The brain is an organ that serves as the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals. Only a few invertebrates such as sponges, jellyfish, adult sea squirts and starfish do not have a brain; diffuse or localised nerve nets are present instead. The brain is located in the head, usually close to the primary sensory organs for such senses as vision, hearing, balance, taste, and smell. The brain is the most complex organ in a vertebrate's body. In a typical human, the cerebral cortex (the largest part) is estimated to contain 15–33 billion neurons, each connected by synapses to several thousand other neurons. These neurons communicate with one another by means of long protoplasmic fibers called axons, which carry trains of signal pulses called action potentials to distant parts of the brain or body targeting specific recipient cells.

What is the center of the nervous system in all creatures?

The brain

What is the most complex organ in an animal's body?

The brain

In people, how many neurons make up the cerebral cortex?

15–33 billion

Neurons in the brain interact with each other by fibers called what?

axons

A few animals without spines that do not have a brain are what?

sponges, jellyfish, adult sea squirts


Physiologically, the function of the brain is to exert centralized control over the other organs of the body. The brain acts on the rest of the body both by generating patterns of muscle activity and by driving the secretion of chemicals called hormones. This centralized control allows rapid and coordinated responses to changes in the environment. Some basic types of responsiveness such as reflexes can be mediated by the spinal cord or peripheral ganglia, but sophisticated purposeful control of behavior based on complex sensory input requires the information integrating capabilities of a centralized brain.

Hormones secreted are driven by what organ in the body?

The brain

What type of responsiveness can be used without a brain?

reflexes

Reflexes only require one of what two structures in a body?

spinal cord or peripheral ganglia


The operations of individual brain cells are now understood in considerable detail but the way they cooperate in ensembles of millions is yet to be solved. Recent models in modern neuroscience treat the brain as a biological computer, very different in mechanism from an electronic computer, but similar in the sense that it acquires information from the surrounding world, stores it, and processes it in a variety of ways, analogous to the central processing unit (CPU) in a computer.

Which part of a computer does the brain most resemble?

central processing unit (CPU)


This article compares the properties of brains across the entire range of animal species, with the greatest attention to vertebrates. It deals with the human brain insofar as it shares the properties of other brains. The ways in which the human brain differs from other brains are covered in the human brain article. Several topics that might be covered here are instead covered there because much more can be said about them in a human context. The most important is brain disease and the effects of brain damage, covered in the human brain article because the most common diseases of the human brain either do not show up in other species, or else manifest themselves in different ways.

Animals with a spine are called what?

vertebrates


The shape and size of the brain varies greatly in different species, and identifying common features is often difficult. Nevertheless, there are a number of principles of brain architecture that apply across a wide range of species. Some aspects of brain structure are common to almost the entire range of animal species; others distinguish "advanced" brains from more primitive ones, or distinguish vertebrates from invertebrates.

Animals without a spine are called what?

invertebrates


The simplest way to gain information about brain anatomy is by visual inspection, but many more sophisticated techniques have been developed. Brain tissue in its natural state is too soft to work with, but it can be hardened by immersion in alcohol or other fixatives, and then sliced apart for examination of the interior. Visually, the interior of the brain consists of areas of so-called grey matter, with a dark color, separated by areas of white matter, with a lighter color. Further information can be gained by staining slices of brain tissue with a variety of chemicals that bring out areas where specific types of molecules are present in high concentrations. It is also possible to examine the microstructure of brain tissue using a microscope, and to trace the pattern of connections from one brain area to another.

The easiest way to learn about brain anatomy is by what?

visual inspection

Brain tissue is naturally soft, but can be stiffened with what liquid?

alcohol

The two main areas of the brain are what colors?

grey matter, with a dark color, separated by areas of white matter

What instrument can you use to examine the microstructure of the brain?

microscope

Grey matter of the brain is what color?

dark color


The brains of all species are composed primarily of two broad classes of cells: neurons and glial cells. Glial cells (also known as glia or neuroglia) come in several types, and perform a number of critical functions, including structural support, metabolic support, insulation, and guidance of development. Neurons, however, are usually considered the most important cells in the brain. The property that makes neurons unique is their ability to send signals to specific target cells over long distances. They send these signals by means of an axon, which is a thin protoplasmic fiber that extends from the cell body and projects, usually with numerous branches, to other areas, sometimes nearby, sometimes in distant parts of the brain or body. The length of an axon can be extraordinary: for example, if a pyramidal cell, (an excitatory neuron) of the cerebral cortex were magnified so that its cell body became the size of a human body, its axon, equally magnified, would become a cable a few centimeters in diameter, extending more than a kilometer. These axons transmit signals in the form of electrochemical pulses called action potentials, which last less than a thousandth of a second and travel along the axon at speeds of 1–100 meters per second. Some neurons emit action potentials constantly, at rates of 10–100 per second, usually in irregular patterns; other neurons are quiet most of the time, but occasionally emit a burst of action potentials.

Brains of organisms are made up mostly of what two classes of cells?

neurons and glial cells

Glial cells are also referred to as what?

glia or neuroglia

Which of the two broad classes of cells: neurons and glial cells send signals to other cells?

neurons

Axons send signals that are named what?

action potentials

What is the typical speed that axons send their electrical signals?

1–100 meters per second


Axons transmit signals to other neurons by means of specialized junctions called synapses. A single axon may make as many as several thousand synaptic connections with other cells. When an action potential, traveling along an axon, arrives at a synapse, it causes a chemical called a neurotransmitter to be released. The neurotransmitter binds to receptor molecules in the membrane of the target cell.

Axons send signals to other neurons by junctions known as what?

synapses

The neurotansmitter binds to what of a target cell?

receptor molecules

An axon can connect to how many other cells?

several thousand


Synapses are the key functional elements of the brain. The essential function of the brain is cell-to-cell communication, and synapses are the points at which communication occurs. The human brain has been estimated to contain approximately 100 trillion synapses; even the brain of a fruit fly contains several million. The functions of these synapses are very diverse: some are excitatory (exciting the target cell); others are inhibitory; others work by activating second messenger systems that change the internal chemistry of their target cells in complex ways. A large number of synapses are dynamically modifiable; that is, they are capable of changing strength in a way that is controlled by the patterns of signals that pass through them. It is widely believed that activity-dependent modification of synapses is the brain's primary mechanism for learning and memory.

How many synapses does the human brain supposedly contain?

100 trillion synapses;

The fruit fly has a brain that has how many synapses?

several million

A synapse whose purpose is to excite the target cell are called what?

excitatory

The primary job of the brain is what?

cell-to-cell communication


Most of the space in the brain is taken up by axons, which are often bundled together in what are called nerve fiber tracts. A myelinated axon is wrapped in a fatty insulating sheath of myelin, which serves to greatly increase the speed of signal propagation. (There are also unmyelinated axons). Myelin is white, making parts of the brain filled exclusively with nerve fibers appear as light-colored white matter, in contrast to the darker-colored grey matter that marks areas with high densities of neuron cell bodies.

Axons grouped together are known as what?

nerve fiber tracts

An axon that can greatly increase speed of signals is wrapped in what?

sheath of myelin

Myelin is what color in the brain?

white

Most of the space in the brain is made up of what structures?

axons

Grey matter of the brain consist of lots of what?

neuron cell bodies


Except for a few primitive organisms such as sponges (which have no nervous system) and cnidarians (which have a nervous system consisting of a diffuse nerve net), all living multicellular animals are bilaterians, meaning animals with a bilaterally symmetric body shape (that is, left and right sides that are approximate mirror images of each other). All bilaterians are thought to have descended from a common ancestor that appeared early in the Cambrian period, 485-540 million years ago, and it has been hypothesized that this common ancestor had the shape of a simple tubeworm with a segmented body. At a schematic level, that basic worm-shape continues to be reflected in the body and nervous system architecture of all modern bilaterians, including vertebrates. The fundamental bilateral body form is a tube with a hollow gut cavity running from the mouth to the anus, and a nerve cord with an enlargement (a ganglion) for each body segment, with an especially large ganglion at the front, called the brain. The brain is small and simple in some species, such as nematode worms; in other species, including vertebrates, it is the most complex organ in the body. Some types of worms, such as leeches, also have an enlarged ganglion at the back end of the nerve cord, known as a "tail brain".

Creatures that have a diffuse nerve net are called what?

cnidarians

Bilaterians are animals that have what?

symmetric body shape

The Cambrian period was how long ago?

485-540 million years ago

A nerve cord with an enlargement is called what?

a ganglion

What type of creature has a ganglion at the back end of the nerve cord as well?

leeches


There are a few types of existing bilaterians that lack a recognizable brain, including echinoderms, tunicates, and acoelomorphs (a group of primitive flatworms). It has not been definitively established whether the existence of these brainless species indicates that the earliest bilaterians lacked a brain, or whether their ancestors evolved in a way that led to the disappearance of a previously existing brain structure.

A name for a group of primitive flatworms is what?

acoelomorphs

Some bilaterians without a brain are what?

echinoderms, tunicates, and acoelomorphs


Two groups of invertebrates have notably complex brains: arthropods (insects, crustaceans, arachnids, and others), and cephalopods (octopuses, squids, and similar molluscs). The brains of arthropods and cephalopods arise from twin parallel nerve cords that extend through the body of the animal. Arthropods have a central brain with three divisions and large optical lobes behind each eye for visual processing. Cephalopods such as the octopus and squid have the largest brains of any invertebrates.

Which two groups of invertebrates have complex brains?

arthropods (insects, crustaceans, arachnids, and others), and cephalopods

Arthropods and cephalopods have brains that come from a pair of what?

parallel nerve cords

The invertebrates with the largest brain are what two animals?

octopus and squid


There are several invertebrate species whose brains have been studied intensively because they have properties that make them convenient for experimental work:

Which brains are easier to work on, vertebrates or invertebrates?

invertebrate


The first vertebrates appeared over 500 million years ago (Mya), during the Cambrian period, and may have resembled the modern hagfish in form. Sharks appeared about 450 Mya, amphibians about 400 Mya, reptiles about 350 Mya, and mammals about 200 Mya. Each species has an equally long evolutionary history, but the brains of modern hagfishes, lampreys, sharks, amphibians, reptiles, and mammals show a gradient of size and complexity that roughly follows the evolutionary sequence. All of these brains contain the same set of basic anatomical components, but many are rudimentary in the hagfish, whereas in mammals the foremost part (the telencephalon) is greatly elaborated and expanded.

How long ago did the first vertebrate organisms appear?

over 500 million years ago

During which scientific period did vertebrates appear?

Cambrian period

Sharks appeared at about how many Mya?

450 Mya

The foremost part of the brain in mammals is known as what?

(the telencephalon

At how many mya did mammals first appear in time?

200 Mya


Brains are most simply compared in terms of their size. The relationship between brain size, body size and other variables has been studied across a wide range of vertebrate species. As a rule, brain size increases with body size, but not in a simple linear proportion. In general, smaller animals tend to have larger brains, measured as a fraction of body size. For mammals, the relationship between brain volume and body mass essentially follows a power law with an exponent of about 0.75. This formula describes the central tendency, but every family of mammals departs from it to some degree, in a way that reflects in part the complexity of their behavior. For example, primates have brains 5 to 10 times larger than the formula predicts. Predators tend to have larger brains than their prey, relative to body size.

Do predators have larger or smaller brains compared to their prey?

larger

In mammals, brain volume and body mass follows a power law with an exponent of what?

Which group of animals have brains 5-10 times larger than the formula predicts?

primates


All vertebrate brains share a common underlying form, which appears most clearly during early stages of embryonic development. In its earliest form, the brain appears as three swellings at the front end of the neural tube; these swellings eventually become the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain (the prosencephalon, mesencephalon, and rhombencephalon, respectively). At the earliest stages of brain development, the three areas are roughly equal in size. In many classes of vertebrates, such as fish and amphibians, the three parts remain similar in size in the adult, but in mammals the forebrain becomes much larger than the other parts, and the midbrain becomes very small.

The forebrain during development is known as what?

prosencephalon

The midbrain during development is known as what?

mesencephalon

The hindbrain during development is known as what?

rhombencephalon

Which group of animals does the forebrain grow the largest?

mammals

During development, the brain is made up of three swellings at the front of what?

neural tube;


The brains of vertebrates are made of very soft tissue. Living brain tissue is pinkish on the outside and mostly white on the inside, with subtle variations in color. Vertebrate brains are surrounded by a system of connective tissue membranes called meninges that separate the skull from the brain. Blood vessels enter the central nervous system through holes in the meningeal layers. The cells in the blood vessel walls are joined tightly to one another, forming the blood–brain barrier, which blocks the passage of many toxins and pathogens (though at the same time blocking antibodies and some drugs, thereby presenting special challenges in treatment of diseases of the brain).

Brain tissue that is living is what color on the outside?

pinkish

The color of the brain inside is what?

white

Brains are surrounded by what system of tissues?

meninges

Meninges separate what structure from the brain?

the skull

The blood-brain barrier is made up of what?

cells in the blood vessel walls


Neuroanatomists usually divide the vertebrate brain into six main regions: the telencephalon (cerebral hemispheres), diencephalon (thalamus and hypothalamus), mesencephalon (midbrain), cerebellum, pons, and medulla oblongata. Each of these areas has a complex internal structure. Some parts, such as the cerebral cortex and the cerebellar cortex, consist of layers that are folded or convoluted to fit within the available space. Other parts, such as the thalamus and hypothalamus, consist of clusters of many small nuclei. Thousands of distinguishable areas can be identified within the vertebrate brain based on fine distinctions of neural structure, chemistry, and connectivity.

People who study the anatomy of the central nervous system are known as what?

Neuroanatomists

The cerebral hemispheres of the brain are called what?

telencephalon

The thalamus and hypothalamus comprise what region of the brain?

diencephalon

The midbrain region of the brain is known as what?

mesencephalon

Clusters of small nuclei comprise what parts of the brain?

thalamus and hypothalamus


Although the same basic components are present in all vertebrate brains, some branches of vertebrate evolution have led to substantial distortions of brain geometry, especially in the forebrain area. The brain of a shark shows the basic components in a straightforward way, but in teleost fishes (the great majority of existing fish species), the forebrain has become "everted", like a sock turned inside out. In birds, there are also major changes in forebrain structure. These distortions can make it difficult to match brain components from one species with those of another species.

The forebrain is everted in what type of fishes?

teleost fishes

Which part of the brain has led to many distortions among different species?

forebrain area


The most obvious difference between the brains of mammals and other vertebrates is in terms of size. On average, a mammal has a brain roughly twice as large as that of a bird of the same body size, and ten times as large as that of a reptile of the same body size.

A mammal's brain is how many times larger than a birds relative to body size?

twice as large

A mammal's brain is how many times larger than a reptiles relative to body size?

ten times

The biggest difference between brains of mammals and other vertebrates is what?

size.


Size, however, is not the only difference: there are also substantial differences in shape. The hindbrain and midbrain of mammals are generally similar to those of other vertebrates, but dramatic differences appear in the forebrain, which is greatly enlarged and also altered in structure. The cerebral cortex is the part of the brain that most strongly distinguishes mammals. In non-mammalian vertebrates, the surface of the cerebrum is lined with a comparatively simple three-layered structure called the pallium. In mammals, the pallium evolves into a complex six-layered structure called neocortex or isocortex. Several areas at the edge of the neocortex, including the hippocampus and amygdala, are also much more extensively developed in mammals than in other vertebrates.

What part of the brain most strongly differentiates mammals from other vertebrates?

The cerebral cortex

The three-layered structure covering the cerebrum in non-mammals is known as what?

pallium

Mammals have a pallium that involved into what?

neocortex or isocortex

The hippocampus and amygdala are ares inside what structure?

neocortex


The elaboration of the cerebral cortex carries with it changes to other brain areas. The superior colliculus, which plays a major role in visual control of behavior in most vertebrates, shrinks to a small size in mammals, and many of its functions are taken over by visual areas of the cerebral cortex. The cerebellum of mammals contains a large portion (the neocerebellum) dedicated to supporting the cerebral cortex, which has no counterpart in other vertebrates.

The superior colliculus is related to what sensual control of vertebrates?

visual

The larger part of the cerebellum in mammals is called what?

(the neocerebellum

The Neocerebellum supports what other part of the brain?

cerebral cortex


The brains of humans and other primates contain the same structures as the brains of other mammals, but are generally larger in proportion to body size. The most widely accepted way of comparing brain sizes across species is the so-called encephalization quotient (EQ), which takes into account the nonlinearity of the brain-to-body relationship. Humans have an average EQ in the 7-to-8 range, while most other primates have an EQ in the 2-to-3 range. Dolphins have values higher than those of primates other than humans, but nearly all other mammals have EQ values that are substantially lower.

Comparing brain sizes among different creatures is used most commonly by what?

encephalization quotient (EQ)

What is the average EQ of a person?

7-to-8 range

Primates have an EQ in what range?


Most of the enlargement of the primate brain comes from a massive expansion of the cerebral cortex, especially the prefrontal cortex and the parts of the cortex involved in vision. The visual processing network of primates includes at least 30 distinguishable brain areas, with a complex web of interconnections. It has been estimated that visual processing areas occupy more than half of the total surface of the primate neocortex. The prefrontal cortex carries out functions that include planning, working memory, motivation, attention, and executive control. It takes up a much larger proportion of the brain for primates than for other species, and an especially large fraction of the human brain.

Primates have a visual processing network of how many brain areas?

The visual processing areas occupy how much of the surface of the neocortex or primates?

more than half

Planning, motivation, and attention are controlled by what area?

prefrontal cortex

The prefrontal cortex is the largest in what animals?

primates


For vertebrates, the early stages of neural development are similar across all species. As the embryo transforms from a round blob of cells into a wormlike structure, a narrow strip of ectoderm running along the midline of the back is induced to become the neural plate, the precursor of the nervous system. The neural plate folds inward to form the neural groove, and then the lips that line the groove merge to enclose the neural tube, a hollow cord of cells with a fluid-filled ventricle at the center. At the front end, the ventricles and cord swell to form three vesicles that are the precursors of the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. At the next stage, the forebrain splits into two vesicles called the telencephalon (which will contain the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and related structures) and the diencephalon (which will contain the thalamus and hypothalamus). At about the same time, the hindbrain splits into the metencephalon (which will contain the cerebellum and pons) and the myelencephalon (which will contain the medulla oblongata). Each of these areas contains proliferative zones where neurons and glial cells are generated; the resulting cells then migrate, sometimes for long distances, to their final positions.

The precursor of the nervous system is called what in vertebrates?

the neural plate

The neural groove is a hollow cord of cells with what in the center?

fluid-filled ventricle

The forebrain splits during development into vesicles called what?

telencephalon (which will contain the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and related structures) and the diencephalon

The vesicle that contains the cerebral cortex is which one?

telencephalon

The thalamus and hypothalamus are contained in which vesicle?

the diencephalon


Once a neuron is in place, it extends dendrites and an axon into the area around it. Axons, because they commonly extend a great distance from the cell body and need to reach specific targets, grow in a particularly complex way. The tip of a growing axon consists of a blob of protoplasm called a growth cone, studded with chemical receptors. These receptors sense the local environment, causing the growth cone to be attracted or repelled by various cellular elements, and thus to be pulled in a particular direction at each point along its path. The result of this pathfinding process is that the growth cone navigates through the brain until it reaches its destination area, where other chemical cues cause it to begin generating synapses. Considering the entire brain, thousands of genes create products that influence axonal pathfinding.

A growth cone of an axon is made up of a blob of what?

protoplasm

What two structures does a neuron extend when it is in place during development?

dendrites and an axon


In humans and many other mammals, new neurons are created mainly before birth, and the infant brain contains substantially more neurons than the adult brain. There are, however, a few areas where new neurons continue to be generated throughout life. The two areas for which adult neurogenesis is well established are the olfactory bulb, which is involved in the sense of smell, and the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus, where there is evidence that the new neurons play a role in storing newly acquired memories. With these exceptions, however, the set of neurons that is present in early childhood is the set that is present for life. Glial cells are different: as with most types of cells in the body, they are generated throughout the lifespan.

The infant brain contains more of what type of cells in the brain than the adult brain?

neurons

The olfactory bulb is related to what sense?

sense of smell

What area of the hippocampus plays a role in storing new memories?

dentate gyrus of the hippocampus

Which type of cells in the brain are generated throughout your lifetime?

Glial cells

Neurogenesis is the process of what?

neurons continue to be generated throughout life


The functions of the brain depend on the ability of neurons to transmit electrochemical signals to other cells, and their ability to respond appropriately to electrochemical signals received from other cells. The electrical properties of neurons are controlled by a wide variety of biochemical and metabolic processes, most notably the interactions between neurotransmitters and receptors that take place at synapses.

The electrical properties of neurons are controlled by what?

neurotransmitters and receptors that take place at synapses

What type of signals do neurons transfer from one another?

electrochemical


Neurotransmitters are chemicals that are released at synapses when an action potential activates them—neurotransmitters attach themselves to receptor molecules on the membrane of the synapse's target cell, and thereby alter the electrical or chemical properties of the receptor molecules. With few exceptions, each neuron in the brain releases the same chemical neurotransmitter, or combination of neurotransmitters, at all the synaptic connections it makes with other neurons; this rule is known as Dale's principle. Thus, a neuron can be characterized by the neurotransmitters that it releases. The great majority of psychoactive drugs exert their effects by altering specific neurotransmitter systems. This applies to drugs such as cannabinoids, nicotine, heroin, cocaine, alcohol, fluoxetine, chlorpromazine, and many others.

Chemicals called neurotransmitters are released at what part of the brain?

synapses

What do neurotransmitters attach to?

receptor molecules on the membrane of the synapse's target cell

Neurons that release the same chemicals are following what rule?

Dale's principle


The two neurotransmitters that are used most widely in the vertebrate brain are glutamate, which almost always exerts excitatory effects on target neurons, and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), which is almost always inhibitory. Neurons using these transmitters can be found in nearly every part of the brain. Because of their ubiquity, drugs that act on glutamate or GABA tend to have broad and powerful effects. Some general anesthetics act by reducing the effects of glutamate; most tranquilizers exert their sedative effects by enhancing the effects of GABA.

GABA is the abbreviation for what?

gamma-aminobutyric acid

Which of two neurotransmitters is usually inhibitory?

gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)

The neurostransmitter that usually excites targets is called what?

glutamate,

Tranquilizers affect which of the two common neurotransmitters?

gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)


There are dozens of other chemical neurotransmitters that are used in more limited areas of the brain, often areas dedicated to a particular function. Serotonin, for example—the primary target of antidepressant drugs and many dietary aids—comes exclusively from a small brainstem area called the Raphe nuclei. Norepinephrine, which is involved in arousal, comes exclusively from a nearby small area called the locus coeruleus. Other neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine and dopamine have multiple sources in the brain, but are not as ubiquitously distributed as glutamate and GABA.

Serotonin comes from what part of the brain?

Raphe nuclei

Antidepressants typically affect what chemical of the brain?

Serotonin

Which chemical of the brain is involved with arousal?

Norepinephrine

Norepinephrine comes from an area of the brain known as what?

locus coeruleus


As a side effect of the electrochemical processes used by neurons for signaling, brain tissue generates electric fields when it is active. When large numbers of neurons show synchronized activity, the electric fields that they generate can be large enough to detect outside the skull, using electroencephalography (EEG) or magnetoencephalography (MEG). EEG recordings, along with recordings made from electrodes implanted inside the brains of animals such as rats, show that the brain of a living animal is constantly active, even during sleep. Each part of the brain shows a mixture of rhythmic and nonrhythmic activity, which may vary according to behavioral state. In mammals, the cerebral cortex tends to show large slow delta waves during sleep, faster alpha waves when the animal is awake but inattentive, and chaotic-looking irregular activity when the animal is actively engaged in a task. During an epileptic seizure, the brain's inhibitory control mechanisms fail to function and electrical activity rises to pathological levels, producing EEG traces that show large wave and spike patterns not seen in a healthy brain. Relating these population-level patterns to the computational functions of individual neurons is a major focus of current research in neurophysiology.

An EEG of the brain stands for what?

electroencephalography

MEG of the brain is an abbreviation of what?

magnetoencephalography

What type of test is used to tell that a brain is active even during sleep?

EEG

What type of brain waves are seen in mammals during sleep?

large slow delta waves

What type of brain waves are sen when a creature is awake, but inattentive?

faster alpha waves


All vertebrates have a blood–brain barrier that allows metabolism inside the brain to operate differently from metabolism in other parts of the body. Glial cells play a major role in brain metabolism by controlling the chemical composition of the fluid that surrounds neurons, including levels of ions and nutrients.

What type of cells have a huge role in brain metabolism?

Glial cells

Glial cells control what inside the brain?

chemical composition of the fluid that surrounds neurons


Brain tissue consumes a large amount of energy in proportion to its volume, so large brains place severe metabolic demands on animals. The need to limit body weight in order, for example, to fly, has apparently led to selection for a reduction of brain size in some species, such as bats. Most of the brain's energy consumption goes into sustaining the electric charge (membrane potential) of neurons. Most vertebrate species devote between 2% and 8% of basal metabolism to the brain. In primates, however, the percentage is much higher—in humans it rises to 20–25%. The energy consumption of the brain does not vary greatly over time, but active regions of the cerebral cortex consume somewhat more energy than inactive regions; this forms the basis for the functional brain imaging methods PET, fMRI, and NIRS. The brain typically gets most of its energy from oxygen-dependent metabolism of glucose (i.e., blood sugar), but ketones provide a major alternative source, together with contributions from medium chain fatty acids (caprylic and heptanoic acids), lactate, acetate, and possibly amino acids.

Where does the brain usually get most of its energy from inside the body?

glucose (i.e., blood sugar

The energy used for metabolism of the brain in humans is what percentage?

Other sources than glucose that provide energy to the brain are what?

ketones

Most vertebrates usually devote how much metabolism to the brain?

2% and 8%


From an evolutionary-biological perspective, the function of the brain is to provide coherent control over the actions of an animal. A centralized brain allows groups of muscles to be co-activated in complex patterns; it also allows stimuli impinging on one part of the body to evoke responses in other parts, and it can prevent different parts of the body from acting at cross-purposes to each other.

The function of the brain from an evolutionary-biological thought is what?

provide coherent control over the actions of an animal


The invention of electronic computers in the 1940s, along with the development of mathematical information theory, led to a realization that brains can potentially be understood as information processing systems. This concept formed the basis of the field of cybernetics, and eventually gave rise to the field now known as computational neuroscience. The earliest attempts at cybernetics were somewhat crude in that they treated the brain as essentially a digital computer in disguise, as for example in John von Neumann's 1958 book, The Computer and the Brain. Over the years, though, accumulating information about the electrical responses of brain cells recorded from behaving animals has steadily moved theoretical concepts in the direction of increasing realism.

Computers were invented in what decade in history?

Neuroscience spawned from what field of science in history?

cybernetics

Who wrote the book, The Computer and the Brain?

John von Neumann's

When was John von Neumann's book, The Computer and the Brain published?


The essence of the information processing approach is to try to understand brain function in terms of information flow and implementation of algorithms. One of the most influential early contributions was a 1959 paper titled What the frog's eye tells the frog's brain: the paper examined the visual responses of neurons in the retina and optic tectum of frogs, and came to the conclusion that some neurons in the tectum of the frog are wired to combine elementary responses in a way that makes them function as "bug perceivers". A few years later David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel discovered cells in the primary visual cortex of monkeys that become active when sharp edges move across specific points in the field of view—a discovery for which they won a Nobel Prize. Follow-up studies in higher-order visual areas found cells that detect binocular disparity, color, movement, and aspects of shape, with areas located at increasing distances from the primary visual cortex showing increasingly complex responses. Other investigations of brain areas unrelated to vision have revealed cells with a wide variety of response correlates, some related to memory, some to abstract types of cognition such as space.

The scientific paper, What the frog's eye tells the frog's brain was released in what year?

Who won a Nobel Prize for the discovery that cells in the visual cortex of monkeys become active when sharp edges move?

David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel


Furthermore, even single neurons appear to be complex and capable of performing computations. So, brain models that don't reflect this are arguably too abstractive to be representative of brain operation; models that do try to capture this are very computationally expensive and arguably intractable with present computational resources. However, having said this, the Human Brain Project is trying to build a realistic, detailed computational model of the entire human brain. It remains to be seen what level of success they can achieve in the time frame of the project and the wisdom of it has been publicly contested, with high-profile scientists on both sides of the argument.

What is the project called that is trying to build a realistic, detailed computer model of the human brain?

the Human Brain Project


One of the primary functions of a brain is to extract biologically relevant information from sensory inputs. The human brain is provided with information about light, sound, the chemical composition of the atmosphere, temperature, head orientation, limb position, the chemical composition of the bloodstream, and more. In other animals additional senses may be present, such as the infrared heat-sense of snakes, the magnetic field sense of some birds, or the electric field sense of some types of fish. Moreover, other animals may develop existing sensory systems in new ways, such as the adaptation by bats of the auditory sense into a form of sonar. One way or another, all of these sensory modalities are initially detected by specialized sensors that project signals into the brain.

What type of animal has a sense that adapted into sonar?

bats

What type of animal uses infrared heat to sense?

snakes

The group of animals that can detect magnetic fields is what?

birds

The group of creatures that can sense electric fields is what?

fish


Each sensory system begins with specialized receptor cells, such as light-receptive neurons in the retina of the eye, vibration-sensitive neurons in the cochlea of the ear, or pressure-sensitive neurons in the skin. The axons of sensory receptor cells travel into the spinal cord or brain, where they transmit their signals to a first-order sensory nucleus dedicated to one specific sensory modality. This primary sensory nucleus sends information to higher-order sensory areas that are dedicated to the same modality. Eventually, via a way-station in the thalamus, the signals are sent to the cerebral cortex, where they are processed to extract biologically relevant features, and integrated with signals coming from other sensory systems.

Light-receptive neurons are located in what part of the eye?

retina

Vibration-sensitive neurons are found in what part of the ear?

cochlea

Signals are sent from the thalamus to what part of the brain?

cerebral cortex


Motor systems are areas of the brain that are directly or indirectly involved in producing body movements, that is, in activating muscles. Except for the muscles that control the eye, which are driven by nuclei in the midbrain, all the voluntary muscles in the body are directly innervated by motor neurons in the spinal cord and hindbrain. Spinal motor neurons are controlled both by neural circuits intrinsic to the spinal cord, and by inputs that descend from the brain. The intrinsic spinal circuits implement many reflex responses, and contain pattern generators for rhythmic movements such as walking or swimming. The descending connections from the brain allow for more sophisticated control.

What part of the body is controlled by nuclei in the midbrain?

the eye,

All the muscles controlled by motor neurons in the body are controlled by what?

spinal cord and hindbrain


The brain contains several motor areas that project directly to the spinal cord. At the lowest level are motor areas in the medulla and pons, which control stereotyped movements such as walking, breathing, or swallowing. At a higher level are areas in the midbrain, such as the red nucleus, which is responsible for coordinating movements of the arms and legs. At a higher level yet is the primary motor cortex, a strip of tissue located at the posterior edge of the frontal lobe. The primary motor cortex sends projections to the subcortical motor areas, but also sends a massive projection directly to the spinal cord, through the pyramidal tract. This direct corticospinal projection allows for precise voluntary control of the fine details of movements. Other motor-related brain areas exert secondary effects by projecting to the primary motor areas. Among the most important secondary areas are the premotor cortex, basal ganglia, and cerebellum.

Which motor areas of the brain control breathing and swallowing?

the medulla and pons,

At the lowest level of the brain and spinal cord, are what areas?

the medulla and pons

The red nucleus controls what part(s) of the body?

coordinating movements of the arms and legs

A strip of tissue found at the edge of the frontal lobe is called what?

primary motor cortex

The primary motor cortex sends signals to the spinal cord through what?

pyramidal tract.


In addition to all of the above, the brain and spinal cord contain extensive circuitry to control the autonomic nervous system, which works by secreting hormones and by modulating the "smooth" muscles of the gut. The autonomic nervous system affects heart rate, digestion, respiration rate, salivation, perspiration, urination, and sexual arousal, and several other processes. Most of its functions are not under direct voluntary control.

The brain and spinal cord work together to control what system of the body?

autonomic nervous system

What system in the body controls heart rate?

autonomic nervous system

What system in the body controls salivation?

autonomic nervous system

Most of the processes of the autonomic nervous system are called what?

not under direct voluntary control

Which system in the body controls urination?

The autonomic nervous system


A key component of the arousal system is the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), a tiny part of the hypothalamus located directly above the point at which the optic nerves from the two eyes cross. The SCN contains the body's central biological clock. Neurons there show activity levels that rise and fall with a period of about 24 hours, circadian rhythms: these activity fluctuations are driven by rhythmic changes in expression of a set of "clock genes". The SCN continues to keep time even if it is excised from the brain and placed in a dish of warm nutrient solution, but it ordinarily receives input from the optic nerves, through the retinohypothalamic tract (RHT), that allows daily light-dark cycles to calibrate the clock.

The SCN of the nervous system is an abbreviation for what?

suprachiasmatic nucleus

The suprachiasmatic nucleus is a small part of what part of the brain?

the hypothalamus

Which part of the arousal system controls the body's biological clock?

the suprachiasmatic nucleus

The RHT is an abbreviation for what?

retinohypothalamic tract

THE SCN receives information from the optic nerves through what?

the retinohypothalamic tract (RHT


The SCN projects to a set of areas in the hypothalamus, brainstem, and midbrain that are involved in implementing sleep-wake cycles. An important component of the system is the reticular formation, a group of neuron-clusters scattered diffusely through the core of the lower brain. Reticular neurons send signals to the thalamus, which in turn sends activity-level-controlling signals to every part of the cortex. Damage to the reticular formation can produce a permanent state of coma.

A group of neuron-clusters scattered in the core of the lower brain is called what?

the reticular formation

Reticular neurons transfer signals to what part of the brain?

the thalamus

Damage to the reticular formation can cause what?

state of coma

The SCN transfers signals to a set of areas that implement what?

sleep-wake cycles.


Sleep involves great changes in brain activity. Until the 1950s it was generally believed that the brain essentially shuts off during sleep, but this is now known to be far from true; activity continues, but patterns become very different. There are two types of sleep: REM sleep (with dreaming) and NREM (non-REM, usually without dreaming) sleep, which repeat in slightly varying patterns throughout a sleep episode. Three broad types of distinct brain activity patterns can be measured: REM, light NREM and deep NREM. During deep NREM sleep, also called slow wave sleep, activity in the cortex takes the form of large synchronized waves, whereas in the waking state it is noisy and desynchronized. Levels of the neurotransmitters norepinephrine and serotonin drop during slow wave sleep, and fall almost to zero during REM sleep; levels of acetylcholine show the reverse pattern.

There are two types of sleep called what?

REM sleep (with dreaming) and NREM

What type of sleep involves dreaming?

REM sleep

The three types of brain activity that can be measured are what?

REM, light NREM and deep NREM

Slow wave sleep is also known as what?

deep NREM sleep

During what stage of sleep do serotonin and norepinephrine levels drop?

slow wave sleep


For any animal, survival requires maintaining a variety of parameters of bodily state within a limited range of variation: these include temperature, water content, salt concentration in the bloodstream, blood glucose levels, blood oxygen level, and others. The ability of an animal to regulate the internal environment of its body—the milieu intérieur, as pioneering physiologist Claude Bernard called it—is known as homeostasis (Greek for "standing still"). Maintaining homeostasis is a crucial function of the brain. The basic principle that underlies homeostasis is negative feedback: any time a parameter diverges from its set-point, sensors generate an error signal that evokes a response that causes the parameter to shift back toward its optimum value. (This principle is widely used in engineering, for example in the control of temperature using a thermostat.)

Homeostasis is defined as what?

The ability of an animal to regulate the internal environment of its body

Homeostasis is Greek for what phrase?

"standing still"

The milieu interieur term was used by what physiologist?

Claude Bernard

Homeostasis is like what household tool?

a thermostat.


In vertebrates, the part of the brain that plays the greatest role is the hypothalamus, a small region at the base of the forebrain whose size does not reflect its complexity or the importance of its function. The hypothalamus is a collection of small nuclei, most of which are involved in basic biological functions. Some of these functions relate to arousal or to social interactions such as sexuality, aggression, or maternal behaviors; but many of them relate to homeostasis. Several hypothalamic nuclei receive input from sensors located in the lining of blood vessels, conveying information about temperature, sodium level, glucose level, blood oxygen level, and other parameters. These hypothalamic nuclei send output signals to motor areas that can generate actions to rectify deficiencies. Some of the outputs also go to the pituitary gland, a tiny gland attached to the brain directly underneath the hypothalamus. The pituitary gland secretes hormones into the bloodstream, where they circulate throughout the body and induce changes in cellular activity.

The hypothalamus is located at the base of what?

the forebrain

In vertebrates, the most important part of the brain is what?

the hypothalamus,

A collection of small nuclei at the base of the forebrain is called what?

the hypothalamus,

The gland directly underneath the hypothalamus is which gland?

the pituitary gland

The pituitary gland sends hormones through what in the body?

the bloodstream


Most organisms studied to date utilize a reward–punishment mechanism: for instance, worms and insects can alter their behavior to seek food sources or to avoid dangers. In vertebrates, the reward-punishment system is implemented by a specific set of brain structures, at the heart of which lie the basal ganglia, a set of interconnected areas at the base of the forebrain. There is substantial evidence that the basal ganglia are the central site at which decisions are made: the basal ganglia exert a sustained inhibitory control over most of the motor systems in the brain; when this inhibition is released, a motor system is permitted to execute the action it is programmed to carry out. Rewards and punishments function by altering the relationship between the inputs that the basal ganglia receive and the decision-signals that are emitted. The reward mechanism is better understood than the punishment mechanism, because its role in drug abuse has caused it to be studied very intensively. Research has shown that the neurotransmitter dopamine plays a central role: addictive drugs such as cocaine, amphetamine, and nicotine either cause dopamine levels to rise or cause the effects of dopamine inside the brain to be enhanced.

A set of interconnected areas at the base of the forebrain is called what?

basal ganglia

The basal ganglia is thought to be the central location at which what are made?

decisions

Which neurotransmitter plays a large role in drug abuse?

dopamine

Which of the two systems, reward or punishment is better understood?

The reward mechanism


Almost all animals are capable of modifying their behavior as a result of experience—even the most primitive types of worms. Because behavior is driven by brain activity, changes in behavior must somehow correspond to changes inside the brain. Theorists dating back to Santiago Ramón y Cajal argued that the most plausible explanation is that learning and memory are expressed as changes in the synaptic connections between neurons. Until 1970, however, experimental evidence to support the synaptic plasticity hypothesis was lacking. In 1971 Tim Bliss and Terje Lømo published a paper on a phenomenon now called long-term potentiation: the paper showed clear evidence of activity-induced synaptic changes that lasted for at least several days. Since then technical advances have made these sorts of experiments much easier to carry out, and thousands of studies have been made that have clarified the mechanism of synaptic change, and uncovered other types of activity-driven synaptic change in a variety of brain areas, including the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, basal ganglia, and cerebellum. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and physical activity appear to play a beneficial role in the process.

In what year did Tim Bliss and Terje Lomo publish a paper about long-term potentiation?

BDNF is an abbreviation for what term?

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor

Learning and memory expressed as changes in the synaptic connections was first theorized by whom?

Santiago Ramón y Cajal


The field of neuroscience encompasses all approaches that seek to understand the brain and the rest of the nervous system. Psychology seeks to understand mind and behavior, and neurology is the medical discipline that diagnoses and treats diseases of the nervous system. The brain is also the most important organ studied in psychiatry, the branch of medicine that works to study, prevent, and treat mental disorders. Cognitive science seeks to unify neuroscience and psychology with other fields that concern themselves with the brain, such as computer science (artificial intelligence and similar fields) and philosophy.

What field of science studies the brain and the central nervous system?

neuroscience

What scientific field tries to understand the mind and behavior?

Psychology

What field of science strives to diagnose and treat diseases of the nervous system?

neurology

Psychiatry is the branch of science that does what?

study, prevent, and treat mental disorders

Cognitive science seeks to join what two branches of science with other fields?

neuroscience and psychology


The oldest method of studying the brain is anatomical, and until the middle of the 20th century, much of the progress in neuroscience came from the development of better cell stains and better microscopes. Neuroanatomists study the large-scale structure of the brain as well as the microscopic structure of neurons and their components, especially synapses. Among other tools, they employ a plethora of stains that reveal neural structure, chemistry, and connectivity. In recent years, the development of immunostaining techniques has allowed investigation of neurons that express specific sets of genes. Also, functional neuroanatomy uses medical imaging techniques to correlate variations in human brain structure with differences in cognition or behavior.

The oldest known method of studying the brain is what?

anatomical,

What do neuroanatomists study?

the large-scale structure of the brain

What type of study uses medical imaging techniques to correlate changes in brain structure?

neuroanatomy

Until what century was brain studying mostly anatomical?

the middle of the 20th century,


Neurophysiologists study the chemical, pharmacological, and electrical properties of the brain: their primary tools are drugs and recording devices. Thousands of experimentally developed drugs affect the nervous system, some in highly specific ways. Recordings of brain activity can be made using electrodes, either glued to the scalp as in EEG studies, or implanted inside the brains of animals for extracellular recordings, which can detect action potentials generated by individual neurons. Because the brain does not contain pain receptors, it is possible using these techniques to record brain activity from animals that are awake and behaving without causing distress. The same techniques have occasionally been used to study brain activity in human patients suffering from intractable epilepsy, in cases where there was a medical necessity to implant electrodes to localize the brain area responsible for epileptic seizures. Functional imaging techniques such as functional magnetic resonance imaging are also used to study brain activity; these techniques have mainly been used with human subjects, because they require a conscious subject to remain motionless for long periods of time, but they have the great advantage of being noninvasive.

What do neurophysiologists study?

the chemical, pharmacological, and electrical properties of the brain

The most common tools that neurophysiologists use are what?

drugs and recording devices

What type of receptors does the brain lack?

pain receptors

Electrodes are often glued to what like in EEG studies?

the scalp


Another approach to brain function is to examine the consequences of damage to specific brain areas. Even though it is protected by the skull and meninges, surrounded by cerebrospinal fluid, and isolated from the bloodstream by the blood–brain barrier, the delicate nature of the brain makes it vulnerable to numerous diseases and several types of damage. In humans, the effects of strokes and other types of brain damage have been a key source of information about brain function. Because there is no ability to experimentally control the nature of the damage, however, this information is often difficult to interpret. In animal studies, most commonly involving rats, it is possible to use electrodes or locally injected chemicals to produce precise patterns of damage and then examine the consequences for behavior.

The brain is surrounded by what type of fluid?

cerebrospinal fluid

The brain is separated from the bloodstream by what feature?

the blood–brain barrier

The two main structures that protect the brain are what?

the skull and meninges

What type of disease if often studied to understand damage to the brain?

strokes

What type of animal is most commonly used to study brain damage?

rats


Computational neuroscience encompasses two approaches: first, the use of computers to study the brain; second, the study of how brains perform computation. On one hand, it is possible to write a computer program to simulate the operation of a group of neurons by making use of systems of equations that describe their electrochemical activity; such simulations are known as biologically realistic neural networks. On the other hand, it is possible to study algorithms for neural computation by simulating, or mathematically analyzing, the operations of simplified "units" that have some of the properties of neurons but abstract out much of their biological complexity. The computational functions of the brain are studied both by computer scientists and neuroscientists.

Computational neuroscience is concerned with what two studies?

the use of computers to study the brain; second, the study of how brains perform computation.


Recent years have seen increasing applications of genetic and genomic techniques to the study of the brain  and a focus on the roles of neurotrophic factors and physical activity in neuroplasticity. The most common subjects are mice, because of the availability of technical tools. It is now possible with relative ease to "knock out" or mutate a wide variety of genes, and then examine the effects on brain function. More sophisticated approaches are also being used: for example, using Cre-Lox recombination it is possible to activate or deactivate genes in specific parts of the brain, at specific times.

What is the most common test subjects for studying of the brain?

mice


The oldest brain to have been discovered was in Armenia in the Areni-1 cave complex. The brain, estimated to be over 5,000 years old, was found in the skull of a 12 to 14-year-old girl. Although the brains were shriveled, they were well preserved due to the climate found inside the cave.

Where was the oldest brain that was found?

Armenia

How old was the oldest brain discovered thought to be?

over 5,000 years old

The oldest known brain discovered was found in how old of a person?

12 to 14-year-old

The oldest brain found in a cave was from what gender of human?

girl


Early philosophers were divided as to whether the seat of the soul lies in the brain or heart. Aristotle favored the heart, and thought that the function of the brain was merely to cool the blood. Democritus, the inventor of the atomic theory of matter, argued for a three-part soul, with intellect in the head, emotion in the heart, and lust near the liver. Hippocrates, the "father of medicine", came down unequivocally in favor of the brain. In his treatise on epilepsy he wrote:

The seal of the soul was debated to lie in what two organs of the body?

brain or heart.

Aristotle thought the soul lied in what organ?

the heart

Who invented the atomic theory of matter?

Democritus,

The "father of medicine" is a name given to whom in history?

Hippocrates

What philosopher in history argued for a three-part soul?

Democritus


The Roman physician Galen also argued for the importance of the brain, and theorized in some depth about how it might work. Galen traced out the anatomical relationships among brain, nerves, and muscles, demonstrating that all muscles in the body are connected to the brain through a branching network of nerves. He postulated that nerves activate muscles mechanically by carrying a mysterious substance he called pneumata psychikon, usually translated as "animal spirits". Galen's ideas were widely known during the Middle Ages, but not much further progress came until the Renaissance, when detailed anatomical study resumed, combined with the theoretical speculations of René Descartes and those who followed him. Descartes, like Galen, thought of the nervous system in hydraulic terms. He believed that the highest cognitive functions are carried out by a non-physical res cogitans, but that the majority of behaviors of humans, and all behaviors of animals, could be explained mechanistically.

The physician Galen was from which country in history?

Roman

What period in history was anatomical  studies of nerves greatly increased?

the Renaissance

Who coined the term pneumata psychikon?

The Roman physician Galen

Penumata psychikon is usually translated as what?

animal spirits


The first real progress toward a modern understanding of nervous function, though, came from the investigations of Luigi Galvani, who discovered that a shock of static electricity applied to an exposed nerve of a dead frog could cause its leg to contract. Since that time, each major advance in understanding has followed more or less directly from the development of a new technique of investigation. Until the early years of the 20th century, the most important advances were derived from new methods for staining cells. Particularly critical was the invention of the Golgi stain, which (when correctly used) stains only a small fraction of neurons, but stains them in their entirety, including cell body, dendrites, and axon. Without such a stain, brain tissue under a microscope appears as an impenetrable tangle of protoplasmic fibers, in which it is impossible to determine any structure. In the hands of Camillo Golgi, and especially of the Spanish neuroanatomist Santiago Ramón y Cajal, the new stain revealed hundreds of distinct types of neurons, each with its own unique dendritic structure and pattern of connectivity.

Who found out that a shock of electricity to an exposed nerve of a dead frog caused contractions?

Luigi Galvani

The tool that was invented to stain only a small fractions of neurons was called what?

the Golgi stain

What nationality was santiago Ramon y Cajal?

Spanish


In the first half of the 20th century, advances in electronics enabled investigation of the electrical properties of nerve cells, culminating in work by Alan Hodgkin, Andrew Huxley, and others on the biophysics of the action potential, and the work of Bernard Katz and others on the electrochemistry of the synapse. These studies complemented the anatomical picture with a conception of the brain as a dynamic entity. Reflecting the new understanding, in 1942 Charles Sherrington visualized the workings of the brain waking from sleep:

Work in the first half the 20th century in electrical properties of nerve cells were by what two main scientists?

Alan Hodgkin, Andrew Huxley


In the second half of the 20th century, developments in chemistry, electron microscopy, genetics, computer science, functional brain imaging, and other fields progressively opened new windows into brain structure and function. In the United States, the 1990s were officially designated as the "Decade of the Brain" to commemorate advances made in brain research, and to promote funding for such research.

Which decade in history was officially called the "Decade of the Brain"?

the 1990s


In the 21st century, these trends have continued, and several new approaches have come into prominence, including multielectrode recording, which allows the activity of many brain cells to be recorded all at the same time; genetic engineering, which allows molecular components of the brain to be altered experimentally; genomics, which allows variations in brain structure to be correlated with variations in DNA properties and neuroimaging.

Multielectrode recording allows what?

the activity of many brain cells to be recorded all at the same time;

Genetic engineering allows what?

molecular components of the brain to be altered experimentally;

What does genomics allow the study of?

variations in brain structure to be correlated with variations in DNA properties and neuroimaging.

During what century was multielectrode recording invented?

the 21st century,

Genetic engineering was first discovered in what century?

the 21st century,


Near East (French: Proche-Orient) is a geographical term that roughly encompasses Western Asia. Despite having varying definitions within different academic circles, the term was originally applied to the maximum extent of the Ottoman Empire. The term has fallen into disuse in English, and has been replaced by the term Middle East.

What is a geographical term that roughly encompasses Western Asia?

Near East (French: Proche-Orient)

The term near east was originally applies to the maximum extent of what empire?

Ottoman Empire

The term Near East has fallen into disuses in what language?

English

What has replaced the term Near East?

Middle East


The Encyclopædia Britannica defines the Near East as including Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Cyprus, Egypt, Georgia, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria, Turkey, the United Arab Emirates, the West Bank, and Yemen. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations defines the region similarly, but also includes Afghanistan while excluding the countries of North Africa and the Palestinian territories. According to the National Geographic Society, the terms Near East and Middle East denote the same territories and are 'generally accepted as comprising the countries of the Arabian Peninsula, Cyprus, Egypt, Iraq, Iran, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestinian territories, Syria, and Turkey'.

Who defines the Near East as including Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Cyprus, Egypt. Georgia, Iran, Iraq, Isreal, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria, Turkey, the United Arab Emirates, the West Bank, and Yemen?

The Encyclopædia Britannica

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations also includes what Country in the definition of Near East?

Afghanistan

What group believes the terms Near East and Middle East denote the same territories?

the National Geographic Society


At the beginning of the 19th century the Ottoman Empire included all of the Balkan Peninsula north to the southern edge of the Hungarian Plain, but by 1914 had lost all of it except Constantinople and Eastern Thrace to the rise of Balkan nationalism, which saw the independence of Greece, Serbia, the Danubian Principalities and Bulgaria. Up until 1912 the Ottomans retained a band of territory including Albania, Macedonia and Thrace, which were lost in the two Balkan Wars of 1912–13.

What empire included all of the Balkan Peninsula north to the southern edge of the Hungarian Plain at the beginning of the 19th century?

the Ottoman Empire

When did the Ottoman Empire lose all of it's empire except Constantinople and Eastern Thrace?

The rise of what saw the independence of Greece, Serbia, the Danubian Principalities and Bulgaria?

the rise of Balkan nationalism

Until what year did the Ottomans retain a band of territory including Albania, Macedonia and Thrace?

When did the Ottomans lose the territory of Albania, Macedonia and Thrace?

the two Balkan Wars of 1912–13


The Ottoman Empire, believed to be about to collapse, was portrayed in the press as the sick man of Europe". The Balkan states, with the partial exception of Bosnia and Albania, were primarily Christian. Starting in 1894 the Ottomans struck at the Armenians on the explicit grounds that they were a non-Muslim people and as such were a potential threat to the Muslim empire within which they resided. The Hamidian Massacres aroused the indignation of the entire Christian world. In the United States the now aging Julia Ward Howe, author of the Battle Hymn of the Republic, leaped into the war of words and joined the Red Cross. Relations of minorities within the Ottoman Empire and the disposition of former Ottoman lands became known as the "Eastern Question," as the Ottomans were on the east of Europe.

How was the Ottoman Empire portrayed in the press?

as the sick man of Europe

The Balkan states were primarily what religion?

Christian

When did the Ottomans strike at the Armenians?

What are the grounds on which the Ottomans struck at the Armenians?

the explicit grounds that they were a non-Muslim people

What aroused the indignation of the entire Christian world?

The Hamidian Massacres


It now became relevant to define the east of the eastern question. In about the middle of the 19th century "Near East" came into use to describe that part of the east closest to Europe. The term "Far East" appeared contemporaneously meaning Japan, China, Korea, Indonesia and Viet Nam; in short, the East Indies. "Near East" applied to what had been mainly known as the Levant, which was in the jurisdiction of the Ottoman Porte, or government. Those who used the term had little choice about its meaning. They could not set foot on most of the shores of the southern and central Mediterranean from the Gulf of Sidra to Albania without permits from the Ottoman Empire.

When did "Near East" come into use to describe the part of the east closest to Europe?

middle of the 19th century

In short, the term Far East appeared to name this area

the East Indies

"Near East" applied to this mainly known area

the Levant

What was the jurisdiction of the Levant in?

the Ottoman Porte

What was needed to set foot on most of the shores of the southern and central Mediterranean?

permits from the Ottoman Empire


Some regions beyond the Ottoman Porte were included. One was North Africa west of Egypt. It was occupied by piratical kingdoms of the Barbary Coast, de facto independent since the 18th century. Formerly part of the empire at its apogee. Iran was included because it could not easily be reached except through the Ottoman Empire or neighboring Russia. In the 1890s the term tended to focus on the conflicts in the Balkan states and Armenia. The demise of the sick man of Europe left considerable confusion as to what was to be meant by "Near East". It is now generally used only in historical contexts, to describe the countries of Western Asia from the Mediterranean to (or including) Iran. There is, in short, no universally understood fixed inventory of nations, languages or historical assets defined to be in it.

What was one region included that was occupied by piratical kingdoms?

North Africa west of Egypt

Where were the piratical kingdoms from?

Barbary Coast

Why was Iran included in the collection of regions?

because it could not easily be reached except through the Ottoman Empire or neighboring Russia

What did the term Near East focus on in the 1890s?

the conflicts in the Balkan states and Armenia

The demise of what left considerable confusion as to what was to be meant by "Near East"

of the sick man of Europe


The geographical terms "Near East" and "Far East" referring to areas of the globe in or contiguous to the former British Empire and the neighboring colonies of the Dutch, Portuguese, Spanish and Germans, fit together as a pair based on the opposites of far and near, suggesting that they were innovated together. They appear together in the journals of the mid-19th century. Both terms were used before then with local British and American meanings: the near or far east of a field, village or shire.

The terms "Near East" and "Far East" referring to areas of the globe in or contiguous to the former British Empire and the neighboring colonies fit together as a pair based on what?

the opposites of far and near

When do the terms "Near East" and "Far East" appear together in journals?

the mid-19th century

The term Near East and Far East were used in British and American meanings when referring to what?

the near or far east of a field, village or shire.


There was a linguistic predisposition to use such terms. The Romans had used them in near Gaul / far Gaul, near Spain / far Spain and others. Before them the Greeks had the habit, which appears in Linear B, the oldest known script of Europe, referring to the near province and the far province of the kingdom of Pylos. Usually these terms were given with reference to a geographic feature, such as a mountain range or a river.

Who used the terms near Gaul?

The Romans

The appearance of what culture using the terms appears in Linear B?

the Greeks

Usually the terms were given when referencing what?

a geographic feature


Ptolemy's Geography divided Asia on a similar basis. In the north is "Scythia this side of the Himalayas" and "Scythia beyond the Himalayas." To the south is "India on this side of the Ganges" and "India beyond the Ganges." Asia began on the coast of Anatolia ("land of the rising sun"). Beyond the Ganges and Himalayas (including the Tien Shan) were Serica and Serae (sections of China) and some other identifiable far eastern locations known to the voyagers and geographers but not to the general European public.

What divided Asia on a similar basis?

Ptolemy's Geography

"Scythia this side of the Himalayas" is located where?

In the north

"India on this side of the Ganges" is located where?

To the south

"Scythia beyond the Himalayas" is located where?

In the north

Where did Asia begin?

on the coast of Anatolia


By the time of John Seller's Atlas Maritima of 1670, "India Beyond the Ganges" had become "the East Indies" including China, Korea, southeast Asia and the islands of the Pacific in a map that was every bit as distorted as Ptolemy's, despite the lapse of approximately 1500 years. That "east" in turn was only an English translation of Latin Oriens and Orientalis, "the land of the rising sun," used since Roman times for "east." The world map of Jodocus Hondius of 1590 labels all of Asia from the Caspian to the Pacific as India Orientalis, shortly to appear in translation as the East Indies.

When was John Seller's Atlas Maritima?

What had "India Beyond the Ganges" become?

the East Indies

China, Korea, southeast Asia and the islands of the Pacific were included in what?

"the East Indies"

What was only an English translation of Latin Oriens and Orientalis, "the land of the rising sun"?

"east"

What year did Jodocus Hondius make his world map?


Elizabeth I of England, primarily interested in trade with the east, collaborated with English merchants to form the first trading companies to the far-flung regions, using their own jargon. Their goals were to obtain trading concessions by treaty. The queen chartered the Company of Merchants of the Levant, shortened to Levant Company, and soon known also as The Turkey Company, in 1581. In 1582, the ship The Great Susan transported the first ambassador, William Harebone, to the Ottoman Porte (government of the Ottoman Empire) at Constantinople. Compared to Anatolia, Levant also means "land of the rising sun," but where Anatolia always only meant the projection of land currently occupied by the Republic of Turkey, Levant meant anywhere in the domain ruled by the Ottoman Porte. The East India Company (short for a much longer formal name) was chartered in 1600 for trade to the East Indies.

Where was Elizabeth I from?

England

What was Elizabeth primarily interested in?

trade with the east

Who did Elizabeth I collaborate with?

English merchants

What was the goal of the first trading companies?

obtain trading concessions by treaty

What company was charted in 1600 for trade to the East Indies?

The East India Company


It has pleased western historians to write of a decline of the Ottoman Empire as though a stable and uncontested polity of that name once existed. The borders did expand and contract but they were always dynamic and always in "question" right from the beginning. The Ottoman Empire was created from the lands of the former eastern Roman Empire on the occasion of the latter's violent demise. The last Roman emperor died fighting hand-to-hand in the streets of his capital, Constantinople, overwhelmed by the Ottoman military, in May, 1453. The victors inherited his remaining territory in the Balkans.

What has pleased western historians?

to write of a decline of the Ottoman Empire

What was always in question from the beginning of the Ottoman Empire?

The borders

What was the Ottoman Empire created from?

the lands of the former eastern Roman Empire

How did the last Roman emperor die?

fighting hand-to-hand in the streets

Where was the Roman emperor's capital?

Constantinople


The populations of those lands did not accept Turkish rule. The Turks to them were foreigners with completely different customs, way of life, and language. Intervals when there was no unrest were rare. The Hungarians had thrown off Turkish rule by 1688. Serbia was created by the Serbian Revolution, 1815–1833. The Greek War of Independence, 1821–1832, created modern Greece, which recovered most of the lands of ancient Greece, but could not gain Constantinople. The Ottoman Porte was continuously under attack from some quarter in its empire, primarily the Balkans. Also, on a number of occasions in the early 19th century, American and British warships had to attack the Barbary pirates to stop their piracy and recover thousands of enslaved Europeans and Americans.

The populations did not accept what?

Turkish rule

The Hungarians had thrown off Turkish rule by what year?

What created Serbia?

the Serbian Revolution

When was the Serbian Revolution?

When was the Greek War of Independence?


In 1853 the Russian Empire on behalf of the Slavic Balkan states began to question the very existence of the Ottoman Empire. The result was the Crimean War, 1853–1856, in which the British Empire and the French Empire supported the Ottoman Empire in its struggle against the incursions of the Russian Empire. Eventually, the Ottoman Empire lost control of the Balkan region.

When did the Russian Empire begin to question the existence of the Ottoman Empire?

When was the Crimean War?

During the Crimean War who did the British and French support?

the Ottoman Empire

What was the Ottoman Empire's struggle against in the Crimean War?

the incursions of the Russian Empire

The Ottoman Empire eventually lost control of what region?

the Balkan region


Until about 1855 the words near east and far east did not refer to any particular region. The far East, a phrase containing a noun, East, qualified by an adjective, far, could be at any location in the "far east" of the speaker's home territory. The Ottoman Empire, for example, was the far East as much as the East Indies. The Crimean War brought a change in vocabulary with the introduction of terms more familiar to the late 19th century. The Russian Empire had entered a more aggressive phase, becoming militarily active against the Ottoman Empire and also against China, with territorial aggrandizement explicitly in mind. Rethinking its policy the British government decided that the two polities under attack were necessary for the balance of power. It therefore undertook to oppose the Russians in both places, one result being the Crimean War. During that war the administration of the British Empire began promulgating a new vocabulary, giving specific regional meaning to "the Near East," the Ottoman Empire, and "the Far East," the East Indies. The two terms were now compound nouns often shown hyphenated.

Until what year did the words near east and far east not refer to any particular region?

What brought a change in vocabulary?

The Crimean War

The Russian Empire became more militarily active against who?

the Ottoman Empire

Who decided the two polities under attack were necessary for the balance of power?

the British government

What empire began promulgating a new vocabulary?

the British Empire


In 1855 a reprint of a letter earlier sent to The Times appeared in Littel's Living Age. Its author, an "official Chinese interpreter of 10 years' active service" and a member of the Oriental Club, Thomas Taylor Meadows, was replying to the suggestion by another interpreter that the British Empire was wasting its resources on a false threat from Russia against China. Toward the end of the letter he said:

When was a reprint of a letter sent to The Times appear in Littel's Living Age?

Who was the author of the letter sent to the Times?

Thomas Taylor Meadows

What was Thomas Taylor Meadows replying to?

the suggestion by another interpreter


Much of the colonial administration belonged to this club, which had been formed by the Duke of Wellington. Meadows' terminology must represent usage by that administration. If not the first use of the terms, the letter to the Times was certainly one of the earliest presentations of this vocabulary to the general public. They became immediately popular, supplanting "Levant" and "East Indies," which gradually receded to minor usages and then began to change meaning.

What was one of the earliest presentations of this vocabulary?

the letter to the Times

What was said must represent usage by that administration?

Meadows' terminology

Who had formed the club that contained much of the colonial administration?

Duke of Wellington


"Near East" remained popular in diplomatic, trade and journalistic circles, but a variation soon developed among the scholars and the men of the cloth and their associates: "the Nearer East," reverting to the classical and then more scholarly distinction of "nearer" and "farther." They undoubtedly saw a need to separate the Biblical lands from the terrain of the Ottoman Empire. The Christians saw the country as the land of the Old and New Testaments, where Christianity had developed. The scholars in the field of studies that eventually became Biblical archaeology attempted to define it on the basis of archaeology.

What remained popular in diplomatic, trade and journalistic circles?

"Near East"

What variation soon developed among the scholars and the men of the cloth and their associates?

"the Nearer East,"

There was a need to separate what from the terrain of the Ottoman Empire?

the Biblical lands

What did the Christians see the country as?

the land of the Old and New Testaments

How did the scholars attempt their definition?

on the basis of archaeology


For example, The London Review of 1861 (Telford and Barber, unsigned) in reviewing several works by Rawlinson, Layard and others, defined themselves as making:

When was the London Review?

Rawlinson, Layard and others were reviewed in what?

The London Review of 1861

Who wrote The London Review of 1861?

(Telford and Barber


The regions in their inventory were Assyria, Chaldea, Mesopotamia, Persia, Armenia, Egypt, Arabia, Syria, Palestine, Ethiopia, Caucasus, Libya, Anatolia and Abyssinia. Explicitly excluded is India. No mention is made of the Balkans.

What region was explicitly excluded?

India

What region has no mention?

the Balkans

Assyria, Chaldea, Mesopotamia, Persia, Armenia, Egypt, Arabia, Syria, Palestine, Ethiopia, Caucasus, Libya, Anatolia, and Abyssinia were all what?

regions in their inventory


Hogarth then proceeds to say where and why in some detail, but no more mention is made of the classics. His analysis is geopolitical. His map delineates the Nearer East with regular lines as though surveyed. They include Iran, the Balkans, but not the Danube lands, Egypt, but not the rest of North Africa. Except for the Balkans, the region matches the later Middle East. It differs from the Ottoman Empire of the times in including Greece and Iran. Hogarth gives no evidence of being familiar with the contemporaneous initial concept of the Middle East.

What does Hogarth say in detail?

where and why

Hogarth makes no mention of what?

the classics

How is Hogarth's analysis?

geopolitical


In the last years of the 19th century the term "Near East" acquired considerable disrepute in eyes of the English-speaking public as did the Ottoman Empire itself. The cause of the onus was the Hamidian Massacres of Armenians because they were Christians, but it seemed to spill over into the protracted conflicts of the Balkans. For a time, "Near East" meant primarily the Balkans. Robert Hichens' book The Near East (1913) is subtitled Dalmatia, Greece and Constantinople.

When did the term "Near East" acquire considerable disrepute?

the 19th century

The term "Near East" acquired considerable disrepute in whose eyes?

English-speaking public

What was the cause of the onus?

the Hamidian Massacres of Armenians

What was the cause of the Hamidian Massacres of Armenians?

they were Christians

When was Robert Hickens' book wrote?


The change is evident in the reports of influential British travellers to the Balkans. In 1894, Sir Henry Norman, 1st Baronet, a journalist, travelled to the Far East, afterwards writing a book called The Peoples and Politics of the Far East, which came out in 1895. By "Far East" he meant Siberia, China, Japan, Korea, Siam and Malaya. As the book was a big success, he was off to the Balkan states with his wife in 1896 to develop detail for a sequel, The People and Politics of the Near East, which Scribners planned to publish in 1897. Mrs. Norman, a writer herself, wrote glowing letters of the home and person of Mme. Zakki, "the wife of a Turkish cabinet minister," who, she said, was a cultivated woman living in a country home full of books. As for the natives of the Balkans, they were "a semi-civilized people."

Reports from who made the change evident?

influential British travellers

Where did Sir Henry Norman travel in 1894

the Far East

What book did Sir Henry Norman write after traveling to the Far East?

The Peoples and Politics of the Far East

What year did Sir Henry Norman's book come out?


The book was never published. Instead the Normans whirled off to New York. Norman published the gist of his planned travel book curiously mixed with vituperation against the Ottoman Empire in an article in June, 1896, in Scribner's Magazine. The empire had descended from an enlightened civilization ruling over barbarians for their own good to something considerably less. The difference was the Hamidian Massacres, which were being conducted even as the couple traveled the Balkans. According to Norman now, the empire had been established by "the Moslem horde" from Asia, which was stopped by "intrepid Hungary." Furthermore, "Greece shook off the turbaned destroyer of her people" and so on. The Russians were suddenly liberators of oppressed Balkan states. Having portrayed the Armenians as revolutionaries in the name of freedom with the expectation of being rescued by the intervention of Christian Europe, he states "but her hope was vain." England had "turned her back." Norman concluded his exhortation with "In the Balkans one learns to hate the Turk." Norman made sure that Gladstone read the article. Prince Nicolas of Montenegro wrote a letter thanking him for his article.

Where did the Normans go off to instead of publishing the book?

New York

When did Norman publish parts of his planned travel book?

June, 1896

What magazine did Norman publish his work in?

Scribner's Magazine

Who were liberators of oppressed Balkan states?

The Russians

Who did Norman say "turned her back"?

England


Throughout this article Norman uses "Near East" to mean the countries where "the eastern question" applied; that is, to all of the Balkans. The countries and regions mentioned are Greece, Bulgaria, Serbia, Bosnia-Herzegovina (which was Moslem and needed, in his view, to be suppressed), Macedonia, Montenegro, Albania, Romania. The rest of the Ottoman domain is demoted to just "the east."

What does Norman mean in the article when saying "Near East"?

the countries where "the eastern question" applied

What is the rest of the Ottoman domain demoted to?

just "the east."

"The East" refers to what?

The rest of the Ottoman domain


If Norman was apparently attempting to change British policy, it was perhaps William Miller (1864–1945), journalist and expert on the Near East, who did the most in that direction. In essence, he signed the death warrant, so to speak, of the Age of Empires. The fall of the Ottoman Empire ultimately enmeshed all the others as well. In the Travel and Politics in the Near East, 1898, Miller claimed to have made four trips to the Balkans, 1894, 1896, 1897 and 1898, and to be, in essence, an expert on "the Near East," by which he primarily meant the Balkans. Apart from the fact that he attended Oxford and played Rugby not many biographical details have been promulgated. He was in effect (whatever his formal associations if any) a point man of British near eastern intelligence.

What was William Miller's life span?

What was William Miller an expert on?

the Near East

So to speak, what did William Miller do?

signed the death warrant, so to speak, of the Age of Empires

Where did Miller attend school?

Oxford


These were fighting words to be coming from a country that once insisted Europe needed Turkey and was willing to spill blood over it. For his authority Miller invokes the people, citing the "collective wisdom" of Europe, and introducing a concept to arise many times in the decades to follow under chilling circumstances:

Miller's words were considered what?

fighting words

It was considered Europe needed what country?

Turkey

What was Miller citing?

the "collective wisdom" of Europe


If the British Empire was now going to side with the Russian Empire, the Ottoman Empire had no choice but to cultivate a relationship with the Austro-Hungarian Empire, which was supported by the German Empire. In a few years these alignments became the Triple Entente and the Triple Alliance (already formed in 1882), which were in part a cause of World War I. By its end in 1918 three empires were gone, a fourth was about to fall to revolution, and two more, the British and French, were forced to yield in revolutions started under the aegis of their own ideologies.

The Ottoman Empire had no choice but to develop their relationship with what country?

Austro-Hungarian Empire

Who supported the Austro-Hungarian Empire?

the German Empire

Who did the British Empire side with?

the Russian Empire

The formation of the Triple Entente and the Triple Alliance partly caused what?

World War I

By what year were three empires gone?


By 1916, when millions of Europeans were becoming casualties of imperial war in the trenches of eastern and western Europe over "the eastern question," Arnold J. Toynbee, Hegelesque historian of civilization at large, was becoming metaphysical about the Near East. Geography alone was not a sufficient explanation of the terms, he believed. If the Ottoman Empire had been a sick man, then:

What year was Arnold J toynbee becoming metaphysical about the Near East?

Who was the Hegelesque historian of civilization?

Arnold J. Toynbee

Arnold J Toynbee believed what?

Geography alone was not a sufficient explanation of the terms


From the death of the Near East new nations were able to rise from the ashes, notably the Republic of Turkey. Paradoxically it now aligned itself with the west rather than with the east. Mustafa Kemal, its founder, a former Ottoman high-ranking officer, was insistent on this social revolution, which, among other changes, liberated women from the strait rules still in effect in most Arabic-speaking countries. The demise of the political Near East now left a gap where it had been, into which stepped the Middle East.

What was able to rise from the death of the Near East?

new nations

What notable nation was able to rise from the ashes of the Near East?

the Republic of Turkey

How did the Republic of Turkey align themselves?

with the west

Who was the founder of the Republic of Turkey?

Mustafa Kemal

Who was a former Ottoman high-ranking officer?

Mustafa Kemal


The term middle east as a noun and adjective was common in the 19th century in nearly every context except diplomacy and archaeology. An uncountable number of places appear to have had their middle easts from gardens to regions, including the United States. The innovation of the term "Near East" to mean the holdings of the Ottoman Empire as early as the Crimean War had left a geographical gap. The East Indies, or "Far East," derived ultimately from Ptolemy's "India Beyond the Ganges." The Ottoman Empire ended at the eastern border of Iraq. "India This Side of the Ganges" and Iran had been omitted. The archaeologists counted Iran as "the Near East" because Old Persian cuneiform had been found there. This usage did not sit well with the diplomats; India was left in an equivocal state. They needed a regional term.

When was the term middle east common as a noun and adjective?

the 19th century

The middle east was not common in diplomacy and what other context?

archaeology

Where did the "Far East" derive from?

Ptolemy's "India Beyond the Ganges."

Where did the Ottoman Empire end?

the eastern border of Iraq

Why did archaeologists count Iran as "The Near East"?

because Old Persian cuneiform had been found there


The use of the term Middle East as a region of international affairs apparently began in British and American diplomatic circles quite independently of each other over concern for the security of the same country: Iran, then known to the west as Persia. In 1900 Thomas Edward Gordon published an article, The Problem of the Middle East, which began:

Where did the use of the term Middle East as a region of international affairs begin?

in British and American diplomatic circles

What was Iran known as to the west?

Persia

When did Thomas Edward Gordon publish "The Problem of the Middle East"?

What article did Thomas Edward Gordon publish?

The Problem of the Middle East

The problem of the Middle East was published by who?

Thomas Edward Gordon


The threat that caused Gordon, diplomat and military officer, to publish the article was resumption of work on a railway from Russia to the Persian Gulf. Gordon, a published author, had not used the term previously, but he was to use it from then on.

What threat caused Gordon to publish his article?

resumption of work on a railway

Who was a diplomat and military officer?

Gordon

Who had not used the term middle east previously in publications?

Gordon


A second strategic personality from American diplomatic and military circles, Alfred Thayer Mahan, concerned about the naval vulnerability of the trade routes in the Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean, commented in 1902:

Who was a member of American diplomatic and military circles?

Alfred Thayer Mahan

What was Alfred Thayer Mahan concerned about?

the naval vulnerability of the trade routes

When did Alfred Thayer Mahan comment on the trade routes?


Apparently the sailor did not connect with the soldier, as Mahan believed he was innovating the term Middle East. It was, however, already there to be seen.

Who did not connect with the soldier?

the sailor

What did Mahan believe he was innovating?

the term Middle East

What had already been there to be seen?

the term Middle East


Until the period following World War I the Near East and the Middle East coexisted, but they were not always seen as distinct. Bertram Lenox Simpson, a colonial officer killed eventually in China, uses the terms together in his 1910 book, The Conflict of Color, as "the Near and Middle East." The total super-region consisted of "India, Afghanistan, Persia, Arabistan, Asia Minor, and last, but not least, Egypt." Simpson (under his pen-name, Weale) explains that this entire region "is politically one region – in spite of the divisions into which it is academically divided." His own term revives "the Nearer East" as opposed to "the Far East."

The Near East and the Middle East coexisted until what period?

the period following World War I

Who was the colonial officer killed in China?

Bertram Lenox Simpson

Who wrote the 1910 book 'The Conflict of Color'?

Bertram Lenox Simpson

What was Simpson's pen-name?

Weale


The basis of Simpson's unity is color and colonial subjection. His color chart recognizes a spectrum of black, brown and yellow, which at the time had been traditional since the late 19th century. Apart from these was "the great white race", which the moderate Simpson tones down to simply the white race. The great whites were appearing as late as the 1920s works of James Henry Breasted, which were taught as the gospel of ancient history throughout the entire first half of the 20th century. A red wavelength was mainly of interest in America. The eastern question was modified by Simpson to "The Problem of the Nearer East," which had nothing to do with the Ottomans but everything to do with British colonialism. Simpson wrote of the white man:

What is the basis of Simpson's unity?

color and colonial subjection

The great whites were appearing as late as what time?

the 1920s

In whose works were the great whites appearing?

James Henry Breasted

What was mainly of interest in America?

A red wavelength


These regions were occupied by "the brown men," with the yellow in the Far East and the black in Africa. The color issue was not settled until Kenya became independent in 1963, ending the last vestige of the British Empire.

These regions were occupied by who?

the brown men

Where where the yellow?

the Far East

Where were the black?

Africa

When did Kenya become independent?

The color issue was not settled until when?

Kenya became independent


This view reveals a somewhat less than altruistic Christian intent of the British Empire; however, it was paradoxical from the beginning, as Simpson and most other writers pointed out. The Ottomans were portrayed as the slavers, but even as the American and British fleets were striking at the Barbary pirates on behalf of freedom, their countries were promulgating a vigorous African slave trade of their own. Charles George Gordon is known as the saint of all British colonial officers. A dedicated Christian, he spent his time between assignments living among the poor and donating his salary on their behalf. He won Ottoman confidence as a junior officer in the Crimean War. In his later career he became a high official in the Ottoman Empire, working as Governor of Egypt for the Ottoman khedive for the purpose of conducting campaigns against slavers and slavery in Egypt and the Sudan.

The Ottomans were portrayed as what?

the slavers

Who is known as the saint of all British colonial officers?

Charles George Gordon

What did Charles George Gordon spend his time between?

assignments living among the poor and donating his salary

When did he win Ottoman confidence?

as a junior officer in the Crimean War

What did he become in his later career?

a high official in the Ottoman Empire