west New Guinea?

Netherlands


By 1937, Japan controlled Manchuria and was ready to move deeper into China. The Marco Polo Bridge Incident on 7 July 1937 provoked full-scale war between China and Japan. The Nationalist and Communist Chinese suspended their civil war to form a nominal alliance against Japan, and the Soviet Union quickly lent support by providing large amount of materiel to Chinese troops. In August 1937, Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek deployed his best army to fight about 300,000 Japanese troops in Shanghai, but, after three months of fighting, Shanghai fell. The Japanese continued to push the Chinese forces back, capturing the capital Nanking in December 1937 and committed which was known as Nanking Massacre. In March 1938, Nationalist forces won their first victory at Taierzhuang. but then the city of Xuzhou was taken by Japanese in May. In June 1938, Japan deployed about 350,000 troops to invade Wuhan and captured it in October. The Japanese achieved major military victories, but world opinion—in particular in the United States—condemned Japan, especially after the Panay Incident.

What incident occured on July 7, 1937?

Marco Polo Bridge Incident

Who supplied assistance to the Chinese military?

Soviet Union

When did the Nanking Massacre occur?

December 1937

Where was the first Nationalist victory?

Taierzhuang

How did people around the world react to Japan's Panay Incident?

condemned

When was the Marco Polo Bridge Incident?

7 July 1937

What incident started the war between China and Japan?

Marco Polo Bridge Incident

What nation provided material support to China?

Soviet Union

What was the capital of China?

Nanking

When was Nanking captured?

December 1937


In September 1940, Japan decided to cut China's only land line to the outside world by seizing Indochina, which was controlled at the time by Vichy France. Japanese forces broke their agreement with the Vichy administration and fighting broke out, ending in a Japanese victory. On 27 September Japan signed a military alliance with Germany and Italy, becoming one of the three Axis Powers. In practice, there was little coordination between Japan and Germany until 1944, by which time the U.S. was deciphering their secret diplomatic correspondence.

Who controled Indochina in 1940?

Vichy France

When did Japan invade Indochina?

September 1940

Who were the Axis Powers along with Japan in 1940?

Germany and Italy

Did Japan and Germany work closely together prior to 1944?

little coordination

When did Japan take over Indochina?

September 1940

Who controlled Indochina before the Japanese takeover?

Vichy France

When did Japan become an Axis power?

27 September

How many nations comprised the Axis powers?

three

How much coordination was there between Japan and Germany?

little


The war entered a new phase with the unprecedented defeat of the Japanese at Battle of Suixian-Zaoyang and 1st Battle of Changsha. After these victories, Chinese nationalist forces launched a large-scale counter-offensive in early 1940; however, due to its low military-industrial capacity, it was repulsed by Japanese army in late March 1940. In August of 1940, Chinese communists launched an offensive in Central China; in retaliation, Japan instituted the "Three Alls Policy" ("Kill all, Burn all, Loot all") in occupied areas to reduce human and material resources for the communists. By 1941 the conflict had become a stalemate. Although Japan had occupied much of northern, central, and coastal China, the Nationalist Government had retreated to the interior with a provisional capital set up at Chungking while the Chinese communists remained in control of base areas in Shaanxi. In addition, Japanese control of northern and central China was somewhat tenuous, in that Japan was usually able to control railroads and the major cities ("points and lines"), but did not have a major military or administrative presence in the vast Chinese countryside. The Japanese found its aggression against the retreating and regrouping Chinese army was stalled by the mountainous terrain in southwestern China while the Communists organised widespread guerrilla and saboteur activities in northern and eastern China behind the Japanese front line.

Why did the Chinese ultimately fail in its counter offensives?

low military-industrial capacity

What policy did Japan adopt to retaliate against China?

"Three Alls Policy" ("Kill all, Burn all, Loot all")

What slowed the Japanese in their attacks on China?

mountainous terrain

In what city did Japan set up a provisional capital?

Chungking

What was Japan's "Three Alls Policy"?

"Kill all, Burn all, Loot all"

What year did China and Japan reach a stalemate?

Where was the Chinese provisional capital?

Chungking

What natural obsticles stalled the Japanese offensive against the Chinese?

mountainous terrain

What group organised guerrilla warfare against the Japanese in China?

Communists


Japan sponsored several puppet governments, one of which was headed by Wang Jingwei. However, its policies of brutality toward the Chinese population, of not yielding any real power to these regimes, and of supporting several rival governments failed to make any of them a viable alternative to the Nationalist government led by Chiang Kai-shek. Conflicts between Chinese communist and nationalist forces vying for territory control behind enemy lines culminated in a major armed clash in January 1941, effectively ending their co-operation.

Who was the leader of the Nationalist government?

Chiang Kai-shek

When did cooperation between communist and nationalist forces end?

January 1941

Did Japan support rival governments?

supporting several

When did the co-operation between Chinese nationalist forces and communists end?

January 1941

What was Wang Jingwei's government considered?

puppet

What government did Chiang Kai-shek lead?

Nationalist government


From as early as 1935 Japanese military strategists had concluded the Dutch East Indies were, because of their oil reserves, of considerable importance to Japan. By 1940 they had expanded this to include Indo-China, Malaya, and the Philippines within their concept of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. Japanese troop build ups in Hainan, Taiwan, and Haiphong were noted, Japanese Army officers were openly talking about an inevitable war, and Admiral Sankichi Takahashi was reported as saying a showdown with the United States was necessary.

Which Japanese Admiral felt it was necessary to go to war with the U.S.?

Sankichi Takahashi

Why was the Dutch East Indies important to Japan?

oil reserves

In what year did the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere expand?

What was the importance of the Dutch East Indies to Japan?

oil reserves

Who said a showdown between Japan and the United States would be necessary?

Admiral Sankichi Takahashi

By what year did Japanese strategists expand their concept of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere?


In an effort to discourage Japanese militarism, Western powers including Australia, the United States, Britain, and the Dutch government in exile, which controlled the petroleum-rich Dutch East Indies, stopped selling oil, iron ore, and steel to Japan, denying it the raw materials needed to continue its activities in China and French Indochina. In Japan, the government and nationalists viewed these embargos as acts of aggression; imported oil made up about 80% of domestic consumption, without which Japan's economy, let alone its military, would grind to a halt. The Japanese media, influenced by military propagandists,[nb 10] began to refer to the embargoes as the "ABCD ("American-British-Chinese-Dutch") encirclement" or "ABCD line".

What did The West do to disuade Japan in China and French Indochina?

stopped selling oil, iron ore, and steel to Japan

Why was denying supplies important to the western countries?

denying it the raw materials needed to continue its activities

What were these embargoes called by the Japanese media?

"ABCD ("American-British-Chinese-Dutch")

Why did Western powers stop selling resources to Japan?

to discourage Japanese militarism

How did Japan view Western embargos?

as acts of aggression

What percent of oil made up Japan's domestic consumption?

about 80%

What did the Japanese media refer to the embargoes as?

"ABCD line"


The Japanese leadership was aware that a total military victory in a traditional sense against the USA was impossible; the alternative would be negotiating for peace after their initial victories, which would recognize Japanese hegemony in Asia. In fact, the Imperial GHQ noted, should acceptable negotiations be reached with the Americans, the attacks were to be canceled—even if the order to attack had already been given. The Japanese leadership looked to base the conduct of the war against America on the historical experiences of the successful wars against China (1894–95) and Russia (1904–05), in both of which a strong continental power was defeated by reaching limited military objectives, not by total conquest.

What would Japan accomplish by peace after their early victories?

recognize Japanese hegemony in Asia.

What was Japan's strategic goal in attacking America?

defeated by reaching limited military objectives, not by total conquest

Did The Japanese believe they could defeate the U.S.?

impossible

What did the Japanese military leadership think the chances were of complete military victory ove the United States?

impossible

What did Japan want recognised in planned peace negotiations after their initial victories?

Japanese hegemony in Asia

If acceptable negotiations btween Japan and the United States were reached, what would be done regarding the attacks?

canceled

What was the conduct of the war against the United States based on?

historical experiences