North Carolina Museum of Art, occupying a large suburban campus on Blue Ridge Road near the North Carolina State Fairgrounds, maintains one of the premier public art collections located between Washington, D.C., and Atlanta. In addition to its extensive collections of American Art, European Art and ancient art, the museum recently has hosted major exhibitions featuring Auguste Rodin (in 2000) and Claude Monet (in 2006-07), each attracting more than 200,000 visitors. Unlike most prominent public museums, the North Carolina Museum of Art acquired a large number of the works in its permanent collection through purchases with public funds. The museum's outdoor park is one of the largest such art parks in the country. The museum facility underwent a major expansion which greatly expanded the exhibit space that was completed in 2010. The 127,000 sf new expansion is designed by NYC architect Thomas Phifer and Partners.

What is the North Carolina Museum of Art near?

North Carolina State Fairgrounds

What type of art is in the Museum of Art?

American Art, European Art and ancient art,

When was the Auguste Rodine exhibit?

How many people attended the Monet exhibit?

How did the museum get the artworks they have?

public funds

What is the North Carolina Museum of Art far away from?

I'm not sure.

What exhibit was in 2001?

I'm not sure.

How many people attended the da Vinci exhibit?

I'm not sure.

When was the exhibit closed?

I'm not sure.

What architect from Missouri completed the museum?

I'm not sure.


The National Hockey League's Carolina Hurricanes franchise moved to Raleigh in 1997 from Hartford, Connecticut (where it was known as the Hartford Whalers). The team played its first two seasons more than 60 miles away at Greensboro Coliseum while its home arena, Raleigh Entertainment and Sports Arena (later RBC Center and now PNC Arena), was under construction. The Hurricanes are the only major league (NFL, NHL, NBA, MLB) professional sports team in North Carolina to have won a championship, winning the Stanley Cup in 2006, over the Edmonton Oilers. The city played host to the 2011 NHL All-Star Game.

When did the Carolina Hurricanes start in Raleigh?

Where did the Hurricanes play their first two seasons?

Greensboro Coliseum

What is the home stadium of the Carolina Hurricanes called?

PNC Arena

What is the only professional sports team in North Carolina?

National Hockey League's Carolina Hurricanes

When did the Carolina Hurricanes win the Stanley Cup?

When did the Carolina Hurricanes leave Raleigh?

I'm not sure.

Where did the Hurricanes play their last two seasons?

I'm not sure.

When did the Carolina Hurricanes lose the Stanley Cup?

I'm not sure.

When did the city refuse to host the NHL All-Star game?

I'm not sure.

What did PNC change it's name to?

I'm not sure.


Several other professional sports leagues have had former franchises (now defunct) in Raleigh, including the Raleigh IceCaps of the ECHL (1991–1998); Carolina Cobras of the Arena Football League (2000–2004); the Raleigh–Durham Skyhawks of the World League of American Football (1991); the Raleigh Bullfrogs of the Global Basketball Association (1991–1992); the Raleigh Cougars of the United States Basketball League (1997–1999); and most recently, the Carolina Courage of the Women's United Soccer Association (2000–2001 in Chapel Hill, 2001–2003 in suburban Cary), which won that league's championship Founders Cup in 2002.

What sports teams have been in Raleigh?

Raleigh IceCaps of the ECHL (1991–1998); Carolina Cobras of the Arena Football

What was the name of the GBA team in Raleigh?

Raleigh Bullfrogs

When did the Raleigh Cougars play?

What type of team was the Carolina Courage?

Women's United Soccer

What year did the Carolina Courage win the Founders Cup?

What league did the Raleigh Bulldogs play in?

I'm not sure.

What team quit the ECHL in 1991?

I'm not sure.

What arena football team started in 2004?

I'm not sure.

What team lost the soccer championship in 2002?

I'm not sure.

What team played soccer in Chapel hill in 2004?

I'm not sure.


North Carolina State University is located in southwest Raleigh where the Wolfpack competes nationally in 24 intercollegiate varsity sports as a member of the Atlantic Coast Conference. The university's football team plays in Carter-Finley Stadium, the third largest football stadium in North Carolina, while the men's basketball team shares the PNC Arena with the Carolina Hurricanes hockey club. The Wolfpack women's basketball, volleyball, and gymnastics as well as men's wrestling events are held on campus at Reynolds Coliseum. The men's baseball team plays at Doak Field.

Where is North Carolina State University?

southwest Raleigh

What is the mascot for North Carolina State University?

Wolfpack

Where does the football team for North Carolina State University play?

Carter-Finley Stadium

How big is Carter Finley Stadium?

third largest football stadium in North Carolina

Where does North Carolina State University men's wrestling compete?

Reynolds Coliseum

What college is in Northwest Raleigh?

I'm not sure.

What is the fourth largest football stadium in North Carolina?

I'm not sure.

What is the largest stadium in North Carolina?

I'm not sure.

What is the smallest stadium in North Carolina?

I'm not sure.

Where does women's wrestling compete?

I'm not sure.


The Raleigh Parks and Recreation Department offers a wide variety of leisure opportunities at more than 150 sites throughout the city, which include: 8,100 acres (33 km2) of park land, 78 miles (126 km) of greenway, 22 community centers, a BMX championship-caliber race track, 112 tennis courts among 25 locations, 5 public lakes, and 8 public aquatic facilities. The J. C. Raulston Arboretum, an 8-acre (32,000 m²) arboretum and botanical garden in west Raleigh administered by North Carolina State University, maintains a year-round collection that is open daily to the public without charge.

How many sites are throughout Raleigh?

What are there 8,100 acres of in Raleigh?

park land,

What type of race track is in Raleigh?

BMX championship-caliber

How many public lakes are in Raleigh?

5 public lakes,

What is the name of the arboretum?

J. C. Raulston Arboretum

What has more than 200 sites throughout the city?

I'm not sure.

How many parks were new this year?

I'm not sure.

What is the 10-acre arboretum called?

I'm not sure.

How many football stadiums are there?

I'm not sure.

How many ponds are there?

I'm not sure.


According to the Federal Bureau of Investigation's Uniform Crime Reports, in 2010 the Raleigh Police Department and other agencies in the city reported 1,740 incidents of violent crime and 12,995 incidents of property crime – far below both the national average and the North Carolina average. Of the violent crimes reported, 14 were murders, 99 were forcible rapes and 643 were robberies. Aggravated assault accounted for 984 of the total violent crimes. Property crimes included burglaries which accounted for 3,021, larcenies for 9,104 and arson for 63 of the total number of incidents. Motor vehicle theft accounted for 870 incidents out of the total.

How many incidents of violent crime were there in 2010?

What were there 12,995 of in 2010?

property crime

How does Raleigh compare in crime to the rest of the country?

far below both the national average

How many murders were in Raleigh in 2010?

How many incidents of motor vehicle theft were there in 2010?

How many incidents of violent crime were there in 2011?

I'm not sure.

What were there 15,995 of in 2010?

I'm not sure.

How many murders were in Raleigh in 2015?

I'm not sure.

How many rapes were there in 2001?

I'm not sure.

How many motor vehicle thefts were in 2004?

I'm not sure.


Public schools in Raleigh are operated by the Wake County Public School System. Observers have praised the Wake County Public School System for its innovative efforts to maintain a socially, economically and racial balanced system by using income as a prime factor in assigning students to schools. Raleigh is home to three magnet high schools and three high schools offering the International Baccalaureate program. There are four early college high schools in Raleigh. Raleigh also has two alternative high schools.

Who operates the public schools in Raleigh?

Wake County Public School System

What is the school system praised for?

innovative efforts to maintain a socially, economically and racial balanced system

How many magnet schools are there in Raleigh?

three

What type of degree can you get from a high school in Raleigh?

International Baccalaureate

Does Raleigh have alternate high schools?

Raleigh also has two alternative high schools.

What is the private school name?

I'm not sure.

What is the school system criticized for?

I'm not sure.

What college can you get a International Baccalaureate from?

I'm not sure.

How many non-magnet schools are in Raleigh?

I'm not sure.

How many non-alternative high schools are there?

I'm not sure.


Raleigh-Durham International Airport, the region's primary airport and the second-largest in North Carolina, located northwest of downtown Raleigh via Interstate-40 between Raleigh and Durham, serves the city and greater Research Triangle metropolitan region, as well as much of eastern North Carolina. The airport offers service to more than 35 domestic and international destinations and serves approximately 10 million passengers a year. The airport also offers facilities for cargo and general aviation. The airport authority tripled the size of its Terminal 2 (formerly Terminal C) in January 2011.

What is the area's primary airport?

Raleigh-Durham International Airport,

Where is Raleigh-Durham International Airport?

Interstate-40 between Raleigh and Durham

How many destinations does the airport offer internationally?

What are there 10 million of each year at the airport?

passengers

What was Terminal 2 formerly called at the airport?

Terminal C

What is the area's least used airport?

I'm not sure.

What was terminal C formerly known as?

I'm not sure.

What happened at the airport in January 2001?

I'm not sure.

What are there 20 million of each year at the airport?

I'm not sure.


Raleigh is also served by Triangle Transit (known formerly as the Triangle Transit Authority, or TTA). Triangle Transit offers scheduled, fixed-route regional and commuter bus service between Raleigh and the region's other principal cities of Durham, Cary and Chapel Hill, as well as to and from the Raleigh-Durham International Airport, Research Triangle Park and several of the region's larger suburban communities. Triangle Transit also coordinates an extensive vanpool and rideshare program that serves the region's larger employers and commute destinations.

What was Triangle Transit called before?

Triangle Transit Authority,

What does Triangle Transit offer?

scheduled, fixed-route regional and commuter bus service

Where else does Triangle Transit go to?

Raleigh-Durham International Airport, Research Triangle Park

Does Triangle Transit have a van service?

Triangle Transit also coordinates an extensive vanpool

Are employers connected with Triangle Transit?

rideshare program that serves the region's larger employers

What is the new name for Triangle Transit?

I'm not sure.

What does Triangle Transit not offer?

I'm not sure.

What is the square transit?

I'm not sure.

What doesn't go between Raleigh and other cities?

I'm not sure.


Registered dietitian nutritionists (RDs or RDNs) are health professionals qualified to provide safe, evidence-based dietary advice which includes a review of what is eaten, a thorough review of nutritional health, and a personalized nutritional treatment plan. They also provide preventive and therapeutic programs at work places, schools and similar institutions. Certified Clinical Nutritionists or CCNs, are trained health professionals who also offer dietary advice on the role of nutrition in chronic disease, including possible prevention or remediation by addressing nutritional deficiencies before resorting to drugs. Government regulation especially in terms of licensing, is currently less universal for the CCN than that of RD or RDN. Another advanced Nutrition Professional is a Certified Nutrition Specialist or CNS. These Board Certified Nutritionists typically specialize in obesity and chronic disease. In order to become board certified, potential CNS candidate must pass an examination, much like Registered Dieticians. This exam covers specific domains within the health sphere including; Clinical Intervention and Human Health.

What does RDN stand for?

Registered dietitian nutritionists

Who offers dietary advice on the role of nutrition in chronic diseases?

Certified Clinical Nutritionists

For which health professional is Governmental regulation more universal?

RDN

Who typically specializes in obesity and chronic disease?

Certified Nutrition Specialist


According to Walter Gratzer, the study of nutrition probably began during the 6th century BC. In China, the concept of Qi developed, a spirit or "wind" similar to what Western Europeans later called pneuma. Food was classified into "hot" (for example, meats, blood, ginger, and hot spices) and "cold" (green vegetables) in China, India, Malaya, and Persia. Humours developed perhaps first in China alongside qi. Ho the Physician concluded that diseases are caused by deficiencies of elements (Wu Xing: fire, water, earth, wood, and metal), and he classified diseases as well as prescribed diets. About the same time in Italy, Alcmaeon of Croton (a Greek) wrote of the importance of equilibrium between what goes in and what goes out, and warned that imbalance would result disease marked by obesity or emaciation.

In which time period did the study of nutrition begin?

6th century BC

What is the European equivalent of "Qi"?

pneuma

What kind of food classification does ginger belong to?

hot

What nationality was Alcmaeon of Croton?

Greek

Other than obesity, what else would trademark an imbalance in nutrition?

emaciation


The first recorded nutritional experiment with human subjects is found in the Bible's Book of Daniel. Daniel and his friends were captured by the king of Babylon during an invasion of Israel. Selected as court servants, they were to share in the king's fine foods and wine. But they objected, preferring vegetables (pulses) and water in accordance with their Jewish dietary restrictions. The king's chief steward reluctantly agreed to a trial. Daniel and his friends received their diet for 10 days and were then compared to the king's men. Appearing healthier, they were allowed to continue with their diet.

What does the Book of Daniel contain?

first recorded nutritional experiment with human subjects

Which country was being invaded when Daniel and his friends were captured?

Israel

What occupation were Daniel and his friends originally meant to have?

court servants

How long did the trial diet last?

10 days

What is another term for vegetables that was used?

pulses


One mustn't overlook the doctrines of Galen: In use from his life in the 1st century AD until the 17th century, it was heresy to disagree with him for 1500 years. Galen was physician to gladiators in Pergamon, and in Rome, physician to Marcus Aurelius and the three emperors who succeeded him. Most of Galen's teachings were gathered and enhanced in the late 11th century by Benedictine monks at the School of Salerno in Regimen sanitatis Salernitanum, which still had users in the 17th century. Galen believed in the bodily humours of Hippocrates, and he taught that pneuma is the source of life. Four elements (earth, air, fire and water) combine into "complexion", which combines into states (the four temperaments: sanguine, phlegmatic, choleric, and melancholic). The states are made up of pairs of attributes (hot and moist, cold and moist, hot and dry, and cold and dry), which are made of four humours: blood, phlegm, green (or yellow) bile, and black bile (the bodily form of the elements). Galen thought that for a person to have gout, kidney stones, or arthritis was scandalous, which Gratzer likens to Samuel Butler's Erehwon (1872) where sickness is a crime.

How long was the doctrines of Galen in use for?

1500 years

Which famous emperor did Galen serve as a physician to?

Marcus Aurelius

Who resided at the School of Salerno in Regimen sanitatis Salernitanum?

Benedictine monks

What did Galen believe that pneuma was?

the source of life

What did each pair of attributes supposedly consist of?

four humours


In the 1500s, Paracelsus was probably the first to criticize Galen publicly. Also in the 16th century, scientist and artist Leonardo da Vinci compared metabolism to a burning candle. Leonardo did not publish his works on this subject, but he was not afraid of thinking for himself and he definitely disagreed with Galen. Ultimately, 16th century works of Andreas Vesalius, sometimes called the father of modern medicine, overturned Galen's ideas. He was followed by piercing thought amalgamated with the era's mysticism and religion sometimes fueled by the mechanics of Newton and Galileo. Jan Baptist van Helmont, who discovered several gases such as carbon dioxide, performed the first quantitative experiment. Robert Boyle advanced chemistry. Sanctorius measured body weight. Physician Herman Boerhaave modeled the digestive process. Physiologist Albrecht von Haller worked out the difference between nerves and muscles.

Who criticized Galen in the 1500s?

Paracelsus

What was a burning candle comparable to?

metabolism

Which famous artist did not agree with Galen's theories?

Leonardo da Vinci

Which well known gas did Jan Baptist van Helmont discover?

carbon dioxide

Which scientist was able to create a model for the digestive process?

Herman Boerhaave


Sometimes overlooked during his life, James Lind, a physician in the British navy, performed the first scientific nutrition experiment in 1747. Lind discovered that lime juice saved sailors that had been at sea for years from scurvy, a deadly and painful bleeding disorder. Between 1500 and 1800, an estimated two million sailors had died of scurvy. The discovery was ignored for forty years, after which British sailors became known as "limeys." The essential vitamin C within citrus fruits would not be identified by scientists until 1932.

When was the first nutrition experiment performed?

What was the name of the overlooked physician that served in the British Navy?

James Lind

The juice of which fruit was determined to have helped sailors from contracting scurvy?

lime

How many sailors died from scurvy between the years 1500 and 1800?

two million

Which nickname was given to the British sailors?

limeys


In 1816, François Magendie discovered that dogs fed only carbohydrates (sugar), fat (olive oil), and water died evidently of starvation, but dogs also fed protein survived, identifying protein as an essential dietary component. William Prout in 1827 was the first person to divide foods into carbohydrates, fat, and protein. During the 19th century, Jean-Baptiste Dumas and Justus von Liebig quarrelled over their shared belief that animals get their protein directly from plants (animal and plant protein are the same and that humans do not create organic compounds). With a reputation as the leading organic chemist of his day but with no credentials in animal physiology, Liebig grew rich making food extracts like beef bouillon and infant formula that were later found to be of questionable nutritious value. In the 1860s, Claude Bernard discovered that body fat can be synthesized from carbohydrate and protein, showing that the energy in blood glucose can be stored as fat or as glycogen.

Which dietary component was not fed to dogs resulting in their death?

protein

Who first began dividing foods into categories?

William Prout

Who did Justus von Liebig argue with over the belief that animals get protein from plants?

Jean-Baptiste Dumas

Which credientials did Liebig lack despite being a leading organic chemist?

animal physiology

What can be synthesized using carbohydrates and proteins?

body fat


In the early 1880s, Kanehiro Takaki observed that Japanese sailors (whose diets consisted almost entirely of white rice) developed beriberi (or endemic neuritis, a disease causing heart problems and paralysis), but British sailors and Japanese naval officers did not. Adding various types of vegetables and meats to the diets of Japanese sailors prevented the disease, (not because of the increased protein as Takaki supposed but because it introduced a few parts per million of thiamine to the diet, later understood as a cure).

What was the main component of Japanese sailor's diet?

white rice

What is the scientific term for beriberi?

endemic neuritis

What major symptom other than heart problems did beriberi cause?

paralysis

Who made the observation that the Japanese sailor's diet was the cause for them developing beriberi?

Kanehiro Takaki

What was introduced to the diet on a molecular level that prevented the sailors from contracting the disease?

thiamine


In 1896, Eugen Baumann observed iodine in thyroid glands. In 1897, Christiaan Eijkman worked with natives of Java, who also suffered from beriberi. Eijkman observed that chickens fed the native diet of white rice developed the symptoms of beriberi but remained healthy when fed unprocessed brown rice with the outer bran intact. Eijkman cured the natives by feeding them brown rice, discovering that food can cure disease. Over two decades later, nutritionists learned that the outer rice bran contains vitamin B1, also known as thiamine.

What element can be found in thyroid glands?

iodine

What group of natives suffered from beriberi?

Java

Who worked with the natives to help solve their dietary issues?

Christiaan Eijkman

What simple alternative food prevented the development of beriberi in chickens?

unprocessed brown rice with the outer bran intact

How long after the natives were cured did it take for people to figure out the reason that brown rice cured them?

two decades


In the early 20th century, Carl von Voit and Max Rubner independently measured caloric energy expenditure in different species of animals, applying principles of physics in nutrition. In 1906, Edith G. Willcock and Frederick Hopkins showed that the amino acid tryptophan aids the well-being of mice but it did not assure their growth. In the middle of twelve years of attempts to isolate them, Hopkins said in a 1906 lecture that "unsuspected dietetic factors," other than calories, protein, and minerals, are needed to prevent deficiency diseases. In 1907, Stephen M. Babcock and Edwin B. Hart conducted the single-grain experiment, which took nearly four years to complete.

What was measured in the early 20th century?

caloric energy expenditure

What did Carl von Voit and Max Rubner apply to nutrition in order to receive their results?

principles of physics

Which amino acid can assist with the well - being of mice but not necessarily their growth?

tryptophan

What did Hopkins believe was required other than calories, protein and minerals to help prevent deficiency diseases?

unsuspected dietetic factors

Which experiment related to diet was conducted that required four years to complete?

single-grain experiment


In 1913, Elmer McCollum discovered the first vitamins, fat-soluble vitamin A, and water-soluble vitamin B (in 1915; now known to be a complex of several water-soluble vitamins) and named vitamin C as the then-unknown substance preventing scurvy. Lafayette Mendel and Thomas Osborne also performed pioneering work on vitamins A and B. In 1919, Sir Edward Mellanby incorrectly identified rickets as a vitamin A deficiency because he could cure it in dogs with cod liver oil. In 1922, McCollum destroyed the vitamin A in cod liver oil, but found that it still cured rickets. Also in 1922, H.M. Evans and L.S. Bishop discover vitamin E as essential for rat pregnancy, originally calling it "food factor X" until 1925.

What was notable about the discovered vitamin A?

fat-soluble

Which property was vitamin B found to have?

water-soluble

Which disease was vitamin C claimed to help prevent?

scurvy

What was cod liver oil able to help cure in dogs?

rickets

What was referred to as "food factor X"?

vitamin E


The list of nutrients that people are known to require is, in the words of Marion Nestle, "almost certainly incomplete". As of 2014, nutrients are thought to be of two types: macro-nutrients which are needed in relatively large amounts, and micronutrients which are needed in smaller quantities. A type of carbohydrate, dietary fiber, i.e. non-digestible material such as cellulose, is required, for both mechanical and biochemical reasons, although the exact reasons remain unclear. Other micronutrients include antioxidants and phytochemicals, which are said to influence (or protect) some body systems. Their necessity is not as well established as in the case of, for instance, vitamins.

Who claims that the list of nutrients that humans require is incomplete?

Marion Nestle

What is the other category of nutrients that people require other than micronutrients?

macro-nutrients

What is notable about cellulose in humans?

non-digestible

What else, other than antioxidants, helps protect body systems?

phytochemicals

In which year were nutrients categorized into their two respective categories?


The macronutrients are carbohydrates, fats, protein, and water. The macronutrients (excluding fiber and water) provide structural material (amino acids from which proteins are built, and lipids from which cell membranes and some signaling molecules are built) and energy. Some of the structural material can be used to generate energy internally, and in either case it is measured in Joules or kilocalories (often called "Calories" and written with a capital C to distinguish them from little 'c' calories). Carbohydrates and proteins provide 17 kJ approximately (4 kcal) of energy per gram, while fats provide 37 kJ (9 kcal) per gram, though the net energy from either depends on such factors as absorption and digestive effort, which vary substantially from instance to instance. Vitamins, minerals, fiber, and water do not provide energy, but are required for other reasons.

Which category is represented by carbohydrates and fats among other nutrients?

macronutrients

What other significant aspect do macronutrients provide other than energy?

structural material

What unit other than calories is used to measure the energy generated by nutrients?

Joules

Which nutrient generally provides around 37 kJ per gram?

fats

Although vitamins are important for many reasons, which role do they not play in the human body?

provide energy


Molecules of carbohydrates and fats consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. Carbohydrates range from simple monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, galactose) to complex polysaccharides (starch). Fats are triglycerides, made of assorted fatty acid monomers bound to a glycerol backbone. Some fatty acids, but not all, are essential in the diet: they cannot be synthesized in the body. Protein molecules contain nitrogen atoms in addition to carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. The fundamental components of protein are nitrogen-containing amino acids, some of which are essential in the sense that humans cannot make them internally. Some of the amino acids are convertible (with the expenditure of energy) to glucose and can be used for energy production, just as ordinary glucose, in a process known as gluconeogenesis. By breaking down existing protein, the carbon skeleton of the various amino acids can be metabolized to intermediates in cellular respiration; the remaining ammonia is discarded primarily as urea in urine. This occurs normally only during prolonged starvation.

Other than fats, what else consists of atoms of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen?

carbohydrates

If a carbohydrate is not a simple monosaccharide, what else could it be?

complex polysaccharides

What do fatty acid monomers that are bound to glycerol backbones make up?

triglycerides

What characteristic about fatty acids requires them to be an essential component in a diet?

cannot be synthesized in the body

Which element do the amino acids that make up the core component of protein have in common?

nitrogen


Traditionally, simple carbohydrates are believed to be absorbed quickly, and therefore to raise blood-glucose levels more rapidly than complex carbohydrates. This, however, is not accurate. Some simple carbohydrates (e.g., fructose) follow different metabolic pathways (e.g., fructolysis) that result in only a partial catabolism to glucose, while, in essence, many complex carbohydrates may be digested at the same rate as simple carbohydrates. Glucose stimulates the production of insulin through food entering the bloodstream, which is grasped by the beta cells in the pancreas.

What was traditionally believed to be absorbed quickly causing blood - glucose levels to rapidly rise?

simple carbohydrates

What is an example of a simple carbohydrate?

fructose

When simple carbohydrates undergo metabolic pathways, what do they result in after partial catabolism?

glucose

What is glucose able to stimulate that is required in the human body?

production of insulin

Where are beta cells that attach to insulin located?

pancreas


Dietary fiber is a carbohydrate that is incompletely absorbed in humans and in some animals. Like all carbohydrates, when it is metabolized it can produce four Calories (kilocalories) of energy per gram. However, in most circumstances it accounts for less than that because of its limited absorption and digestibility. Dietary fiber consists mainly of cellulose, a large carbohydrate polymer which is indigestible as humans do not have the required enzymes to disassemble it. There are two subcategories: soluble and insoluble fiber. Whole grains, fruits (especially plums, prunes, and figs), and vegetables are good sources of dietary fiber. There are many health benefits of a high-fiber diet. Dietary fiber helps reduce the chance of gastrointestinal problems such as constipation and diarrhea by increasing the weight and size of stool and softening it. Insoluble fiber, found in whole wheat flour, nuts and vegetables, especially stimulates peristalsis – the rhythmic muscular contractions of the intestines, which move digesta along the digestive tract. Soluble fiber, found in oats, peas, beans, and many fruits, dissolves in water in the intestinal tract to produce a gel that slows the movement of food through the intestines. This may help lower blood glucose levels because it can slow the absorption of sugar. Additionally, fiber, perhaps especially that from whole grains, is thought to possibly help lessen insulin spikes, and therefore reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes. The link between increased fiber consumption and a decreased risk of colorectal cancer is still uncertain.

What example of a carbohydrate is unable to be fully absorbed in humans?

Dietary fiber

How many kilocalories of energy per gram is dietary fiber able to produce when successfully metabolized?

four

What is the main component that makes up dietary fiber?

cellulose

What is an example of a gastrointestinal problem other than diarrhea?

constipation

What does soluble fiber do to help lower blood glucose levels?

slow the absorption of sugar


A molecule of dietary fat typically consists of several fatty acids (containing long chains of carbon and hydrogen atoms), bonded to a glycerol. They are typically found as triglycerides (three fatty acids attached to one glycerol backbone). Fats may be classified as saturated or unsaturated depending on the detailed structure of the fatty acids involved. Saturated fats have all of the carbon atoms in their fatty acid chains bonded to hydrogen atoms, whereas unsaturated fats have some of these carbon atoms double-bonded, so their molecules have relatively fewer hydrogen atoms than a saturated fatty acid of the same length. Unsaturated fats may be further classified as monounsaturated (one double-bond) or polyunsaturated (many double-bonds). Furthermore, depending on the location of the double-bond in the fatty acid chain, unsaturated fatty acids are classified as omega-3 or omega-6 fatty acids. Trans fats are a type of unsaturated fat with trans-isomer bonds; these are rare in nature and in foods from natural sources; they are typically created in an industrial process called (partial) hydrogenation. There are nine kilocalories in each gram of fat. Fatty acids such as conjugated linoleic acid, catalpic acid, eleostearic acid and punicic acid, in addition to providing energy, represent potent immune modulatory molecules.

Dietary fat can be said to consist of fatty acids bonded to which molecule?

glycerol

How many glycerol backbones does a triglyceride contain?

one

What needs to be examined to determine whether a fat can be classified as saturated or unsaturated?

the detailed structure of the fatty acids involved

Which element is present that is bonded to all of the carbons in a saturated fat?

hydrogen

What kind of fat can a trans fat be categorized as?

unsaturated fat


Saturated fats (typically from animal sources) have been a staple in many world cultures for millennia. Unsaturated fats (e. g., vegetable oil) are considered healthier, while trans fats are to be avoided. Saturated and some trans fats are typically solid at room temperature (such as butter or lard), while unsaturated fats are typically liquids (such as olive oil or flaxseed oil). Trans fats are very rare in nature, and have been shown to be highly detrimental to human health, but have properties useful in the food processing industry, such as rancidity resistance.[citation needed]

Where do saturated fats in a diet typically originate from?

animal sources

Which kind of fat is generally considered to be healthiest?

Unsaturated fats

Which type of fat should people attempt to avoid?

trans fats

What kind of state of matter do unsaturated fats typically have at room temperature?

liquids

Although trans fats are harmful to human health, what property do they have that makes them useful in food processing?

rancidity resistance


Most fatty acids are non-essential, meaning the body can produce them as needed, generally from other fatty acids and always by expending energy to do so. However, in humans, at least two fatty acids are essential and must be included in the diet. An appropriate balance of essential fatty acids—omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids—seems also important for health, although definitive experimental demonstration has been elusive. Both of these "omega" long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids are substrates for a class of eicosanoids known as prostaglandins, which have roles throughout the human body. They are hormones, in some respects. The omega-3 eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), which can be made in the human body from the omega-3 essential fatty acid alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), or taken in through marine food sources, serves as a building block for series 3 prostaglandins (e.g., weakly inflammatory PGE3). The omega-6 dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid (DGLA) serves as a building block for series 1 prostaglandins (e.g. anti-inflammatory PGE1), whereas arachidonic acid (AA) serves as a building block for series 2 prostaglandins (e.g. pro-inflammatory PGE 2). Both DGLA and AA can be made from the omega-6 linoleic acid (LA) in the human body, or can be taken in directly through food. An appropriately balanced intake of omega-3 and omega-6 partly determines the relative production of different prostaglandins, which is one reason why a balance between omega-3 and omega-6 is believed important for cardiovascular health. In industrialized societies, people typically consume large amounts of processed vegetable oils, which have reduced amounts of the essential fatty acids along with too much of omega-6 fatty acids relative to omega-3 fatty acids.

What does it mean when it is claimed that many fatty acids are non - essential?

the body can produce them as needed

At least how many fatty acids are essential to the human health and have to be consumed rather than produced by the body?

two

What does EPA stand for?

eicosapentaenoic acid

Outside of consumption, what would be broken down in the body to obtain DGLA and AA?

omega-6 linoleic acid

What do people consume that has low amounts of the necessary essential fatty acids?

processed vegetable oils


The conversion rate of omega-6 DGLA to AA largely determines the production of the prostaglandins PGE1 and PGE2. Omega-3 EPA prevents AA from being released from membranes, thereby skewing prostaglandin balance away from pro-inflammatory PGE2 (made from AA) toward anti-inflammatory PGE1 (made from DGLA). Moreover, the conversion (desaturation) of DGLA to AA is controlled by the enzyme delta-5-desaturase, which in turn is controlled by hormones such as insulin (up-regulation) and glucagon (down-regulation). The amount and type of carbohydrates consumed, along with some types of amino acid, can influence processes involving insulin, glucagon, and other hormones; therefore, the ratio of omega-3 versus omega-6 has wide effects on general health, and specific effects on immune function and inflammation, and mitosis (i.e., cell division).

What is able to prevent AA from being released from membranes?

Omega-3 EPA

The conversion of omega-6 DGLA to AA is able to help regulate which process?

the production of the prostaglandins PGE1 and PGE2

What kind of process is the conversion of DGLA to AA?

desaturation

What is an example of a hormone other than insulin that is able to control the enzyme delta-5-desaturase?

glucagon

What is the scientific name for cell division?

mitosis


Proteins are structural materials in much of the animal body (e.g. muscles, skin, and hair). They also form the enzymes that control chemical reactions throughout the body. Each protein molecule is composed of amino acids, which are characterized by inclusion of nitrogen and sometimes sulphur (these components are responsible for the distinctive smell of burning protein, such as the keratin in hair). The body requires amino acids to produce new proteins (protein retention) and to replace damaged proteins (maintenance). As there is no protein or amino acid storage provision, amino acids must be present in the diet. Excess amino acids are discarded, typically in the urine. For all animals, some amino acids are essential (an animal cannot produce them internally) and some are non-essential (the animal can produce them from other nitrogen-containing compounds). About twenty amino acids are found in the human body, and about ten of these are essential and, therefore, must be included in the diet. A diet that contains adequate amounts of amino acids (especially those that are essential) is particularly important in some situations: during early development and maturation, pregnancy, lactation, or injury (a burn, for instance). A complete protein source contains all the essential amino acids; an incomplete protein source lacks one or more of the essential amino acids.

What primarily makes up the enzymes in our body that regulate the chemical reactions that occur?

Proteins

What is the primary component of every protein?

amino acids

What is the term that refers to the body process that produces new proteins?

protein retention

When the body no longer needs the amino acids that are present, through which excretion are they lost?

urine

Approximately how many amino acid types does the human body generally have?

twenty


It is possible with protein combinations of two incomplete protein sources (e.g., rice and beans) to make a complete protein source, and characteristic combinations are the basis of distinct cultural cooking traditions. However, complementary sources of protein do not need to be eaten at the same meal to be used together by the body. Excess amino acids from protein can be converted into glucose and used for fuel through a process called gluconeogenesis. The amino acids remaining after such conversion are discarded.

What would be required for the human body to potentially have a chance to create a complete protein source?

two incomplete protein sources

Other than rice, what would be another example of an incomplete protein source?

beans

What is taken from proteins and converted to glucose by the body?

Excess amino acids

What is the term for the conversion of amino acids into glucose?

gluconeogenesis

What happens to amino acids that are left over after the body has converted what it can to glucose?

discarded


Early recommendations for the quantity of water required for maintenance of good health suggested that 6–8 glasses of water daily is the minimum to maintain proper hydration. However the notion that a person should consume eight glasses of water per day cannot be traced to a credible scientific source. The original water intake recommendation in 1945 by the Food and Nutrition Board of the National Research Council read: "An ordinary standard for diverse persons is 1 milliliter for each calorie of food. Most of this quantity is contained in prepared foods." More recent comparisons of well-known recommendations on fluid intake have revealed large discrepancies in the volumes of water we need to consume for good health. Therefore, to help standardize guidelines, recommendations for water consumption are included in two recent European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) documents (2010): (i) Food-based dietary guidelines and (ii) Dietary reference values for water or adequate daily intakes (ADI). These specifications were provided by calculating adequate intakes from measured intakes in populations of individuals with “desirable osmolarity values of urine and desirable water volumes per energy unit consumed.” For healthful hydration, the current EFSA guidelines recommend total water intakes of 2.0 L/day for adult females and 2.5 L/day for adult males. These reference values include water from drinking water, other beverages, and from food. About 80% of our daily water requirement comes from the beverages we drink, with the remaining 20% coming from food. Water content varies depending on the type of food consumed, with fruit and vegetables containing more than cereals, for example. These values are estimated using country-specific food balance sheets published by the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations. Other guidelines for nutrition also have implications for the beverages we consume for healthy hydration- for example, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommend that added sugars should represent no more than 10% of total energy intake.

What was the early recommended amount of water that was supposedly required to keep the body hydrated?

6–8 glasses of water daily

Who originally made a water intake recommendation in 1945?

Food and Nutrition Board of the National Research Council

How much water should be taken in for each calorie of food that is consumed?

1 milliliter

What does ADI stand for?

adequate daily intakes

Where do humans get the 20% of water that does not come from the beverages we drink?

food


The EFSA panel also determined intakes for different populations. Recommended intake volumes in the elderly are the same as for adults as despite lower energy consumption, the water requirement of this group is increased due to a reduction in renal concentrating capacity. Pregnant and breastfeeding women require additional fluids to stay hydrated. The EFSA panel proposes that pregnant women should consume the same volume of water as non-pregnant women, plus an increase in proportion to the higher energy requirement, equal to 300 mL/day. To compensate for additional fluid output, breastfeeding women require an additional 700 mL/day above the recommended intake values for non-lactating women.

Who was similar recommended intake volumes as adults?

the elderly

Other then breastfeeding women, who what other category of woman should have increased water intake?

Pregnant

How much more water should pregnant women consumed compared to an average non - pregnant woman?

300 mL/day

Why should lactating women increase their water consumption?

To compensate for additional fluid output

How much more water do lactating women need to consume in relation to the average woman?

700 mL/day


Dietary minerals are inorganic chemical elements required by living organisms, other than the four elements carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen that are present in nearly all organic molecules. The term "mineral" is archaic, since the intent is to describe simply the less common elements in the diet. Some are heavier than the four just mentioned, including several metals, which often occur as ions in the body. Some dietitians recommend that these be supplied from foods in which they occur naturally, or at least as complex compounds, or sometimes even from natural inorganic sources (such as calcium carbonate from ground oyster shells). Some minerals are absorbed much more readily in the ionic forms found in such sources. On the other hand, minerals are often artificially added to the diet as supplements; the most famous is likely iodine in iodized salt which prevents goiter.

What kind of element are dietary minerals?

inorganic chemical elements

What was the term "mineral" originally meant to describe?

the less common elements in the diet

In what form are some metals commonly found in the body?

ions

In what form should minerals be to be absorbed easier?

ionic forms

What is the most famous mineral that is artificially added that prevents goiter?

iodine


As with the minerals discussed above, some vitamins are recognized as organic essential nutrients, necessary in the diet for good health. (Vitamin D is the exception: it can be synthesized in the skin, in the presence of UVB radiation.) Certain vitamin-like compounds that are recommended in the diet, such as carnitine, are thought useful for survival and health, but these are not "essential" dietary nutrients because the human body has some capacity to produce them from other compounds. Moreover, thousands of different phytochemicals have recently been discovered in food (particularly in fresh vegetables), which may have desirable properties including antioxidant activity (see below); however, experimental demonstration has been suggestive but inconclusive. Other essential nutrients that are not classified as vitamins include essential amino acids (see above), choline, essential fatty acids (see above), and the minerals discussed in the preceding section.

Which vitamin can be synthesized in the skin?

Vitamin D

What is required for vitamin D to be synthesized?

UVB radiation

What is an example of a vitamin - like compound that is not considered an essential dietary nutrient?

carnitine

What has recently been discovered in the thousands, especially from examining fresh vegetables?

phytochemicals

What is choline not an example of?

vitamins


As cellular metabolism/energy production requires oxygen, potentially damaging (e.g., mutation causing) compounds known as free radicals can form. Most of these are oxidizers (i.e., acceptors of electrons) and some react very strongly. For the continued normal cellular maintenance, growth, and division, these free radicals must be sufficiently neutralized by antioxidant compounds. Recently, some researchers suggested an interesting theory of evolution of dietary antioxidants. Some are produced by the human body with adequate precursors (glutathione, Vitamin C), and those the body cannot produce may only be obtained in the diet via direct sources (Vitamin C in humans, Vitamin A, Vitamin K) or produced by the body from other compounds (Beta-carotene converted to Vitamin A by the body, Vitamin D synthesized from cholesterol by sunlight). Phytochemicals (Section Below) and their subgroup, polyphenols, make up the majority of antioxidants; about 4,000 are known. Different antioxidants are now known to function in a cooperative network. For example, Vitamin C can reactivate free radical-containing glutathione or Vitamin E by accepting the free radical itself. Some antioxidants are more effective than others at neutralizing different free radicals. Some cannot neutralize certain free radicals. Some cannot be present in certain areas of free radical development (Vitamin A is fat-soluble and protects fat areas, Vitamin C is water-soluble and protects those areas). When interacting with a free radical, some antioxidants produce a different free radical compound that is less dangerous or more dangerous than the previous compound. Having a variety of antioxidants allows any byproducts to be safely dealt with by more efficient antioxidants in neutralizing a free radical's butterfly effect.

What is another term that can be used to describe "potentially damaging" compounds?

mutation causing

What are oxidizers?

acceptors of electrons

In order for the body to function normally, what must be used to neutralize free radicals?

antioxidant compounds

What subgroup of phytochemicals helps make up the majority of the body's antioxidants?

polyphenols

Which area of the body does vitamin A protect?

fat areas


Animal intestines contain a large population of gut flora. In humans, the four dominant phyla are Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, Actinobacteria, and Proteobacteria. They are essential to digestion and are also affected by food that is consumed. Bacteria in the gut perform many important functions for humans, including breaking down and aiding in the absorption of otherwise indigestible food; stimulating cell growth; repressing the growth of harmful bacteria, training the immune system to respond only to pathogens; producing vitamin B12; and defending against some infectious diseases.

Where could one find a large population of gut flora?

Animal intestines

What term collectively describes "Firmicutes" and "Bacteroidetes" among others?

phyla

What is the importance of having phyla in the body?

essential to digestion

What role specifically in digestion do bacteria in the gut have?

breaking down and aiding in the absorption of otherwise indigestible food

Which vitamin are the bacteria present in the gut responsible for producing?

vitamin B12


Heart disease, cancer, obesity, and diabetes are commonly called "Western" diseases because these maladies were once rarely seen in developing countries. An international study in China found some regions had virtually no cancer or heart disease, while in other areas they reflected "up to a 100-fold increase" coincident with shifts from diets that were found to be entirely plant-based to heavily animal-based, respectively. In contrast, diseases of affluence like cancer and heart disease are common throughout the developed world, including the United States. Adjusted for age and exercise, large regional clusters of people in China rarely suffered from these "Western" diseases possibly because their diets are rich in vegetables, fruits, and whole grains, and have little dairy and meat products. Some studies show these to be, in high quantities, possible causes of some cancers. There are arguments for and against this controversial issue.

Heart disease and obesity are examples of what kind of disease?

"Western" diseases

In which country was a study about the presence of cancer and heart disease in different regions done?

China

How much of an increase in presence of "Western" diseases was there in communities that primarily had animal - based diets as opposed to vegetable diets?

Other than meat, what else is lacking from the people in China's diet compared to diets from the Western world?

dairy

What disease was said to possibly be the result of diets that are high in meat and dairy products?

cancers


The United Healthcare/Pacificare nutrition guideline recommends a whole plant food diet, and recommends using protein only as a condiment with meals. A National Geographic cover article from November 2005, entitled The Secrets of Living Longer, also recommends a whole plant food diet. The article is a lifestyle survey of three populations, Sardinians, Okinawans, and Adventists, who generally display longevity and "suffer a fraction of the diseases that commonly kill people in other parts of the developed world, and enjoy more healthy years of life." In sum, they offer three sets of 'best practices' to emulate. The rest is up to you. In common with all three groups is to "Eat fruits, vegetables, and whole grains."

Who released a guideline that recommends that people follow a whole plant food diet?

United Healthcare/Pacificare

Which magazine also recommended that people follow a whole plant food diet?

National Geographic

In which year was there a cover article on the National Geographic regarding diet recommendations?

How many populations were studied and surveyed for the cover article?

three

Other than fruits and vegetables, what other product was highly recommended to be a part of a healthy diet?

whole grains


Carnivore and herbivore diets are contrasting, with basic nitrogen and carbon proportions vary for their particular foods. "The nitrogen content of plant tissues averages about 2%, while in fungi, animals, and bacteria it averages about 5% to 10%." Many herbivores rely on bacterial fermentation to create digestible nutrients from indigestible plant cellulose, while obligate carnivores must eat animal meats to obtain certain vitamins or nutrients their bodies cannot otherwise synthesize. All animals' diets must provide sufficient amounts of the basic building blocks they need, up to the point where their particular biology can synthesize the rest. Animal tissue contains chemical compounds, such as water, carbohydrates (sugar, starch, and fiber), amino acids (in proteins), fatty acids (in lipids), and nucleic acids (DNA and RNA). These compounds in turn consist of elements such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, iron, zinc, magnesium, manganese, and so on. All of these chemical compounds and elements occur in various forms and combinations (e.g. hormones, vitamins, phospholipids, hydroxyapatite).

Other than nitrogen, what other element varies greatly between a carnivore and herbivore diet?

carbon

What percentage of nitrogen content is generally found in fungi?

5% to 10%

What process of breaking down cellulose do herbivores rely on for their essential nutrients?

bacterial fermentation

Other than sugar and fiber, what else are carbohydrates consisted of?

starch

Where can fatty acids be found?

lipids


Animal tissue consists of elements and compounds ingested, digested, absorbed, and circulated through the bloodstream to feed the cells of the body. Except in the unborn fetus, the digestive system is the first system involved[vague]. Digestive juices break chemical bonds in ingested molecules, and modify their conformations and energy states. Though some molecules are absorbed into the bloodstream unchanged, digestive processes release them from the matrix of foods. Unabsorbed matter, along with some waste products of metabolism, is eliminated from the body in the feces.

Through what part of the body are nutrients transported to feed cells?

bloodstream

In which specific circumstance is the digestive system not the first system involved in nutrient processing?

unborn fetus

What is able to break bonds in ingested molecules?

Digestive juices

Molecules that are released from ingested foods are done so through which process?

digestive processes

Through which manner are unabsorbed matter and waste products excreted?

feces


Studies of nutritional status must take into account the state of the body before and after experiments, as well as the chemical composition of the whole diet and of all material excreted and eliminated from the body (in urine and feces). Comparing the food to the waste can help determine the specific compounds and elements absorbed and metabolized in the body. The effects of nutrients may only be discernible over an extended period, during which all food and waste must be analyzed. The number of variables involved in such experiments is high, making nutritional studies time-consuming and expensive, which explains why the science of animal nutrition is still slowly evolving.

What needs to be compared to the waste products from humans to determine what is absorbed in the body?

food

It is important to examine both the feces and what other excrement when studying absorption?

urine

Other than time consuming, what else are nutritional studies due to their length and variable count?

expensive

At which rate is the science behind nutrition continuing to evolve?

slowly


Plants uptake essential elements from the soil through their roots and from the air (consisting of mainly nitrogen and oxygen) through their leaves. Green plants obtain their carbohydrate supply from the carbon dioxide in the air by the process of photosynthesis. Carbon and oxygen are absorbed from the air, while other nutrients are absorbed from the soil. Nutrient uptake in the soil is achieved by cation exchange, wherein root hairs pump hydrogen ions (H+) into the soil through proton pumps. These hydrogen ions displace cations attached to negatively charged soil particles so that the cations are available for uptake by the root. In the leaves, stomata open to take in carbon dioxide and expel oxygen. The carbon dioxide molecules are used as the carbon source in photosynthesis.

How do plants absorb essential elements that are present in the soil?

through their roots

Having leaves allows plants to absorb nutrients through which medium?

air

What is the process that plants undergo in order to obtain carbohydrates?

photosynthesis

What is the process called in which plants gather nutrients from the soil around their roots?

cation exchange

What part of the leaf in a plant takes in carbon dioxide and releases oxygen?

stomata


Research in the field of nutrition has greatly contributed in finding out the essential facts about how environmental depletion can lead to crucial nutrition-related health problems like contamination, spread of contagious diseases, malnutrition, etc. Moreover, environmental contamination due to discharge of agricultural as well as industrial chemicals like organocholrines, heavy metal, and radionucleotides may adversely affect the human and the ecosystem as a whole. As far as safety of the human health is concerned, then these environmental contaminants can reduce people's nutritional status and health. This could directly or indirectly cause drastic changes in their diet habits. Hence, food-based remedial as well as preventive strategies are essential to address global issues like hunger and malnutrition and to enable the susceptible people to adapt themselves to all these environmental as well as socio-economic alterations.

What can environmental depletion lead to?

crucial nutrition-related health problems

Other than malnutrition and a spread of disease, what is an example of a health problem that arose due to environmental depletion?

contamination

Other than industrial chemicals, what other industry discharges chemicals that can contaminate the environment?

agricultural

The release and contamination of the environment affects what important system other than the human race?

the ecosystem

If people's nutritional status and health changes, what could this affect in their daily routine?

diet habits


In the US, dietitians are registered (RD) or licensed (LD) with the Commission for Dietetic Registration and the American Dietetic Association, and are only able to use the title "dietitian," as described by the business and professions codes of each respective state, when they have met specific educational and experiential prerequisites and passed a national registration or licensure examination, respectively. In California, registered dietitians must abide by the "Business and Professions Code of Section 2585-2586.8". Anyone may call themselves a nutritionist, including unqualified dietitians, as this term is unregulated. Some states, such as the State of Florida, have begun to include the title "nutritionist" in state licensure requirements. Most governments provide guidance on nutrition, and some also impose mandatory disclosure/labeling requirements for processed food manufacturers and restaurants to assist consumers in complying with such guidance.

What is the abbreviation for licensed dietitians in the US?

LD

Who do dietitians have to register with other than the American Dietetic Association in order to be recognized as such in the US?

Commission for Dietetic Registration

Which specific term is unregulated but still oft associated with professionals when it comes to food and diets?

nutritionist

Which state has started to regulate the word "nutritionist"?

Florida

What are restaurants and food manufacturers required to follow in order to assist consumers looking to follow dietary guidelines?

disclosure/labeling requirements


In the US, nutritional standards and recommendations are established jointly by the US Department of Agriculture and US Department of Health and Human Services. Dietary and physical activity guidelines from the USDA are presented in the concept of MyPlate, which superseded the food pyramid, which replaced the Four Food Groups. The Senate committee currently responsible for oversight of the USDA is the Agriculture, Nutrition and Forestry Committee. Committee hearings are often televised on C-SPAN.

Nutritional standards and recommendations are produced by a joint effort between the US Department of Agriculture and which other department?

US Department of Health and Human Services

Who releases guidelines that revolve around diet and physical activity recommendations?

USDA

What is the name of the concept that has replaced the food pyramid?

MyPlate

The USDA's effort sand actions are overseen by which governmental committee?

Agriculture, Nutrition and Forestry Committee

On which channel are committee meetings often shown?

C-SPAN


An example of a state initiative to promote nutrition literacy is Smart Bodies, a public-private partnership between the state’s largest university system and largest health insurer, Louisiana State Agricultural Center and Blue Cross and Blue Shield of Louisiana Foundation. Launched in 2005, this program promotes lifelong healthful eating patterns and physically active lifestyles for children and their families. It is an interactive educational program designed to help prevent childhood obesity through classroom activities that teach children healthful eating habits and physical exercise.

Smart Bodies is an example of an initiative that was started by what level of government?

state

What is the goal of Smart Bodies?

to promote nutrition literacy

The Blue Cross and Blue Shield of Louisiana Foundation joined together with which University to help develop Smart Bodies?

Louisiana State Agricultural Center

When was the Smart Bodies initiative first released?

What does the initiative specifically target?

childhood obesity


Nutrition is taught in schools in many countries. In England and Wales, the Personal and Social Education and Food Technology curricula include nutrition, stressing the importance of a balanced diet and teaching how to read nutrition labels on packaging. In many schools, a Nutrition class will fall within the Family and Consumer Science or Health departments. In some American schools, students are required to take a certain number of FCS or Health related classes. Nutrition is offered at many schools, and, if it is not a class of its own, nutrition is included in other FCS or Health classes such as: Life Skills, Independent Living, Single Survival, Freshmen Connection, Health etc. In many Nutrition classes, students learn about the food groups, the food pyramid, Daily Recommended Allowances, calories, vitamins, minerals, malnutrition, physical activity, healthful food choices, portion sizes, and how to live a healthy life.

In England and which other country is there a curricula that revolves around nutritional education?

Wales

What is the official name of the curricula that promotes nutritional education in schools?

Personal and Social Education and Food Technology curricula

What does FCS stand for?

Family and Consumer Science

Aside from dieting and general nutritional information, what else does the curricula in England and Wales aim to teach students?

how to read nutrition labels on packaging

In which type of school are kids required to take a number of health related courses?

American


At the time of this entry, we were not able to identify any specific nutrition literacy studies in the U.S. at a national level. However, the findings of the 2003 National Assessment of Adult Literacy (NAAL) provide a basis upon which to frame the nutrition literacy problem in the U.S. NAAL introduced the first ever measure of "the degree to which individuals have the capacity to obtain, process and understand basic health information and services needed to make appropriate health decisions" – an objective of Healthy People 2010 and of which nutrition literacy might be considered an important subset. On a scale of below basic, basic, intermediate and proficient, NAAL found 13 percent of adult Americans have proficient health literacy, 44% have intermediate literacy, 29 percent have basic literacy and 14 percent have below basic health literacy. The study found that health literacy increases with education and people living below the level of poverty have lower health literacy than those above it.

In which country were there no specific nutritional literacy studies on a national level that could be found?

U.S.

What does the abbreviation NAAL represent?

National Assessment of Adult Literacy

How many Americans were found to have intermediate health literacy?

What percentage of Americans fell below the basics of health literacy?

People who had a lower health literacy rate were found to be living below what standard?

level of poverty


Another study examining the health and nutrition literacy status of residents of the lower Mississippi Delta found that 52 percent of participants had a high likelihood of limited literacy skills. While a precise comparison between the NAAL and Delta studies is difficult, primarily because of methodological differences, Zoellner et al. suggest that health literacy rates in the Mississippi Delta region are different from the U.S. general population and that they help establish the scope of the problem of health literacy among adults in the Delta region. For example, only 12 percent of study participants identified the My Pyramid graphic two years after it had been launched by the USDA. The study also found significant relationships between nutrition literacy and income level and nutrition literacy and educational attainment further delineating priorities for the region.

What percentage of people were were found to have a high likelihood of low literacy skills in the Mississippi Delta region?

What primary difference was there between the NAAL and Delta study that made comparisons difficult?

methodological differences

Who was the main author of the study that suggested that the Mississippi Delta study identified a problem of health literacy?

Zoellner

For how many years had the My Pyramid graphic been released at the time of the Mississippi Delta study?

two

Income level was found to have a signification correlation to which outcome in the study?

nutrition literacy


These statistics point to the complexities surrounding the lack of health/nutrition literacy and reveal the degree to which they are embedded in the social structure and interconnected with other problems. Among these problems are the lack of information about food choices, a lack of understanding of nutritional information and its application to individual circumstances, limited or difficult access to healthful foods, and a range of cultural influences and socioeconomic constraints such as low levels of education and high levels of poverty that decrease opportunities for healthful eating and living.

What did the studies show there was a lack of understanding of by the population?

nutritional information

The studies indicated that there was a lack of information in the area about what kind of choice?

food

What was found to be limited or at least difficult to get access to in the studied region?

healthful foods

What kind of constraint was found to have a significant effect on the nutritional literacy?

socioeconomic

Aside from large people living in poverty, what else is considered a socioeconomic constraint that resulted in a decrease in opportunity for healthy food choices?

low levels of education


Malnutrition refers to insufficient, excessive, or imbalanced consumption of nutrients by an organism. In developed countries, the diseases of malnutrition are most often associated with nutritional imbalances or excessive consumption. In developing countries, malnutrition is more likely to be caused by poor access to a range of nutritious foods or inadequate knowledge. In Mali the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) and the Aga Khan Foundation, trained women's groups to make equinut, a healthy and nutritional version of the traditional recipe di-dèguè (comprising peanut paste, honey and millet or rice flour). The aim was to boost nutrition and livelihoods by producing a product that women could make and sell, and which would be accepted by the local community because of its local heritage.

An imbalance in the intake of nutrients by any organism can be referred by which term?

Malnutrition

In what kind of country is malnutrition often found as excessive consumption or as a nutritional imbalance?

developed

Aside from inadequate knowledge, what else is characteristic of malnutrition found in developing countries?

poor access to a range of nutritious foods

What is the abbreviation ICRISAT short for?

International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics

What is the name of the traditional Mali recipe that equinut is a twist on?

di-dèguè


Nutritionism is the view that excessive reliance on food science and the study of nutrition can lead to poor nutrition and to ill health. It was originally credited to Gyorgy Scrinis, and was popularized by Michael Pollan. Since nutrients are invisible, policy makers rely on nutrition experts to advise on food choices. Because science has an incomplete understanding of how food affects the human body, Pollan argues, nutritionism can be blamed for many of the health problems relating to diet in the Western World today.

What is the term that refers to a viewpoint that believes a reliance on food science is a cause of poor nutrition and ill health?

Nutritionism

Who is originally claimed to have given birth to the concept of nutritionism?

Gyorgy Scrinis

Although he was not the creator of the concept, who popularized the idea of nutritionism?

Michael Pollan

Who has to rely on nutrition experts when it comes to making decisions regarding food and nutritional values?

policy makers

Which region of the world does Pollan claim could trace their health problems back to nutritionism?

Western World


Some organizations have begun working with teachers, policymakers, and managed foodservice contractors to mandate improved nutritional content and increased nutritional resources in school cafeterias from primary to university level institutions. Health and nutrition have been proven to have close links with overall educational success. Currently, less than 10% of American college students report that they eat the recommended five servings of fruit and vegetables daily. Better nutrition has been shown to have an impact on both cognitive and spatial memory performance; a study showed those with higher blood sugar levels performed better on certain memory tests. In another study, those who consumed yogurt performed better on thinking tasks when compared to those that consumed caffeine-free diet soda or confections. Nutritional deficiencies have been shown to have a negative effect on learning behavior in mice as far back as 1951.

What are organizations targeting with the aim of improving nutritional content or resources?

school cafeterias

Outside of policymakers and teachers, who else is a key component to improving nutritional content in schools?

managed foodservice contractors

What are health and nutrition shown to have a link to in terms of education?

overall educational success

What percentage of American students report that they currently eat the recommended servings of fruits and vegetables?

Which animal was shown to have a negative effect on learning behavior due to nutritional deficiencies back in 1951?

mice


Cancer is now common in developing countries. According to a study by the International Agency for Research on Cancer, "In the developing world, cancers of the liver, stomach and esophagus were more common, often linked to consumption of carcinogenic preserved foods, such as smoked or salted food, and parasitic infections that attack organs." Lung cancer rates are rising rapidly in poorer nations because of increased use of tobacco. Developed countries "tended to have cancers linked to affluence or a 'Western lifestyle' — cancers of the colon, rectum, breast and prostate — that can be caused by obesity, lack of exercise, diet and age."

Which health issue is now becoming a common issue in developing countries?

Cancer

Which organization did a study on cancer in developing countries?

International Agency for Research on Cancer

What were cancers such as liver cancer or stomach cancer found to have a link to?

consumption of carcinogenic preserved foods

The rise of lung cancer in poor nations can be attributed to the use of which product?

tobacco

Obesity, lack of exercise, age and diet are risk factors attributed to cancer that are all apart of what kind of lifestyle?

Western


Several lines of evidence indicate lifestyle-induced hyperinsulinemia and reduced insulin function (i.e., insulin resistance) as a decisive factor in many disease states. For example, hyperinsulinemia and insulin resistance are strongly linked to chronic inflammation, which in turn is strongly linked to a variety of adverse developments such as arterial microinjuries and clot formation (i.e., heart disease) and exaggerated cell division (i.e., cancer). Hyperinsulinemia and insulin resistance (the so-called metabolic syndrome) are characterized by a combination of abdominal obesity, elevated blood sugar, elevated blood pressure, elevated blood triglycerides, and reduced HDL cholesterol. The negative impact of hyperinsulinemia on prostaglandin PGE1/PGE2 balance may be significant.

Reduced insulin function can also go by what other term?

insulin resistance

Other than the reduced insulin function, what else contributes greatly to many disease states?

lifestyle-induced hyperinsulinemia

Arterial microinjuries and heart disease can all be linked back to which health issue that is caused by hyperinsulinemia?

chronic inflammation

The metabolic syndrome is a term that refers to which health issue?

insulin resistance

Hyperinsulinemia has a negative effect on the levels of which important molecules in the body?

prostaglandin PGE1/PGE2


The state of obesity clearly contributes to insulin resistance, which in turn can cause type 2 diabetes. Virtually all obese and most type 2 diabetic individuals have marked insulin resistance. Although the association between overweight and insulin resistance is clear, the exact (likely multifarious) causes of insulin resistance remain less clear. It is important to note that it has been demonstrated that appropriate exercise, more regular food intake, and reducing glycemic load (see below) all can reverse insulin resistance in overweight individuals (and thereby lower blood sugar levels in those with type 2 diabetes).

Insulin resistance has been strongly linked to which health issue?

obesity

If someone struggles with insulin resistance, what kind of diabetes can develop as a result?

type 2

Almost all individuals who suffer from type 2 diabetes and/or obesity are found to have which trait?

marked insulin resistance

Appropriate exercise and reducing glycemic load are two examples of ways to stimulate which process?

reverse insulin resistance


Obesity can unfavourably alter hormonal and metabolic status via resistance to the hormone leptin, and a vicious cycle may occur in which insulin/leptin resistance and obesity aggravate one another. The vicious cycle is putatively fuelled by continuously high insulin/leptin stimulation and fat storage, as a result of high intake of strongly insulin/leptin stimulating foods and energy. Both insulin and leptin normally function as satiety signals to the hypothalamus in the brain; however, insulin/leptin resistance may reduce this signal and therefore allow continued overfeeding despite large body fat stores. In addition, reduced leptin signalling to the brain may reduce leptin's normal effect to maintain an appropriately high metabolic rate.

Obesity can cause resistance to which hormone?

leptin

In the so called vicious cycle, what aggravates obesity to continue the cycle?

insulin/leptin resistance

A characteristic of the cycle other than fat storage is a continuously high stimulation of what?

insulin/leptin

What function do insulin and leptin normally provide in the body?

satiety signals to the hypothalamus

What effect does insulin/leptin resistance have on the function of insulin/leptin?

reduce this signal


There is a debate about how and to what extent different dietary factors— such as intake of processed carbohydrates, total protein, fat, and carbohydrate intake, intake of saturated and trans fatty acids, and low intake of vitamins/minerals—contribute to the development of insulin and leptin resistance. In any case, analogous to the way modern man-made pollution may possess the potential to overwhelm the environment's ability to maintain homeostasis, the recent explosive introduction of high glycemic index and processed foods into the human diet may possess the potential to overwhelm the body's ability to maintain homeostasis and health (as evidenced by the metabolic syndrome epidemic).

The debate regarding factors influencing the development of insulin and leptin is not just about how, but also about what other factor?

to what extent

Other than processed foods, what else was recently introduced to the human diet?

high glycemic index

What is an example of the body's ability to maintain homeostasis being overwhelmed?

metabolic syndrome epidemic


Excess water intake, without replenishment of sodium and potassium salts, leads to hyponatremia, which can further lead to water intoxication at more dangerous levels. A well-publicized case occurred in 2007, when Jennifer Strange died while participating in a water-drinking contest. More usually, the condition occurs in long-distance endurance events (such as marathon or triathlon competition and training) and causes gradual mental dulling, headache, drowsiness, weakness, and confusion; extreme cases may result in coma, convulsions, and death. The primary damage comes from swelling of the brain, caused by increased osmosis as blood salinity decreases. Effective fluid replacement techniques include water aid stations during running/cycling races, trainers providing water during team games, such as soccer, and devices such as Camel Baks, which can provide water for a person without making it too hard to drink the water.

Hyponatremia is the term that refers to which action by a human?

Excess water intake, without replenishment of sodium and potassium salts

In 2007, what kind of contest was Jennifer Strange participating in upon her death?

water-drinking

In which specific kind of events can one often find people drinking too much water?

long-distance endurance

When a human is suffering from hyponatremia, what is the main cause of damage that may occur?

swelling of the brain

Damage to the brain occurs because of the increase in which process?

osmosis


The relatively recent increased consumption of sugar has been linked to the rise of some afflictions such as diabetes, obesity, and more recently heart disease. Increased consumption of sugar has been tied to these three, among others. Obesity levels have more than doubled in the last 30 years among adults, going from 15% to 35% in the United States. Obesity and diet also happen to be high risk factors for diabetes. In the same time span that obesity doubled, diabetes numbers quadrupled in America. Increased weight, especially in the form of belly fat, and high sugar intake are also high risk factors for heart disease. Both sugar intake and fatty tissue increase the probability of elevated LDL cholesterol in the bloodstream. Elevated amounts of Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, is the primary factor in heart disease. In order to avoid all the dangers of sugar, moderate consumption is paramount.

The increase in cases of diabetes, obesity and heart disease can be traced back to an increase in the consumption of what product?

sugar

What has been the increase in obesity among adults in the last 30 years in the United States?

more than doubled

What is the current percentage of obese adults in the United States?

Within the past 30 years, how has the number of diabetes cases changed?

quadrupled

What does the term LDL stand for?

Low-density lipoprotein


Since the Industrial Revolution some two hundred years ago, the food processing industry has invented many technologies that both help keep foods fresh longer and alter the fresh state of food as they appear in nature. Cooling is the primary technology used to maintain freshness, whereas many more technologies have been invented to allow foods to last longer without becoming spoiled. These latter technologies include pasteurisation, autoclavation, drying, salting, and separation of various components, all of which appearing to alter the original nutritional contents of food. Pasteurisation and autoclavation (heating techniques) have no doubt improved the safety of many common foods, preventing epidemics of bacterial infection. But some of the (new) food processing technologies have downfalls as well.

When did the Industrial Revolution roughly begin?

two hundred years ago

Apart from altering the state of food, what is the other main focus in technology increases for the food processing industry?

keep foods fresh longer

Which technology is primarily responsible for helping keep food fresh?

Cooling

Pasteurisation is an an example of a technology that aims to do what to food?

last longer without becoming spoiled

Pasteurisation and autoclavation are examples of what kind of technique?

heating


Modern separation techniques such as milling, centrifugation, and pressing have enabled concentration of particular components of food, yielding flour, oils, juices, and so on, and even separate fatty acids, amino acids, vitamins, and minerals. Inevitably, such large-scale concentration changes the nutritional content of food, saving certain nutrients while removing others. Heating techniques may also reduce food's content of many heat-labile nutrients such as certain vitamins and phytochemicals, and possibly other yet-to-be-discovered substances. Because of reduced nutritional value, processed foods are often 'enriched' or 'fortified' with some of the most critical nutrients (usually certain vitamins) that were lost during processing. Nonetheless, processed foods tend to have an inferior nutritional profile compared to whole, fresh foods, regarding content of both sugar and high GI starches, potassium/sodium, vitamins, fiber, and of intact, unoxidized (essential) fatty acids. In addition, processed foods often contain potentially harmful substances such as oxidized fats and trans fatty acids.

Centrifugation and pressing are prime examples of what?

Modern separation techniques

An unfortunate side effect of concentrating food components is that it causes what change in the food?

nutritional content

What kind of nutritional value do the processed foods have in comparison to their fresh variants?

reduced

What is another term other than 'fortified' that can be used to describe the addition of nutrients to processed food?

enriched

Outside of oxidized fats, what is another substance that is deemed harmful that can be found in processed foods?

trans fatty acids


A dramatic example of the effect of food processing on a population's health is the history of epidemics of beri-beri in people subsisting on polished rice. Removing the outer layer of rice by polishing it removes with it the essential vitamin thiamine, causing beri-beri. Another example is the development of scurvy among infants in the late 19th century in the United States. It turned out that the vast majority of sufferers were being fed milk that had been heat-treated (as suggested by Pasteur) to control bacterial disease. Pasteurisation was effective against bacteria, but it destroyed the vitamin C.

What did people who became ill with beri-beri have as their main food source?

polished rice

What vitamin is removed during the polishing of rice?

thiamine

Which disease became prevalent among infants in the United States as an effect of processed foods?

scurvy

What treatment did the milk that was fed to infants undergo to control bacterial disease?

Pasteurisation

What was destroyed during the pasteurisation of the milk?

vitamin C


As mentioned, lifestyle- and obesity-related diseases are becoming increasingly prevalent all around the world. There is little doubt that the increasingly widespread application of some modern food processing technologies has contributed to this development. The food processing industry is a major part of modern economy, and as such it is influential in political decisions (e.g., nutritional recommendations, agricultural subsidising). In any known profit-driven economy, health considerations are hardly a priority; effective production of cheap foods with a long shelf-life is more the trend. In general, whole, fresh foods have a relatively short shelf-life and are less profitable to produce and sell than are more processed foods. Thus, the consumer is left with the choice between more expensive, but nutritionally superior, whole, fresh foods, and cheap, usually nutritionally inferior, processed foods. Because processed foods are often cheaper, more convenient (in both purchasing, storage, and preparation), and more available, the consumption of nutritionally inferior foods has been increasing throughout the world along with many nutrition-related health complications.

What is undoubtedly a cause of the increase in obesity related diseases that are becoming prevalent?

widespread application of some modern food processing technologies

Aside from agricultural subsidizing, what else does the food processing industry influence in terms of political decisions?

nutritional recommendations

What is perceived as the general priority of the food processing industry in this sort of economy?

effective production of cheap foods with a long shelf-life

The more expensive fresh foods have what nutritional value in relation to processed food?

superior

Other than being cheaper, what is another main draw of processed foods?

more convenient


The Crimean War was a military conflict fought between October 1853 – March 1856 in which Russia lost to an alliance of France, the United Kingdom, the Ottoman Empire, and Sardinia. The immediate cause involved the rights of Christian minorities in the Holy Land, which was controlled by the Ottoman Empire. The French promoted the rights of Catholics, while Russia promoted those of the Eastern Orthodox Christians. The longer-term causes involved the decline of the Ottoman Empire and the unwillingness of the United Kingdom and France to allow Russia to gain territory and power at Ottoman expense. It has widely been noted that the causes, in one case involving an argument over a key, have never revealed a "greater confusion of purpose", yet led to a war noted for its "notoriously incompetent international butchery."

What year did the Crimean War begin?

What year did the Crimean War end?

Who controlled the rights of Christian minorities in the Holy Land?

Ottoman Empire

Who promoted the rights of the Catholic people?

The French

Who promoted the rights of the Eastern Orthodox Christians?

Russia


While the churches eventually worked out their differences and came to an initial agreement, both Nicholas I of Russia and Napoleon III refused to back down. Nicholas issued an ultimatum that the Orthodox subjects of the Empire be placed under his protection. Britain attempted to mediate, and arranged a compromise that Nicholas agreed to. When the Ottomans demanded changes, Nicholas refused and prepared for war. Having obtained promises of support from France and Britain, the Ottomans officially declared war on Russia in October 1853.

Which two figures refused to back down after the churches worked out their disagreements?

Nicholas I of Russia and Napoleon III

Who wanted the Orthodox subjects to be placed under their protection?

Nicholas

Who arranged the compromise that Nicholas agreed to?

Britain

Who demanded the changes that Nicholas later refused?

Ottomans

What month did the Ottomans declare war on Russia?

October


The war opened in the Balkans when Russian troops occupied provinces in modern Romania and began to cross the Danube. Led by Omar Pasha, the Ottomans fought a strong defensive battle and stopped the advance at Silistra. A separate action on the fort town of Kars in eastern Turkey led to a siege, and a Turkish attempt to reinforce the garrison was destroyed by a Russian fleet at Sinop. Fearing an Ottoman collapse, France and the UK rushed forces to Gallipoli. They then moved north to Varna in June, arriving just in time for the Russians to abandon Silistra. Aside from a minor skirmish at Constanța there was little for the allies to do. Karl Marx quipped that "there they are, the French doing nothing and the British helping them as fast as possible".

Where did the war begin?

Balkans

Russian troops took over which provinces first?

modern Romania

Who were the Ottomans led by?

Omar Pasha

When the Turkish tried to provide reinforcements, where were they stopped at?

Sinop

Who hurried their forces to Gallipoli when they feared the Ottoman for would collapse?

France and the UK


Frustrated by the wasted effort, and with demands for action from their citizens, the allied force decided to attack the center of Russian strength in the Black Sea at Sevastopol on the Crimean peninsula. After extended preparations, the forces landed on the peninsula in September 1854 and fought their way to a point south of Sevastopol after a series of successful battles. The Russians counterattacked on 25 October in what became the Battle of Balaclava and were repulsed, but at the cost of seriously depleting the British Army forces. A second counterattack, ordered personally by Nicholas, was defeated by Omar Pasha. The front settled into a siege and led to horrible conditions for troops on both sides. Smaller actions were carried out in the Baltic, the Caucasus, the White Sea and in the North Pacific.

Near what sea did the allies decide to attack the Russians?

Black Sea

In what year did the allies land on the Crimean peninsula?

The battle of Battle of Balaclava took place in what month?

October

Who defeated Nicholas's second counter strike at the Battle of Balaclava?

Omar Pasha

The Crimean peninsula is located in what city?

Sevastopol


Sevastopol fell after eleven months, and formerly neutral countries began to join the allied cause. Isolated and facing a bleak prospect of invasion from the west if the war continued, Russia sued for peace in March 1856. This was welcomed by France and the UK, where the citizens began to turn against their governments as the war dragged on. The war was officially ended by the Treaty of Paris, signed on 30 March 1856. Russia lost the war, and was forbidden from hosting warships in the Black Sea. The Ottoman vassal states of Wallachia and Moldavia became largely independent. Christians were granted a degree of official equality, and the Orthodox church regained control of the Christian churches in dispute.:415

How long did it take for Sevastopol to fall?

eleven months

Who wanted peace when they feared of being invaded from the west?

Russia

What was the name of the treaty that ended the war?

Treaty of Paris

When was the Treaty of Paris signed?

30 March 1856

Who regained control of the Christian churches after the war was over?

Orthodox church


The Crimean War was one of the first conflicts to use modern technologies such as explosive naval shells, railways, and telegraphs.(Preface) The war was one of the first to be documented extensively in written reports and photographs. As the legend of the "Charge of the Light Brigade" demonstrates, the war quickly became an iconic symbol of logistical, medical and tactical failures and mismanagement. The reaction in the UK was a demand for professionalization, most famously achieved by Florence Nightingale, who gained worldwide attention for pioneering modern nursing while treating the wounded.

What modern technologies were first used during the Crimean War?

explosive naval shells, railways, and telegraphs

Who was recognized for treating the wounded while pioneering modern nursing?

Florence Nightingale

The war was one of the first to be documented in what two ways?

written reports and photographs


In 1820-1830’s the Ottoman Empire endured a number of strikes which challenged the existence of the country. The Greek Uprising (began in the spring of 1821) evidenced internal and military weakness of Ottoman Empire and caused severe atrocities by Ottoman military forces (see Chios massacre). The disbandment of the centuries-old Janissary corps by Sultan Mahmud II on 15 June 1826 (Auspicious Incident) was a good deed for the country in the longer term, but it has deprived the country from its army forces for the nearest future. In 1827 the allied Anglo-Franco-Russian fleet destroyed almost all the Ottoman naval forces during the Battle of Navarino. In 1830 Greece becomes an independent state after 10 years of independence war and the Russo-Turkish War of 1828–1829. According to the Treaty of Adrianople (1829) Russian and European commercial ships were authorized to freely pass through Black Sea straits, Serbia received autonomy, and Danubian Principalities (Moldavia and Walachia) became the territories under Russian protection.

In what year did The Greek Uprising take place?

Who disbanded the Janissary corps?

Sultan Mahmud II

In what year was the Janissary corp disbanded?

Who destroyed most of the Ottoman's naval forces during the Battle of Navarino?

the allied Anglo-Franco-Russian fleet

In what year did Greece finally become an independent state?


France used the right moment and occupied Alger in 1830. In 1831 Muhammad Ali of Egypt, who was the most powerful vassal of the Ottoman Empire, claimed independence. Ottoman forces were defeated in a number of battles, and Egyptians were ready to capture Constantinople, which forced the sultan Mahmud II to seek for Russian military aid. 10 000 Russian army corps landed on the Bosphorus shores in 1833 and helped to prevent the capture of Constantinople, thus the possible disappearance of the Ottoman Empire was prevented.

In what year did France move into Alger?

In 1831, who was the strongest vassal of the Ottoman Empire?

Muhammad Ali of Egypt

Who wanted to take over Constantinople?

Egyptians

What military force did Mahmud II ask for aid?

Russian

How many Russians troops were sent to the Bosphorus shores?

10 000


In 1838 the situation was slightly the same as in 1831. Muhammad Ali of Egypt was not happy about lack of his control and power in Syria, he resumed military actions. The Ottoman army lost to Egyptians at the Battle of Nezib on June 24, 1839. The Ottoman Empire was saved by Great Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia by signing a convention in London in July 15, 1840 to grant Muhammad Ali and his descendants the right to inherit power in Egypt in exchange for removal of Egyptian military forces from Syria and Lebanon. Moreover, Muhammad Ali had to admit a formal dependence from the Ottoman sultan. After Muhammad Ali refused to obey the requirements of the London convention, the allied Anglo-Austrian fleet blocked the Delta, bombarded Beirut and captured Acre. Muhammad Ali accepted the conditions of the London convention in 1840.

In 1838, who was not pleased of their lack of power in Syria?

Muhammad Ali of Egypt

Who did the Ottomans lose to at the Battle of Nezib?

Egyptians

In what year did the Battle of Nezib take place?

Who helped save the Ottomans by signing a convention in London?

Great Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia

In what year did Muhammad Ali  finally accept the terms of the London convention?


Russia, as a member of the Holy Alliance, had operated as the "police of Europe", maintaining the balance of power that had been established in the Treaty of Vienna in 1815. Russia had assisted Austria's efforts in suppressing the Hungarian Revolution of 1848, and expected gratitude; it wanted a free hand in settling its problems with the Ottoman Empire — the "sick man of Europe". The United Kingdom could not tolerate Russian dominance of Ottoman affairs, as that would challenge the British domination of the eastern Mediterranean.

Who operated as the "police of Europe"?

Russia

What treaty was signing in 1815?

Treaty of Vienna

In what year did the Hungarian Revolution take place?

Who did Russia help during the Hungarian Revolution?

Austria

In exchange for helping Austria, Russia wanted to be freely able to handle any issues they had with who?

Ottoman Empire