LaserDiscs potentially had a much longer lifespan than videocassettes. Because the discs were read optically instead of magnetically, no physical contact needs to be made between the player and the disc, except for the player's clamp that holds the disc at its center as it is spun and read. As a result, playback would not wear the information-bearing part of the discs, and properly manufactured LDs would theoretically last beyond one's lifetime. By contrast, a VHS tape held all of its picture and sound information on the tape in a magnetic coating which is in contact with the spinning heads on the head drum, causing progressive wear with each use (though later in VHS's lifespan, engineering improvements allowed tapes to be made and played back without contact). Also, the tape was thin and delicate, and it was easy for a player mechanism, especially on a low quality or malfunctioning model, to mishandle the tape and damage it by creasing it, frilling (stretching) its edges, or even breaking it.

Were Laserdiscs or VHS more durable in the long run?

LaserDiscs

Why is physical contact with a VHS tape less desirable than an optical reading?

progressive wear with each use

Where do VHS tapes store their information?

magnetic coating


LaserDisc was a composite video format: the luminance (black and white) and chrominance (color) information were transmitted in one signal, separated by the receiver. While good comb filters can do so adequately, these two signals cannot be completely separated. On DVDs, data is stored in the form of digital blocks which make up each independent frame. The signal produced is dependent on the equipment used to master the disc. Signals range from composite and split, to YUV and RGB. Depending upon which format is used, this can result in far higher fidelity, particularly at strong color borders or regions of high detail (especially if there is moderate movement in the picture) and low-contrast details like skin tones, where comb filters almost inevitably smudge some detail.

How is data stored on DVDs?

digital blocks which make up each independent frame

What device seperated the black and white and color signals in LaserDiscs?

the receiver

Are comb filters exact, or is some data smudged?

comb filters almost inevitably smudge some detail

In what areas are comb filters most likely to lose detail?

low-contrast details like skin tones


In contrast to the entirely digital DVD, LaserDiscs use only analog video. As the LaserDisc format is not digitally encoded and does not make use of compression techniques, it is immune to video macroblocking (most visible as blockiness during high motion sequences) or contrast banding (subtle visible lines in gradient areas, such as out-of-focus backgrounds, skies, or light casts from spotlights) that can be caused by the MPEG-2 encoding process as video is prepared for DVD. Early DVD releases held the potential to surpass their LaserDisc counterparts, but often managed only to match them for image quality, and in some cases, the LaserDisc version was preferred. However, proprietary human-assisted encoders manually operated by specialists can vastly reduce the incidence of artifacts, depending on playing time and image complexity. By the end of LaserDisc's run, DVDs were living up to their potential as a superior format.

Do LaserDiscs or DVD use analog video?

LaserDiscs

Are DVDs partially or entirely digital?

entirely

What is contrast banding?

subtle visible lines in gradient areas

What step of the DVD production process causes contrast banding?

MPEG-2 encoding process


LaserDisc players can provide a great degree of control over the playback process. Unlike many DVD players, the transport mechanism always obeys commands from the user: pause, fast-forward, and fast-reverse commands are always accepted (barring, of course, malfunctions). There were no "User Prohibited Options" where content protection code instructs the player to refuse commands to skip a specific part (such as fast forwarding through copyright warnings). (Some DVD players, particularly higher-end units, do have the ability to ignore the blocking code and play the video without restrictions, but this feature is not common in the usual consumer market.)

How does LaserDisc operation vary from DVD?

the transport mechanism always obeys commands from the user

What are "User Protected Options" on DVDs?

where content protection code instructs the player to refuse commands to skip a specific part

Where are User Protected Options commonly found on DVDs?

copyright warnings

Which format, LaserDisc or DVD, gives the user the most control over playback?

LaserDisc


Damaged spots on a LaserDisc can be played through or skipped over, while a DVD will often become unplayable past the damage. Some newer DVD players feature a repair+skip algorithm, which alleviates this problem by continuing to play the disc, filling in unreadable areas of the picture with blank space or a frozen frame of the last readable image and sound. The success of this feature depends upon the amount of damage. LaserDisc players, when working in full analog, recover from such errors faster than DVD players. Direct comparison here is almost impossible due to the sheer size differences between the two media. A 1 in (3 cm) scratch on a DVD will probably cause more problems than a 1 in (3 cm) scratch on a LaserDisc, but a fingerprint taking up 1% of the area of a DVD would almost certainly cause fewer problems than a similar mark covering 1% of the surface of a LaserDisc.[citation needed]

What does the repair+skip feature on newer DVD players do?

filling in unreadable areas of the picture with blank space or a frozen frame of the last readable image and sound

Which format, DVD or Laserdisc, can become unreadable with damage?

DVD

Will the same size scratch cause more problems for a DVD or LaserDisc?

DVD


Similar to the CD versus LP sound quality debates common in the audiophile community, some videophiles argue that LaserDisc maintains a "smoother", more "film-like", natural image while DVD still looks slightly more artificial. Early DVD demo discs often had compression or encoding problems, lending additional support to such claims at the time. However, the video signal-to-noise ratio and bandwidth of LaserDisc are substantially less than that of DVDs, making DVDs appear sharper and clearer to most viewers.

Which format is considered to look most realistic, LaserDisc or DVD?

LaserDisc

Which format, LaserDisc or DVD, is said to appear sharper and clearer to most viewers?

DVDs

What features do LaserDiscs lack in, causing DVDs to appear sharper and clearer?

video signal-to-noise ratio and bandwidth


Another advantage, at least to some consumers, was the lack of any sort of anti-piracy technology. It was claimed that Macrovision's Copyguard protection could not be applied to LaserDisc, due to the format's design. The vertical blanking interval, where the Macrovision signal would be implemented, was also used for the internal timing on LaserDisc players, so test discs with Macrovision would not play at all. There was never a push to redesign the format despite the obvious potential for piracy due to its relatively small market share. The industry simply decided to engineer it into the DVD specification.

What was the vertical blanking interval used for in LaserDiscs, preventing Macrovision signal to be implemented?

internal timing

Why wasn't there a need to redesign the LaserDisc format to prevent piracy?

relatively small market share

What protection could not be applied to LaserDiscs, making them prone to piracy?

Macrovision's Copyguard protection


LaserDisc's support for multiple audio tracks allowed for vast supplemental materials to be included on-disc and made it the first available format for "Special Edition" releases; the 1984 Criterion Collection edition of Citizen Kane is generally credited as being the first "Special Edition" release to home video,[citation needed] and for setting the standard by which future SE discs were measured. The disc provided interviews, commentary tracks, documentaries, still photographs, and other features for historians and collectors.

LaserDisc was the first format to provide what type of releases to consumers?

"Special Edition"

What was the first "Special Edition" film to be released to home video?

the 1984 Criterion Collection edition of Citizen Kane

What bonus features were available on the first home video "Special Edition"?

interviews, commentary tracks, documentaries, still photographs

What feature, unique to LaserDisc, made bonus content possible?

support for multiple audio tracks


The space-consuming analog video signal of a LaserDisc limited playback duration to 30 minutes (CAV) or 60 minutes (CLV) per side because of the hardware manufacturer's refusal to reduce line count for increased playtime. After one side was finished playing, a disc has to be flipped over in order to continue watching a movie, and some titles fill two or more discs. Many players, especially units built after the mid-1980s, can "flip" discs automatically by rotating the optical pickup to the other side of the disc, but this is accompanied by a pause in the movie during the side change. If the movie is longer than what could be stored on two sides of a single disc, manually swapping to a second disc is necessary at some point during the film. One exception to this rule is the Pioneer LD-W1, which features two disc platters. In addition, perfect still frames and random access to individual still frames is limited only to the more expensive CAV discs, which only had a playing time of approximately 30 minutes per side. In later years, Pioneer and other manufacturers overcame this limitation by incorporating a digital memory buffer, which "grabbed" a single frame from a CLV disc.

What was required of a LaserDisc to continue playback after 60 minutes?

a disc has to be flipped over in order to continue watching

Which LaserDisc player solves the disc switching dilemma?

Pioneer LD-W1

What must be reduced in order to allow LaserDisc playback time to increase?

line count

Which format allows for more playback tie per side, CLV or CAV?

CLV


The analog information encoded on LaserDiscs does not include any form of built-in checksum or error correction. Because of this, slight dust and scratches on the disc surface can result in read-errors which cause various video quality problems: glitches, streaks, bursts of static, or momentary picture interruptions. In contrast, the digital MPEG-2 format information used on DVDs has built-in error correction which ensures that the signal from a damaged disc will remain identical to that from a perfect disc right up until the point at which damage to the disc surface is so substantial that it prevents the laser from being able to identify usable data.

What video problems on a LaserDisc can be caused by dust or scratches?

glitches, streaks, bursts of static, or momentary picture interruptions

Which format used in DVDs has built-in error correction?

digital MPEG-2

What type of encoding, analog or digital, causes LaserDiscs to be succeptable to damages?

analog


In addition, LaserDisc videos sometimes exhibit a problem known as "crosstalk". The issue can arise when the laser optical pickup assembly within the player is out of alignment or because the disc is damaged or excessively warped, but it could also occur even with a properly functioning player and a factory-new disc, depending on electrical and mechanical alignment problems. In these instances, the issue arose due to the fact that CLV discs require subtle changes in rotating speed at various points during playback. During a change in speed, the optical pickup inside the player might read video information from a track adjacent to the intended one, causing data from the two tracks to "cross"; the extra video information picked up from that second track shows up as distortion in the picture which looks reminiscent of swirling "barber poles" or rolling lines of static.

When does "crosstalk" occur?

when the laser optical pickup assembly within the player is out of alignment or because the disc is damaged or excessively warped

What problem can be caused by a player becoming out of alignment?

"crosstalk"

How does "crosstalk" appear to the viewer?

swirling "barber poles" or rolling lines of static


Assuming the player's optical pickup is in proper working order, crosstalk distortion normally does not occur during playback of CAV format LaserDiscs, as the rotational speed never varies. However, if the player calibration is out of order or if the CAV disc is faulty or damaged, other problems affecting tracking accuracy can occur. One such problem is "laser lock", where the player reads the same two fields for a given frame over and over again, causing the picture to look frozen as if the movie were paused.

In which format does crosstalk generally not occur?

CAV

Why does the CAV format prevent crosstalk?

the rotational speed never varies

What happens during "laser lock"?

the player reads the same two fields for a given frame over and over again, causing the picture to look frozen


Another significant issue unique to LaserDisc is one involving the inconsistency of playback quality between different makers and models of player. On most televisions, a given DVD player will produce a picture that is visually indistinguishable from other units. Differences in image quality between players only becomes easily apparent on large televisions and substantial leaps in image quality are generally only obtained with expensive, high-end players that allow for post-processing of the MPEG-2 stream during playback. In contrast, LaserDisc playback quality is highly dependent on hardware quality. Major variances in picture quality appear between different makers and models of LD players, even when tested on a low to mid-range television. The obvious benefits of using high quality equipment has helped keep demand for some players high, thus also keeping pricing for those units comparably high. In the 1990s, notable players sold for anywhere from US$200 to well over $1,000, while older and less desirable players could be purchased in working condition for as little as $25.

Is LaserDisc quality consistent or inconsistent between player brands?

inconsistency

What is LaserDisc playback quality dependent on?

hardware quality

How cheaply could an older LaserDisc player be purchased in the 1990s?

What range of prices were high-end LaserDisc players in the 1990s?

US$200 to well over $1,000


Many early LDs were not manufactured properly; sometimes a substandard adhesive was used to sandwich together the two sides of the disc.[citation needed] The adhesive contained impurities that were able to penetrate the lacquer seal layer and chemically attack the metalized reflective aluminium layer, causing it to oxidize and lose its reflective characteristics. This was a problem that was termed "laser rot" among LD enthusiasts, also called "color flash" internally by LaserDisc-pressing plants. Some forms of laser rot could appear as black spots that looked like mold or burned plastic which cause the disc to skip and the movie to exhibit excessive speckling noise. But, for the most part, rotted discs could actually appear perfectly fine to the naked eye.

What substandard product was used in LD manufacturing that caused "laser rot"?

adhesive

What was the internal name for "laser rot" within LD processing plants?

"color flash"

What problems could occur with laser rot?

black spots that looked like mold or burned plastic which cause the disc to skip and the movie to exhibit excessive speckling noise


LaserDisc did not have high market penetration in North America due to the high cost of the players and discs, which were far more expensive than VHS players and tapes, and due to marketplace confusion with the technologically inferior CED, which also went by the name Videodisc. While the format was not widely adopted by North American consumers, it was well received among videophiles due to the superior audio and video quality compared to VHS and Betamax tapes, finding a place in nearly one million American homes by the end of 1990. The format was more popular in Japan than in North America because prices were kept low to ensure adoption, resulting in minimal price differences between VHS tapes and the higher quality LaserDiscs, helping ensure that it quickly became the dominant consumer video format in Japan. Anime collectors in every country the LD format was released, which includes both North America and Japan, also quickly became familiar with this format, and sought the higher video and sound quality of LaserDisc and the availability of numerous titles not available on VHS. LaserDiscs were also popular alternatives to videocassettes among movie enthusiasts in the more affluent regions of South East Asia, such as Singapore, due to their high integration with the Japanese export market and the disc-based media's superior longevity compared to videocassette, especially in the humid conditions endemic to that area of the world.

Why didn't LaserDiscs become popular in North America?

high cost of the players and discs

By 1990, how many American homes were estimated to use LD?

nearly one million

Why were LaserDiscs more popular in Japan?

prices were kept low to ensure adoption

Which format was more popular in high humidity areas such as Singapore?

LaserDiscs


The format also became quite popular in Hong Kong during the 1990s before the introduction of VCDs and DVD; although people rarely bought the discs (because each LD was priced around USD100), high rental activity helped the video rental business in the city grow larger than it had ever been previously. Due to integration with the Japanese export market, NTSC LaserDiscs were used in the Hong Kong market, in contrast to the PAL standard used for broadcast (This anomaly also exists for DVD). This created a market for multi-system TVs and multi-system VCRs which could display or play both PAL and NTSC materials in addition to SECAM materials (which were never popular in Hong Kong). Some LD players could convert NTSC signals to PAL so that most TVs used in Hong Kong could display the LD materials.

How much did a LD cost in Hong Kong in the 1990s?

Broadcast in Hong Kong used which standard formatting?

PAL standard

In contrast to broadcast, which format did consumers use in Hong Kong?

NTSC


Although the LaserDisc format was supplanted by DVD by the late 1990s, many LD titles are still highly coveted by movie enthusiasts (for example, Disney's Song of the South which is unavailable in the US in any format, but was issued in Japan on LD). This is largely because there are many films that are still only available on LD and many other LD releases contain supplemental material not available on subsequent DVD versions of those films. Until the end of 2001, many titles were released on VHS, LD, and DVD in Japan.

By what year had DVD taken over the LaserDisc market?

late 1990s

Which collector group highly values LaserDisc for their rareness?

movie enthusiasts

Until the end of what year were movies released in VHS, LD, and DVD in Japan?

What country was the only to receive a LD release of Disney's Song of the South?

Japan


In the early 1980s, Philips produced a LaserDisc player model adapted for a computer interface, dubbed "professional". In 1985, Jasmine Multimedia created LaserDisc Juke Boxes featuring music videos from Michael Jackson, Duran Duran, and Cyndi Lauper. When connected to a PC this combination could be used to display images or information for educational or archival purposes, for example thousands of scanned medieval manuscripts. This strange device could be considered a very early equivalent of a CD-ROM.

In what decade did Philips produce a "professional" LD model for computer?

early 1980s

In what year were LD jukeboxes created?

Who created LD Jukeboxes in 1985?

Jasmine Multimedia

Which musical artists were featured on LD Jukeboxes in 1985?

Michael Jackson, Duran Duran, and Cyndi Lauper


In the mid-1980s Lucasfilm pioneered the EditDroid non-linear editing system for film and television based on computer-controlled LaserDisc players. Instead of printing dailies out on film, processed negatives from the day's shoot would be sent to a mastering plant to be assembled from their 10-minute camera elements into 20-minute film segments. These were then mastered onto single-sided blank LaserDiscs, just as a DVD would be burnt at home today, allowing for much easier selection and preparation of an Edit Decision List. In the days before video assist was available in cinematography, this was the only other way a film crew could see their work. The EDL went to the negative cutter who then cut the camera negative accordingly and assembled the finished film. Only 24 EditDroid systems were ever built, even though the ideas and technology are still in use today. Later EditDroid experiments borrowed from hard-drive technology of having multiple discs on the same spindle and added numerous playback heads and numerous electronics to the basic jukebox design so that any point on each of the discs would be accessible within seconds. This eliminated the need for racks and racks of industrial LaserDisc players since EditDroid discs were only single-sided.

How many EditDroid systems were ever built?

Were EditDroid discs single or multi-sided?

single-sided

Which production company engineered the EditDroid machines in the 1980s?

Lucasfilm


In 1986, a SCSI-equipped LaserDisc player attached to a BBC Master computer was used for the BBC Domesday Project. The player was referred as an LV-ROM (LaserVision Read Only Memory) as the discs contained the driving software as well as the video frames. The discs used the CAV format, and encoded data as a binary signal represented by the analog audio recording. These discs could contain in each CAV frame video/audio or video/binary data, but not both. "Data" frames would appear blank when played as video. It was typical for each disc to start with the disc catalog (a few blank frames) then the video introduction before the rest of the data. Because the format (based on the ADFS hard disc format) used a starting sector for each file, the data layout effectively skipped over any video frames. If all 54,000 frames are used for data storage an LV-ROM disc can contain 324 MB of data per side. The Domesday Project systems also included a genlock, allowing video frames, clips and audio to be mixed with graphics originated from the BBC Master; this was used to great effect for displaying high resolution photographs and maps, which could then be zoomed into.

In what year did the Doomsday project occur?

Which equipment was used for the Doomsday Project?

a SCSI-equipped LaserDisc player attached to a BBC Master computer

What does LV-ROM stand for?

LaserVision Read Only Memory

The Doomsday Project discs used which formatting?

CAV


Apple's HyperCard scripting language provided Macintosh computer users with a means to design databases of slides, animation, video and sounds from LaserDiscs and then to create interfaces for users to play specific content from the disc through software called LaserStacks. User-created "stacks" were shared and were especially popular in education where teacher-generated stacks were used to access discs ranging from art collections to basic biological processes. Commercially available stacks were also popular with the Voyager company being possibly the most successful distributor.

Which of Apple's programming languages allowed users to ceatively manipulate LaserDiscs?

HyperCard

What did LaserStacks software enable Mac users to do?

play specific content from the disc

Where were "stacks" created with the LaserStack software used?

in education

Which commercial company was LaserStack's most successful distributor?

Voyager


Under contract from the U.S. Military, Matrox produced a combination computer/LaserDisc player for instructional purposes. The computer was a 286, the LaserDisc player only capable of reading the analog audio tracks. Together they weighed 43 lb (20 kg) and sturdy handles were provided in case two people were required to lift the unit. The computer controlled the player via a 25-pin serial port at the back of the player and a ribbon cable connected to a proprietary port on the motherboard. Many of these were sold as surplus by the military during the 1990s, often without the controller software. Nevertheless, it is possible to control the unit by removing the ribbon cable and connecting a serial cable directly from the computer's serial port to the port on the LaserDisc player.

A combination computer/LD player was comissioned by what government entity?

the U.S. Military

How much did Matrox's computer/LD combo weigh?

43 lb (20 kg)

How could Matrox's computer unconventionally be controlled?

removing the ribbon cable and connecting a serial cable directly from the computer's serial port to the port on the LaserDisc player


The format's instant-access capability made it possible for a new breed of LaserDisc-based video arcade games and several companies saw potential in using LaserDiscs for video games in the 1980s and 1990s, beginning in 1983 with Sega's Astron Belt. American Laser Games and Cinematronics produced elaborate arcade consoles that used the random-access features to create interactive movies such as Dragon's Lair and Space Ace. Similarly, the Pioneer Laseractive and Halcyon were introduced as home video game consoles that used LaserDisc media for their software.

What quality made LDs a consideration for videogames in the 1980s and 1990s?

instant-access capability

What was the first game to use LaserDiscs?

Sega's Astron Belt

In what year was Sega's AStron Belt released?


In 1991, several manufacturers announced specifications for what would become known as MUSE LaserDisc, representing a span of almost 15 years until the feats of this HD analog optical disc system would finally be duplicated digitally by HD DVD and Blu-ray Disc. Encoded using NHK's MUSE "Hi-Vision" analogue TV system, MUSE discs would operate like standard LaserDiscs but would contain high-definition 1,125-line (1,035 visible lines) (Sony HDVS) video with a 5:3 aspect ratio. The MUSE players were also capable of playing standard NTSC format discs and are superior in performance to non-MUSE players even with these NTSC discs. The MUSE-capable players had several noteworthy advantages over standard LaserDisc players, including a red laser with a much narrower wavelength than the lasers found in standard players. The red laser was capable of reading through disc defects such as scratches and even mild disc rot that would cause most other players to stop, stutter or drop-out. Crosstalk was not an issue with MUSE discs, and the narrow wavelength of the laser allowed for the virtual elimination of crosstalk with normal discs.

With what operating ratio would MUSE Discs operate?

What benefits did the MUSE narrow wavelength red laser have?

capable of reading through disc defects such as scratches and even mild disc rot that would cause most other players to stop, stutter or drop-out

In addition to scratches and rot, what other common LaserDisc issue was to be eliminated by MUSE discs?

Crosstalk

How many years did it take Blu-ray and HD-DVD players to duplicate MUSE technology?

almost 15 years


In order to view MUSE encoded discs, it was necessary to have a MUSE decoder in addition to a compatible player. There are televisions with MUSE decoding built-in and set top tuners with decoders that can provide the proper MUSE input. Equipment prices were high, especially for early HDTVs which generally eclipsed US$10,000, and even in Japan the market for MUSE was tiny. Players and discs were never officially sold in North America, although several distributors imported MUSE discs along with other import titles. Terminator 2: Judgment Day, Lawrence of Arabia, A League of Their Own, Bugsy, Close Encounters of the Third Kind, Bram Stoker's Dracula and Chaplin were among the theatrical releases available on MUSE LDs. Several documentaries, including one about Formula One at Japan's Suzuka Circuit were also released.

What was the price for early HDTVs?

Did MUSE have a large or small target market, even in Japan?

tiny

What were some movies that were released on MUSE LaserDiscs?

Terminator 2: Judgment Day, Lawrence of Arabia, A League of Their Own, Bugsy, Close Encounters of the Third Kind, Bram Stoker's Dracula and Chaplin


With the release of 16:9 televisions in the mid-1990s, Pioneer and Toshiba decided that it was time to take advantage of this aspect ratio. Squeeze LDs were enhanced 16:9-ratio widescreen LaserDiscs. During the video transfer stage, the movie was stored in an anamorphic "squeezed" format. The widescreen movie image was stretched to fill the entire video frame with less or none of the video resolution wasted to create letterbox bars. The advantage was a 33% greater vertical resolution compared to letterboxed widescreen LaserDisc. This same procedure was used for anamorphic DVDs, but unlike all DVD players, very few LD players had the ability to unsqueeze the image for 4:3 sets, and very few if any 4:3 sets could be set to play them properly either. If the discs were played on a standard 4:3 television the image would be distorted. Since very few people owned 16:9 displays, the marketability of these special discs was very limited.

What were "Squeeze LDs"?

enhanced 16:9-ratio widescreen LaserDiscs

With what aspect ratio did Squeeze LDs operate?

16:9-ratio widescreen

Why did Squeeze LDs have a very limited market?

very few people owned 16:9 displays

Could the 16:9 aspect ratio be easily resized by a normal LD player, or was the image significantly distorted?

distorted

What percent vertical resolution increase did Squeeze LDs feature over regular widescreen LDs?


There were no anamorphic LaserDisc titles available in the US except for promotional purposes. Upon purchase of a Toshiba 16:9 television viewers had the option of selecting a number of Warner Bros. 16:9 films. Titles include Unforgiven, Grumpy Old Men, The Fugitive, and Free Willy. The Japanese lineup of titles was different. A series of releases under the banner "SQUEEZE LD" from Pioneer of mostly Carolco titles included Basic Instinct, Stargate, Terminator 2: Judgment Day, Showgirls, Cutthroat Island, and Cliffhanger. Terminator 2 was released twice in Squeeze LD, the second release being THX certified and a notable improvement over the first.

Which movie was released twice on Squeeze LD?

Terminator 2

What improvement was added to Terminator 2's second Squeeze LD release?

THX certified

What Warner Brothers films were available in 16:9 aspect ratio Squeeze LDs?

Unforgiven, Grumpy Old Men, The Fugitive, and Free Willy

What films were available for Japanese market Squeeze LDs?

Basic Instinct, Stargate, Terminator 2: Judgment Day, Showgirls, Cutthroat Island, and Cliffhanger


Another form of recordable LaserDisc that is completely playback-compatible with the LaserDisc format (unlike CRVdisc with its caddy enclosure) is the RLV, or Recordable LaserVision disc. It was developed and first marketed by the Optical Disc Corporation (ODC, now ODC Nimbus) in 1984. RLV discs, like CRVdisc, are also a WORM technology, and function exactly like a CD-R disc. RLV discs look almost exactly like standard LaserDiscs, and can play in any standard LaserDisc player after they have been recorded.

What does the acronym RLV stand for?

Recordable LaserVision disc

Which company originally developed and marketed the RLV?

Optical Disc Corporation (ODC, now ODC Nimbus)

In what year did ODC develop the Recordable LaserVision Disc?


The only cosmetic difference between an RLV disc and a regular factory-pressed LaserDiscs is their reflective purple-violet (or blue with some RLV discs) color resulting from the dye embedded in the reflective layer of the disc to make it recordable, as opposed to the silver mirror appearance of regular LDs. The purplish color of RLVs is very similar to DVD-R and DVD+R discs. RLVs were popular for making short-run quantities of LaserDiscs for specialized applications such as interactive kiosks and flight simulators.

What is the difference in appearance between an RLV disc and a regular LD?

reflective purple-violet (or blue with some RLV discs) color

Why do RLV discs have a blue or purple reflective color?

to make it recordable, as opposed to the silver mirror appearance of regular LDs

For what purpose were RLVs popular?

making short-run quantities of LaserDiscs for specialized applications such as interactive kiosks and flight simulators

What color were regular LaserDiscs, in contrast to RLVs blueish purple hues?

silver mirror


There were also 12 cm (4.7 in) (CD size) "single"-style discs produced that were playable on LaserDisc players. These were referred to as CD Video (CD-V) discs, and Video Single Discs (VSD). A CD-V carried up to five minutes of analog LaserDisc-type video content (usually a music video), as well as up to 20 minutes of digital audio CD tracks. The original 1989 release of David Bowie's retrospective Sound + Vision CD box set prominently featured a CD-V video of Ashes to Ashes, and standalone promo CD-Vs featured the video, plus three audio tracks: "John, I'm Only Dancing", "Changes", and "The Supermen".

In contrast to large LD disks, what is the size of a standard CD?

12 cm (4.7 in)

What were CD size "single"-style discs called that were compatible with LaserDisc players?

CD Video (CD-V) discs, and Video Single Discs (VSD)

How much video content could be stored on a CD-V disk?

up to five minutes of analog LaserDisc-type video content

What were CD-V's video capacities usually used for?

music video

Which artist released a music video and three audio tracks on CD-V in 1989?

David Bowie


CD-Vs are not to be confused with Video CDs (which are all-digital and can only be played on VCD players, DVD players, CD-i players, computers, and later-model LaserDisc players, such as the DVL series from Pioneer that can also play DVDs). CD-Vs can only be played back on LaserDisc players with CD-V capability. VSDs were the same as CD-Vs, but without the audio CD tracks. CD-Vs were somewhat popular for a brief time worldwide, but soon faded from view. VSDs were popular only in Japan and other parts of Asia, and were never fully introduced to the rest of the world.

What were VSDs lacking that CD-Vs included?

audio CD tracks

In what areas of the world were VSDs popular?

only in Japan and other parts of Asia

Were VSDs or CD-Vs all digital and also playable on DVD players?

VSDs


During George's reign the break-up of the British Empire and its transition into the Commonwealth of Nations accelerated. The parliament of the Irish Free State removed direct mention of the monarch from the country's constitution on the day of his accession. From 1939, the Empire and Commonwealth, except Ireland, was at war with Nazi Germany. War with Italy and Japan followed in 1940 and 1941, respectively. Though Britain and its allies were ultimately victorious in 1945, the United States and the Soviet Union rose as pre-eminent world powers and the British Empire declined. After the independence of India and Pakistan in 1947, George remained as king of both countries, but the title Emperor of India was abandoned in June 1948. Ireland formally declared itself a republic and left the Commonwealth in 1949, and India became a republic within the Commonwealth the following year. George adopted the new title of Head of the Commonwealth. He was beset by health problems in the later years of his reign. His elder daughter, Elizabeth, succeeded him.

What year was Britain and allies victorious in the war?

When did India and Pakistan gain independence?

What title did George have in India prior to 1948?

Emperor of India

What did Ireland declare itself in 1950?

republic

In what year was the Commonwealth of Nations established?

I'm not sure.

In what year did George's reign begin?

I'm not sure.

In what year did Elizabeth succeed King George?

I'm not sure.

Who was one of Britain's allies during the war?

I'm not sure.

What was India before becoming a republic?

I'm not sure.


His birthday (14 December 1895) was the 34th anniversary of the death of his great-grandfather, Prince Albert, the Prince Consort. Uncertain of how the Prince Consort's widow, Queen Victoria, would take the news of the birth, the Prince of Wales wrote to the Duke of York that the Queen had been "rather distressed". Two days later, he wrote again: "I really think it would gratify her if you yourself proposed the name Albert to her". Queen Victoria was mollified by the proposal to name the new baby Albert, and wrote to the Duchess of York: "I am all impatience to see the new one, born on such a sad day but rather more dear to me, especially as he will be called by that dear name which is a byword for all that is great and good". Consequently, he was baptised "Albert Frederick Arthur George" at St. Mary Magdalene's Church near Sandringham three months later.[a] As a great-grandson of Queen Victoria, he was known formally as His Highness Prince Albert of York from birth. Within the family, he was known informally as "Bertie". His maternal grandmother, the Duchess of Teck, did not like the first name the baby had been given, and she wrote prophetically that she hoped the last name "may supplant the less favoured one".

What month and day was the death of Prince Albert?

14 December

Who was Prince Albert's great grandmother?

Queen Victoria

What was Prince Albert's nickname?

Bertie

In which church was Prince Albert baptized?

St. Mary Magdalene's Church

What was the name of the Duchess of York?

I'm not sure.

What was the name of the Duke of York?

I'm not sure.

Who was the Duchess of Teck?

I'm not sure.

In what year was Queen Victoria crowned?

I'm not sure.

On what date did the Prince of Wales write to the Duke of York?

I'm not sure.


Albert spent the first six months of 1913 on the training ship HMS Cumberland in the West Indies and on the east coast of Canada. He was rated as a midshipman aboard HMS Collingwood on 15 September 1913, and spent three months in the Mediterranean. His fellow officers gave him the nickname "Mr. Johnson". One year after his commission, he began service in the First World War. He was mentioned in despatches for his action as a turret officer aboard Collingwood in the Battle of Jutland (31 May – 1 June 1916), an indecisive engagement with the German navy that was the largest naval action of the war. He did not see further combat, largely because of ill health caused by a duodenal ulcer, for which he had an operation in November 1917.

Which ship did Alber train on in 1913?

HMS Cumberland

How many months did Albert spend in the Mediterranean in 1913?

three months

Which war did Albert serve in?

First World War

Who gave Albert the nickname of "Mr Johnson"?

fellow officers

What was the cause of Albert's ill health in 1917?

duodenal ulcer

In what year did Albert leave the military?

I'm not sure.

What was one of the months Albert served in the Mediterranean?

I'm not sure.

In which month in 1913 did Albert start serving on the HMS Cumberland?

I'm not sure.

In what year did Albert start serving on the Collingwood?

I'm not sure.

What rank did Albert have while serving on the HMS Cumberland?

I'm not sure.


In February 1918, he was appointed Officer in Charge of Boys at the Royal Naval Air Service's training establishment at Cranwell. With the establishment of the Royal Air Force two months later and the transfer of Cranwell from Navy to Air Force control, he transferred from the Royal Navy to the Royal Air Force. He was appointed Officer Commanding Number 4 Squadron of the Boys' Wing at Cranwell until August 1918, before reporting to the RAF's Cadet School at St Leonards-on-Sea where he completed a fortnight's training and took command of a squadron on the Cadet Wing. He was the first member of the royal family to be certified as a fully qualified pilot. During the closing weeks of the war, he served on the staff of the RAF's Independent Air Force at its headquarters in Nancy, France. Following the disbanding of the Independent Air Force in November 1918, he remained on the Continent for two months as a staff officer with the Royal Air Force until posted back to Britain. He accompanied the Belgian monarch King Albert on his triumphal reentry into Brussels on 22 November. Prince Albert qualified as an RAF pilot on 31 July 1919 and gained a promotion to squadron leader on the following day.

What position was Albert appointed at Cranwell?

Officer in Charge of Boys at the Royal Naval Air Service

Which number squadron was Albert appointed commanding officer in 1918?

What year did Albert become a RAF pilot?

Who was the king of Belgium  in 1918?

King Albert

In what year was the Royal Air Force established?

I'm not sure.

Where was the Royal Navy's headquarters?

I'm not sure.

On what date did the World War end?

I'm not sure.

On what date in November 1918 was the Independent Air Force disbanded?

I'm not sure.

In what year did King Albert have to leave Belgium?

I'm not sure.


In October 1919, Albert went up to Trinity College, Cambridge, where he studied history, economics and civics for a year. On 4 June 1920, he was created Duke of York, Earl of Inverness and Baron Killarney. He began to take on more royal duties. He represented his father, and toured coal mines, factories, and railyards. Through such visits he acquired the nickname of the "Industrial Prince". His stammer, and his embarrassment over it, together with his tendency to shyness, caused him to appear much less impressive than his older brother, Edward. However, he was physically active and enjoyed playing tennis. He played at Wimbledon in the Men's Doubles with Louis Greig in 1926, losing in the first round. He developed an interest in working conditions, and was President of the Industrial Welfare Society. His series of annual summer camps for boys between 1921 and 1939 brought together boys from different social backgrounds.

What did Albert study in Trinity College?

history, economics and civics

What was Albert's nickname as he toured coal mines, factories, and railyards?

Industrial Prince

Who is Albert's older brother?

Edward

Which sport was Albert proficient at?

tennis

Which society was Albert the president of?

Industrial Welfare Society

Who was Albert's father?

I'm not sure.

In what year was Albert elected as the President of the Industrial Welfare Society?

I'm not sure.

Who was one of the players Albert lost to in his match at Wimbledon?

I'm not sure.

In what year did Louis Greig begin playing tennis?

I'm not sure.

What sport did Edward enjoy?

I'm not sure.


In a time when royals were expected to marry fellow royals, it was unusual that Albert had a great deal of freedom in choosing a prospective wife. An infatuation with the already-married Australian socialite Sheila, Lady Loughborough, came to an end in April 1920 when the King, with the promise of the dukedom of York, persuaded Albert to stop seeing her. That year, he met for the first time since childhood Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon, the youngest daughter of the Earl and Countess of Strathmore and Kinghorne. He became determined to marry her. She rejected his proposal twice, in 1921 and 1922, reportedly because she was reluctant to make the sacrifices necessary to become a member of the royal family. In the words of Lady Elizabeth's mother, Albert would be "made or marred" by his choice of wife. After a protracted courtship, Elizabeth agreed to marry him.

Who was Albert infatuated with?

Sheila, Lady Loughborough

Who was the youngest daughter of Earl and Countess of Strathmore and Kinghorne?

Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon

How many times did Elizabeth reject Albert's proposal?

twice

Who were royals usually expected to marry?

fellow royals

Who was the Australian socialite Sheila married to?

I'm not sure.

What was the name of Lady Elizabeth's mother?

I'm not sure.

In what year did Albert first meet Lady Elizabeth?

I'm not sure.

What nationality was Lady Elizabeth?

I'm not sure.

In what year did Albert and Elizabeth marry?

I'm not sure.


Because of his stammer, Albert dreaded public speaking. After his closing speech at the British Empire Exhibition at Wembley on 31 October 1925, one which was an ordeal for both him and his listeners, he began to see Lionel Logue, an Australian-born speech therapist. The Duke and Logue practised breathing exercises, and the Duchess rehearsed with him patiently. Subsequently, he was able to speak with less hesitation. With his delivery improved, the Duke opened the new Parliament House in Canberra, Australia, during a tour of the empire in 1927. His journey by sea to Australia, New Zealand and Fiji took him via Jamaica, where Albert played doubles tennis partnered with a black man, which was unusual at the time and taken locally as a display of equality between races.

Why did Albert fear speaking in public?

his stammer

Who helped Albert improve in public speaking?

Lionel Logue

What did Albert play partnered with a black man?

doubles tennis

What did the Duke open in Australia in 1927?

Parliament House

What was the name of the Duchess?

I'm not sure.

In what month did Albert visit Jamaica?

I'm not sure.

In what month did Albert begin his tour of the empire?

I'm not sure.

On what date did Albert speak at the new Parliament House in Canberra, Australia?

I'm not sure.

In what country is Wembley?

I'm not sure.


The Duke and Duchess of York had two children: Elizabeth (called "Lilibet" by the family), and Margaret. The Duke and Duchess and their two daughters lived a relatively sheltered life at their London residence, 145 Piccadilly. They were a close and loving family. One of the few stirs arose when the Canadian Prime Minister, R. B. Bennett, considered the Duke for Governor General of Canada in 1931—a proposal that King George V rejected on the advice of the Secretary of State for Dominion Affairs, J. H. Thomas.

What was Elizabeth's nickname?

Lilibet

Who were the Duke and Duchess of York's children?

Elizabeth (called "Lilibet" by the family), and Margaret

What was the name of Duke of York's London residence?

145 Piccadilly

Who advised against the Duke becoming the Governor General of Canada?

J. H. Thomas

What position did J. H. Thomas hold?

Secretary of State for Dominion Affairs

In what year was Elizabeth born?

I'm not sure.

In what year was Margaret born?

I'm not sure.

In what year did R.B. Bennett become the Canadian Prime Minister?

I'm not sure.

In what year was King George V crowned?

I'm not sure.

At what address in London did J.H. Thomas live?

I'm not sure.


As Edward was unmarried and had no children, Albert was the heir presumptive to the throne. Less than a year later, on 11 December 1936, Edward VIII abdicated in order to marry his mistress, Wallis Simpson, who was divorced from her first husband and divorcing her second. Edward had been advised by British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin that he could not remain king and marry a divorced woman with two living ex-husbands. Edward chose abdication in preference to abandoning his marriage plans. Thus Albert became king, a position he was reluctant to accept. The day before the abdication, he went to London to see his mother, Queen Mary. He wrote in his diary, "When I told her what had happened, I broke down and sobbed like a child."

Why was Albert the heir presumptive to the throne?

Edward was unmarried and had no children

What was wrong with Edward marrying Wallis Simpson?

divorced woman with two living ex-husbands

What did Edward do to marry Wallis Simpson?

abdication

Who is Edward's mother?

Queen Mary

How did Edward react when he became heir to the throne?

broke down and sobbed like a child

Who was Wallis Simpson's second husband?

I'm not sure.

How many children did Albert have in 1936?

I'm not sure.

On what date did Albert become king?

I'm not sure.

On what date was Edward made the king of England?

I'm not sure.

Who did Edward replaces as the King of England?

I'm not sure.


On the day of the abdication, the Oireachtas, the parliament of the Irish Free State, removed all direct mention of the monarch from the Irish constitution. The next day, it passed the External Relations Act, which gave the monarch limited authority (strictly on the advice of the government) to appoint diplomatic representatives for Ireland and to be involved in the making of foreign treaties. The two acts made the Irish Free State a republic in essence without removing its links to the Commonwealth.

What is the Oireachtas?

the parliament of the Irish Free State

What did the Oireachtas remove from the Irish constitution?

all direct mention of the monarch

Which act gave the monarch limited authority in Ireland?

External Relations Act

What day did the Oireachtas pass an act that started to establish Ireland as a republic?

day of the abdication

Who abdicated?

I'm not sure.

What was the name of the first act?

I'm not sure.

Who established the Oireachtas?

I'm not sure.

Where was the Commonwealth headquartered?

I'm not sure.


Albert assumed the regnal name "George VI" to emphasise continuity with his father and restore confidence in the monarchy. The beginning of George VI's reign was taken up by questions surrounding his predecessor and brother, whose titles, style and position were uncertain. He had been introduced as "His Royal Highness Prince Edward" for the abdication broadcast, but George VI felt that by abdicating and renouncing the succession Edward had lost the right to bear royal titles, including "Royal Highness". In settling the issue, George's first act as king was to confer upon his brother the title and style "His Royal Highness The Duke of Windsor", but the Letters Patent creating the dukedom prevented any wife or children from bearing royal styles. George VI was also forced to buy from Edward the royal residences of Balmoral Castle and Sandringham House, as these were private properties and did not pass to George VI automatically. Three days after his accession, on his 41st birthday, he invested his wife, the new queen consort, with the Order of the Garter.

What regnal name did Albert adopt?

George VI

What title did Albert give Edward?

His Royal Highness The Duke of Windsor

What did Albert bestow onto his wife on his 41st birthday?

the Order of the Garter

Which two residences did Albert buy from Edward?

Balmoral Castle and Sandringham House

What birthday did George IV's queen consort have before being invested with the Order of the Garter?

I'm not sure.

What was Edward's regnal name?

I'm not sure.

Who did Edward succeed as king?

I'm not sure.

What royal residence did George VI own?

I'm not sure.

In what city is Sandringham House?

I'm not sure.


George VI's coronation took place on 12 May 1937, the date previously intended for Edward's coronation. In a break with tradition, Queen Mary attended the ceremony in a show of support for her son. There was no Durbar held in Delhi for George VI, as had occurred for his father, as the cost would have been a burden to the government of India. Rising Indian nationalism made the welcome that the royal couple would have received likely to be muted at best, and a prolonged absence from Britain would have been undesirable in the tense period before the Second World War. Two overseas tours were undertaken, to France and to North America, both of which promised greater strategic advantages in the event of war.

What day did George VI become coronated?

12 May 1937

Who attended the coronation that was a break from tradition?

Queen Mary

How many overseas tours happened after the coronation to France and North America?

Two

In which city are Durbars usually held?

Delhi

On what date did the Second World War start?

I'm not sure.

On what date did Edward abdicate the throne?

I'm not sure.

On what date did George VI  begin his visit to France?

I'm not sure.

What continent is France on?

I'm not sure.


The growing likelihood of war in Europe dominated the early reign of George VI. The King was constitutionally bound to support Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain's appeasement of Hitler. However, when the King and Queen greeted Chamberlain on his return from negotiating the Munich Agreement in 1938, they invited him to appear on the balcony of Buckingham Palace with them. This public association of the monarchy with a politician was exceptional, as balcony appearances were traditionally restricted to the royal family. While broadly popular among the general public, Chamberlain's policy towards Hitler was the subject of some opposition in the House of Commons, which led historian John Grigg to describe the King's behaviour in associating himself so prominently with a politician as "the most unconstitutional act by a British sovereign in the present century".

Which prime minister was the King constitutionally bound to support?

Neville Chamberlain

Which agreement was signed in 1938?

Munich Agreement

The balcony in which palace is famous for being where the royal family makes appearances?

Buckingham Palace

Which historian commented that the king's act in associating with Chamberlain as unconstitutional?

John Grigg

In what year did  George IV reign begin?

I'm not sure.

What city is Buckingham Palace in?

I'm not sure.

In what year did the historian John Grigg accuse George VI of violating the constitution?

I'm not sure.

What was the House of Commons policy towards Hitler?

I'm not sure.


In May and June 1939, the King and Queen toured Canada and the United States. From Ottawa, the royal couple were accompanied throughout by Canadian Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, to present themselves in North America as King and Queen of Canada. George was the first reigning monarch of Canada to visit North America, although he had been to Canada previously as Prince Albert and as Duke of York. Both Governor General of Canada Lord Tweedsmuir and Mackenzie King hoped that the King's presence in Canada would demonstrate the principles of the Statute of Westminster 1931, which gave full sovereignty to the British Dominions. On 19 May, George VI personally accepted and approved the Letter of Credence of the new U.S. Ambassador to Canada, Daniel Calhoun Roper; gave Royal Assent to nine parliamentary bills; and ratified two international treaties with the Great Seal of Canada. The official royal tour historian, Gustave Lanctot, wrote "the Statute of Westminster had assumed full reality" and George gave a speech emphasising "the free and equal association of the nations of the Commonwealth".

Which two countries did the King and Queen tour in 1939?

Canada and the United States

Who was the prime minister of Canada in 1939?

William Lyon Mackenzie King

What title was the king and queen presented with when touring Canada?

King and Queen of Canada

What was Roper's position?

U.S. Ambassador to Canada

What did the Statute of Westminster do?

gave full sovereignty to the British Dominions


The trip was intended to soften the strong isolationist tendencies among the North American public with regard to the developing tensions in Europe. Although the aim of the tour was mainly political, to shore up Atlantic support for the United Kingdom in any future war, the King and Queen were enthusiastically received by the public. The fear that George would be compared unfavourably to his predecessor, Edward VIII, was dispelled. They visited the 1939 New York World's Fair and stayed with President Franklin D. Roosevelt at the White House and at his private estate at Hyde Park, New York. A strong bond of friendship was forged between the King and Queen and the President during the tour, which had major significance in the relations between the United States and the United Kingdom through the ensuing war years.

What kind of tendencies did North America have?

isolationist tendencies

Who was George's predecessor?

Edward VIII

Who was the President of the United States in 1939?

President Franklin D. Roosevelt

Which fair was happening in New York in 1939?

1939 New York World's Fair

In what year did Edward Viii abdicate?

I'm not sure.

In what city is the White House?

I'm not sure.

In what year was Franklin D. Roosevelt made president?

I'm not sure.

In what year was George crowned?

I'm not sure.


In September 1939, Britain and the self-governing Dominions, but not Ireland, declared war on Nazi Germany. George VI and his wife resolved to stay in London, despite German bombing raids. They officially stayed in Buckingham Palace throughout the war, although they usually spent nights at Windsor Castle. The first German raid on London, on 7 September 1940, killed about one thousand civilians, mostly in the East End. On 13 September, the King and Queen narrowly avoided death when two German bombs exploded in a courtyard at Buckingham Palace while they were there. In defiance, the Queen famously declared: "I am glad we have been bombed. It makes me feel we can look the East End in the face". The royal family were portrayed as sharing the same dangers and deprivations as the rest of the country. They were subject to rationing restrictions, and U.S. First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt remarked on the rationed food served and the limited bathwater that was permitted during a stay at the unheated and boarded-up Palace. In August 1942, the King's brother, Prince George, Duke of Kent, was killed on active service.

Against who did Britain declare war against in 1939?

Nazi Germany

Which city did the king and queen stay in even with the bombing threats?

London

How many people died on the first German raid on London?

one thousand civilians

What year did the King's brother die in service?

What was the Queen's name?

I'm not sure.

In what month and year did Eleanor Roosevelt visit London?

I'm not sure.

On what date in August 1942 was Prince George killed?

I'm not sure.

How many civilians were killed in the East End on 7 September 1940?

I'm not sure.

On what date in September 1939 did Britain declare war on Nazi Germany?

I'm not sure.


In 1940, Winston Churchill replaced Neville Chamberlain as Prime Minister, though personally George would have preferred to appoint Lord Halifax. After the King's initial dismay over Churchill's appointment of Lord Beaverbrook to the Cabinet, he and Churchill developed "the closest personal relationship in modern British history between a monarch and a Prime Minister". Every Tuesday for four and a half years from September 1940, the two men met privately for lunch to discuss the war in secret and with frankness.

Who was Winston Churchill's predecessor?

Neville Chamberlain

What position did Churchill hold?

Prime Minister

What day of the week did Churchill and the King meet?

Tuesday

Who did Churchill appoint to Cabinet that the King did not like?

Lord Beaverbrook

Who was Lord Halifax in 1940?

I'm not sure.

Who was Lord Beaverbrook in 1940?

I'm not sure.

In what month and year did the war start?

I'm not sure.

Who replaced Winston Churchill as Prime Minister?

I'm not sure.


Throughout the war, the King and Queen provided morale-boosting visits throughout the United Kingdom, visiting bomb sites, munitions factories, and troops. The King visited military forces abroad in France in December 1939, North Africa and Malta in June 1943, Normandy in June 1944, southern Italy in July 1944, and the Low Countries in October 1944. Their high public profile and apparently indefatigable determination secured their place as symbols of national resistance. At a social function in 1944, Chief of the Imperial General Staff Sir Alan Brooke, revealed that every time he met Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery he thought he was after his job. The King replied: "You should worry, when I meet him, I always think he's after mine!"

What country did the King and Queen visit in July 1944?

Italy

When did the King and Queen visit North Africa and Malta?

June 1943

What improved when the King and Queen visited different military sites?

morale

In what month in 1944 did the King meet Sir Alan Brooke?

I'm not sure.

What is one of the Low Countries?

I'm not sure.

In what year was Bernard Montgomery made the Field Marshal?

I'm not sure.

In what year did British military forces enter Southern Italy?

I'm not sure.

In what year was Sir Alan brooke made the Chief of the Imperial General Staff?

I'm not sure.


George VI's reign saw the acceleration of the dissolution of the British Empire. The Statute of Westminster 1931 had already acknowledged the evolution of the Dominions into separate sovereign states. The process of transformation from an empire to a voluntary association of independent states, known as the Commonwealth, gathered pace after the Second World War. During the ministry of Clement Attlee, British India became the two independent dominions of India and Pakistan in 1947. George relinquished the title of Emperor of India, and became King of India and King of Pakistan instead. In 1950 he ceased to be King of India when it became a republic within the Commonwealth of Nations, but he remained King of Pakistan until his death and India recognised his new title of Head of the Commonwealth. Other countries left the Commonwealth, such as Burma in January 1948, Palestine (divided between Israel and the Arab states) in May 1948 and the Republic of Ireland in 1949.

What is the association of independent states in Britain called?

the Commonwealth

What two dominions did British India become?

India and Pakistan

What country left the Commonwealth in January 1948?

Burma

What year was the Republic of Ireland formed?

In what year did the Second World War end?

I'm not sure.

In what month in 1950 did George VI cease being the King of India?

I'm not sure.

In what month in 1949 did the Republic of Ireland leave the Commonwealth?

I'm not sure.

In what year did Clement Attlee become the minister?

I'm not sure.

In what year did George VI die?

I'm not sure.


In 1947, the King and his family toured Southern Africa. The Prime Minister of the Union of South Africa, Jan Smuts, was facing an election and hoped to make political capital out of the visit. George was appalled, however, when instructed by the South African government to shake hands only with whites, and referred to his South African bodyguards as "the Gestapo". Despite the tour, Smuts lost the election the following year, and the new government instituted a strict policy of racial segregation.

Who was the Prime Minister of South Africa in 1947?

Jan Smuts

What were the King's South African bodyguards referred as?

the Gestapo

Who instructed the King to only shake hands with whites in South Africa?

South African government

In what year did Jan Smuts become Prime Minister?

I'm not sure.

Whose South African government instituted a strict policy of racial segregation?

I'm not sure.

What race were the South African bodyguards?

I'm not sure.

In what year did George become King?

I'm not sure.


The stress of the war had taken its toll on the King's health, exacerbated by his heavy smoking and subsequent development of lung cancer among other ailments, including arteriosclerosis and thromboangiitis obliterans. A planned tour of Australia and New Zealand was postponed after the King suffered an arterial blockage in his right leg, which threatened the loss of the leg and was treated with a right lumbar sympathectomy in March 1949. His elder daughter Elizabeth, the heir presumptive, took on more royal duties as her father's health deteriorated. The delayed tour was re-organised, with Elizabeth and her husband, the Duke of Edinburgh, taking the place of the King and Queen. The King was well enough to open the Festival of Britain in May 1951, but on 23 September 1951, his left lung was removed by Clement Price Thomas after a malignant tumour was found. In October 1951, Princess Elizabeth and the Duke of Edinburgh went on a month-long tour of Canada; the trip had been delayed for a week due to the King's illness. At the State Opening of Parliament in November, the King's speech from the throne was read for him by the Lord Chancellor, Lord Simonds. His Christmas broadcast of 1951 was recorded in sections, and then edited together.

What kind of cancer did the King develop?

lung cancer

What developed in the King's right leg that prevented him from touring Australia?

arterial blockage

What treatment helped prevent the loss of the King's right leg?

right lumbar sympathectomy

Who was the King's heir presumptive?

Elizabeth

Who was Elizabeth's spouse?

Duke of Edinburgh

Who performed the right lumbar sympathectomy on George?

I'm not sure.

On what date in March 1949 did George undergo a right lumbar sympathectomy procedure?

I'm not sure.

What was George's younger daughters name?

I'm not sure.

Who was the Duke of Edinburgh?

I'm not sure.

In what year was Lord Simonds made the Lord Chancellor?

I'm not sure.


From 9 February for two days his coffin rested in St. Mary Magdalene Church, Sandringham, before lying in state at Westminster Hall from 11 February. His funeral took place at St. George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, on the 15th. He was interred initially in the Royal Vault until he was transferred to the King George VI Memorial Chapel inside St. George's on 26 March 1969. In 2002, fifty years after his death, the remains of his widow, Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother, and the ashes of his younger daughter Princess Margaret, who both died that year, were interred in the chapel alongside him.

What church did the King's funeral take place on the 15th?

Windsor Castle

What year did Queen Elizabeth die?

What year did Princess Margaret die?

In which chapel does King George's body lie in today?

King George VI Memorial Chapel

In what city is Westminster Hall?

I'm not sure.

In what city is the King George VI Memorial Chapel?

I'm not sure.

Where was Princess Margaret when she died?

I'm not sure.

On what date was Queen Elizabeth crowned?

I'm not sure.

Where was Queen Elizabeth crowned?

I'm not sure.


In the words of Labour Member of Parliament George Hardie, the abdication crisis of 1936 did "more for republicanism than fifty years of propaganda". George VI wrote to his brother Edward that in the aftermath of the abdication he had reluctantly assumed "a rocking throne", and tried "to make it steady again". He became king at a point when public faith in the monarchy was at a low ebb. During his reign his people endured the hardships of war, and imperial power was eroded. However, as a dutiful family man and by showing personal courage, he succeeded in restoring the popularity of the monarchy.

How high was public faith in the monarchy when King George assumed the throne?

low

What position did George Hardie hold?

Labour Member of Parliament

Who was George VI's brother?

Edward

In what year did George Hardie become a member of Parliament?

I'm not sure.

In what year did the war end?

I'm not sure.

In what year did George VI write a letter to his brother Edward saying he assumed "a rocking throne"?

I'm not sure.

Who abdicated in 1936?

I'm not sure.


Federalism refers to the mixed or compound mode of government, combining a general government (the central or 'federal' government) with regional governments (provincial, state, Land, cantonal, territorial or other sub-unit governments) in a single political system. Its distinctive feature, exemplified in the founding example of modern federalism of the United States of America under the Constitution of 1789, is a relationship of parity between the two levels of government established. It can thus be defined as a form of government in which there is a division of powers between two levels of government of equal status.

What is federalism?

Federalism refers to the mixed or compound mode of government

In Federalism, are the division of powers equal?

division of powers between two levels of government of equal status

What type of governments are included in federalism?

general government (the central or 'federal' government) with regional governments

How many governments are apart of federalism?

relationship of parity between the two levels of government

What isn't federalism?

I'm not sure.

What features are indistinctive of federalism?

I'm not sure.

What document rejected modern federalist government?

I'm not sure.

What distinguishes Federalism from no other types of government?

I'm not sure.

Federalism combines what three types of government?

I'm not sure.


Until recently, in the absence of prior agreement on a clear and precise definition, the concept was thought to mean (as a shorthand) 'a division of sovereignty between two levels of government'. New research, however, argues that this cannot be correct, as dividing sovereignty - when this concept is properly understood in its core meaning of the final and absolute source of political authority in a political community - is not possible. The descent of the United States into Civil War in the mid-nineteenth century, over disputes about unallocated competences concerning slavery and ultimately the right of secession, showed this. One or other level of government could be sovereign to decide such matters, but not both simultaneously. Therefore, it is now suggested that federalism is more appropriately conceived as 'a division of the powers flowing from sovereignty between two levels of government'. What differentiates the concept from other multi-level political forms is the characteristic of equality of standing between the two levels of government established. This clarified definition opens the way to identifying two distinct federal forms, where before only one was known, based upon whether sovereignty resides in the whole (in one people) or in the parts (in many peoples): the federal state (or federation) and the federal union of states (or federal union), respectively. Leading examples of the federal state include the United States, Germany, Canada, Switzerland, Australia and India. The leading example of the federal union of states is the European Union.

Before new research, what was the definition of federalism?

a division of sovereignty between two levels of government

After new research, what was the final definition of federalism?

final and absolute source of political authority in a political community - is not possible.

When was federalism put into place?

The descent of the United States into Civil War in the mid-nineteenth century

What is the difference between multi-level political forms and federalism?

the characteristic of equality of standing between the two levels of government established

What is an example of a federal union?

the European Union

What historical event illustrated that dividing sovereignty was possible?

I'm not sure.

Old research has clarified that Federalism has how many distinct forms?

I'm not sure.

What organization is a leading example of a local union?

I'm not sure.

What distinguishes Federalism from other single-level governments?

I'm not sure.

What form of Federalism is characterized by where sovereignty resides in the partial?

I'm not sure.


The terms 'federalism' and 'confederalism' both have a root in the Latin word foedus, meaning treaty, pact or covenant. Their common meaning until the late eighteenth century was a simple league or inter-governmental relationship among sovereign states based upon a treaty. They were therefore initially synonyms. It was in this sense that James Madison in Federalist 39 had referred to the new United States as 'neither a national nor a federal Constitution, but a composition of both' (ie. neither a single large unitary state nor a league/confederation among several small states, but a hybrid of the two). In the course of the nineteenth century the meaning of federalism would come to shift, strengthening to refer uniquely to the novel compound political form, while the meaning of confederalism would remain at a league of states. Thus, this article relates to the modern usage of the word 'federalism'.

What is the Latin word for federalism?

foedus

What was federalism and confederalism common meaning in the 18th century?

a simple league or inter-governmental relationship among sovereign states based upon a treaty.

What did James Madison referred to the new United States as?

'neither a national nor a federal Constitution, but a composition of both

What isn't the Latin word for federalism?

I'm not sure.

What was federalism and confederalism common meaning in the 17th century?

I'm not sure.

What did James Madison referred to the old United States as?

I'm not sure.

What did John Madison referred to the new United States as?

I'm not sure.

What did James Madison referred to the new United Nations as?

I'm not sure.


Whilst it is often perceived as an optimal solution for states comprising different cultural or ethnic communities, the federalist model seems to work best in largely homogeneous states such as the United States, Germany or Australia, but there is also evidence to the contrary such as in Switzerland. Tensions between territories can still be found in federalist countries such as Canada and federation as a way to appease and quell military conflict has failed recently in places like Lybia or Iraq, while the formula is simultaneously proposed and dismissed in countries such as Ukraine or Syria. Federations such as Yugoslavia or Czechoslovakia collapsed as soon as it was possible to put the model to the test.

Where does the federalist model work best in?

homogeneous states

What are homogeneous states?

United States, Germany or Australia

Where can tensions be found in the federalist countries?

Canada

What countries did the federalist model fail in?

Yugoslavia or Czechoslovakia

What countries dismissed the federalist model?

Ukraine or Syria

Where does the federalist model work worst in?

I'm not sure.

What aren't homogeneous states?

I'm not sure.

Where can't tensions be found in the federalist countries?

I'm not sure.

What countries did the federalist model succeed in?

I'm not sure.

What countries embraced the federalist model?

I'm not sure.


In the United States, federalism originally referred to belief in a stronger central government. When the U.S. Constitution was being drafted, the Federalist Party supported a stronger central government, while "Anti-Federalists" wanted a weaker central government. This is very different from the modern usage of "federalism" in Europe and the United States. The distinction stems from the fact that "federalism" is situated in the middle of the political spectrum between a confederacy and a unitary state. The U.S. Constitution was written as a reaction to the Articles of Confederation, under which the United States was a loose confederation with a weak central government.

In the United States, what was federalism referred to?

belief in a stronger central government.

When the U.S Constitution was being drafted, what did the federalist party support?

stronger central government

What did anti-federalist support?

weaker central government

On the political spectrum, where does federalism stand?

federalism" is situated in the middle of the political spectrum between a confederacy and a unitary state

In the United States, what wasn't federalism referred to?

I'm not sure.

When the U.S Constitution was being erased, what did the federalist party support?

I'm not sure.

When the U.S Constitution was being drafted, what did the federalist party oppose?

I'm not sure.

What did anti-federalist oppose?

I'm not sure.

On the political spectrum, where doesn't federalism stand?

I'm not sure.


In contrast, Europe has a greater history of unitary states than North America, thus European "federalism" argues for a weaker central government, relative to a unitary state. The modern American usage of the word is much closer to the European sense. As the power of the Federal government has increased, some people have perceived a much more unitary state than they believe the Founding Fathers intended. Most people politically advocating "federalism" in the United States argue in favor of limiting the powers of the federal government, especially the judiciary (see Federalist Society, New Federalism).

Who has a greater history of unitary states?

Europe

What does federalism mean in Europe?

weaker central government, relative to a unitary state

What branch does the United States want to limit under the federalist model?

judiciary

Who has a lesser history of unitary states?

I'm not sure.

Who has a greater history of solitary states?

I'm not sure.

What doesn't federalism mean in Europe?

I'm not sure.

What branch doesn't the United States want to limit under the federalist model?

I'm not sure.

What branch does the United Nations want to limit under the federalist model?

I'm not sure.


On the 1st of January 1901 the nation-state of Australia officially came into existence as a federation. The Australian continent was colonised by the United Kingdom in 1788, which subsequently established six, eventually self-governing, colonies there. In the 1890s the governments of these colonies all held referendums on becoming a unified, self-governing "Commonwealth" within the British Empire. When all the colonies voted in favour of federation, the Federation of Australia commenced, resulting in the establishment of the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901. The model of Australian federalism adheres closely to the original model of the United States of America, although it does so through a parliamentary Westminster system rather than a presidential system.

What happened on January 1st 1901?

nation-state of Australia officially came into existence as a federation

When did the United Kingdom colonized the Australian continent?

Which model is of federalism is similar to the federalism model in Australia?

United States of America

What was established when Australia was colonized?

six, eventually self-governing, colonies

What happened on January 21st 1901?

I'm not sure.

When did the United Kingdom leave the Australian continent?

I'm not sure.

When didn't the United Kingdom colonize the Australian continent?

I'm not sure.

Which model is of federalism is opposite to the federalism model in Australia?

I'm not sure.

What was abolished when Australia was colonized?

I'm not sure.


In Brazil, the fall of the monarchy in 1889 by a military coup d'état led to the rise of the presidential system, headed by Deodoro da Fonseca. Aided by well-known jurist Ruy Barbosa, Fonseca established federalism in Brazil by decree, but this system of government would be confirmed by every Brazilian constitution since 1891, although some of them would distort some of the federalist principles. The 1937 Constitution, for example, granted the federal government the authority to appoint State Governors (called interventors) at will, thus centralizing power in the hands of President Getúlio Vargas. Brazil also uses the Fonseca system to regulate interstate trade. Brazil is one of the biggest federal governments.

When was Brazil's fall of the monarchy?

Who caused the fall of the monarchy happened in Brazil?

military coup d'état led to the rise of the presidential system, headed by Deodoro da Fonseca.

When did Brazil adopt federalism?

What other system does Brazil use?

Fonseca system

What is the fonseca system?

regulate interstate trade

When was Brazil's rise of the monarchy?

I'm not sure.

Who didn't cause the fall of the monarchy that happened in Brazil?

I'm not sure.

When did Brazil reject federalism?

I'm not sure.

What other system does Brazil reject?

I'm not sure.

What isn't the fonseca system?

I'm not sure.


The government of India is based on a tiered system, in which the Constitution of India delineates the subjects on which each tier of government has executive powers. The Constitution originally provided for a two-tier system of government, the Union Government (also known as the Central Government), representing the Union of India, and the State governments. Later, a third tier was added in the form of Panchayats and Municipalities. In the current arrangement, The Seventh Schedule of the Indian Constitution delimits the subjects of each level of governmental jurisdiction, dividing them into three lists:

What is the government of India based on?

tiered system

What is a tiered system?

the Constitution of India delineates the subjects on which each tier of government has executive powers

What was the constitution originally provided for?

two-tier system of government

When the third tiere was added on, what is it in form of?

Panchayats and Municipalities

What isn't the government of India based on?

I'm not sure.

What isn't a tiered system?

I'm not sure.

What was the constitution originally not provided for?

I'm not sure.

What was the constitution never provided for?

I'm not sure.

When the third tiere was taken off, what is it in form of?

I'm not sure.


A distinguishing aspect of Indian federalism is that unlike many other forms of federalism, it is asymmetric. Article 370 makes special provisions for the state of Jammu and Kashmir as per its Instrument of Accession. Article 371 makes special provisions for the states of Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Goa, Mizoram, Manipur, Nagaland and Sikkim as per their accession or state-hood deals. Also one more aspect of Indian federalism is system of President's Rule in which the central government (through its appointed Governor) takes control of state's administration for certain months when no party can form a government in the state or there is violent disturbance in the state.

What is a distinguishing aspect of Indian federalism?

asymmetric

What does Article 370 say?

special provisions for the state of Jammu and Kashmir as per its Instrument of Accession

What does Article 371 say?

special provisions for the states of Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Goa, Mizoram, Manipur, Nagaland and Sikkim

What happens with President's Rule?

the central government (through its appointed Governor) takes control of state's administration for certain months

What isn't a distinguishing aspect of Indian federalism?

I'm not sure.

What does Article 307 say?

I'm not sure.

What does Article 317 say?

I'm not sure.

What never happens with President's Rule?

I'm not sure.

What happens with Prime Minister's Rule?

I'm not sure.


Although the drafts of both the Maastricht treaty and the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe mentioned federalism, the representatives of the member countries (all of whom would have had to agree to use of the term) never formally adopted it. The strongest advocates of European federalism have been Germany, Italy, Belgium and Luxembourg while those historically most strongly opposed have been the United Kingdom, Denmark and France (with conservative presidents and governments). Since the presidency of François Mitterrand (1981-1995), the French authorities have adopted a much more pro-European Unification position, as they consider that a strong EU is presenting the best "insurance" against a unified Germany which might become too strong and thus a threat for its neighbours.

Who is the strongest advocate of the European Federalism?

Germany, Italy, Belgium and Luxembourg

Who opposed the European Federalism?

United Kingdom, Denmark and France

When did the French authorities adopted the pro-European Unification position?

Since the presidency of François Mitterrand (1981-1995

Who is the strongest opponent of the European Federalism?

I'm not sure.

Who supported the European Federalism?

I'm not sure.

When did the English authorities adopt the pro-European Unification position?

I'm not sure.

When did the French authorities reject the pro-European Unification position?

I'm not sure.

When didn't the French authorities adopted the pro-European Unification position?

I'm not sure.


The Federal War ended in 1863 with the signing of the Treaty of Coche by both the centralist government of the time and the Federal Forces. The United States of Venezuela were subsequently incorporated under a "Federation of Sovereign States" upon principles borrowed from the Articles of Confederation of the United States of America. In this Federation, each State had a "President" of its own that controlled almost every issue, even the creation of "State Armies," while the Federal Army was required to obtain presidential permission to enter any given state.

When did the federal war end?

How did the federal war end?

with the signing of the Treaty of Coche by both the centralist government of the time and the Federal Forces

What did the United States of Venezuela incorporate?

"Federation of Sovereign States" upon principles borrowed from the Articles of Confederation of the United States of America

In this type of federation each country had its own what?

President

When did the federal war start?

I'm not sure.

How did the federal war start?

I'm not sure.

What did the United States of Venezuela reject?

I'm not sure.

What did the United States of America incorporate?

I'm not sure.

In this type of federation each country had shared what?

I'm not sure.


On the other hand, Belgian federalism is federated with three components. An affirmative resolution concerning Brussels' place in the federal system passed in the parliaments of Wallonia and Brussels. These resolutions passed against the desires of Dutch-speaking parties, who are generally in favour of a federal system with two components (i.e. the Dutch and French Communities of Belgium). However, the Flemish representatives in the Parliament of the Brussels Capital-Region voted in favour of the Brussels resolution, with the exception of one party. The chairman of the Walloon Parliament stated on July 17, 2008 that, "Brussels would take an attitude". Brussels' parliament passed the resolution on July 18, 2008:

How many components does the Belgian federalism have?

three components

What passed on July 18, 2007?

Brussels' parliament

What are the Flemish representatives in favor for?

Brussels resolution, with the exception of one party

What is Belgian Federalism?

the federal system passed in the parliaments of Wallonia and Brussels.

How many components does the Belgian federalism not have?

I'm not sure.

What passed on July 18, 2007?

I'm not sure.

What didn't pass on July 18, 2008?

I'm not sure.

What are the Flemish representatives not in favor of?

I'm not sure.

What isn't Belgian Federalism?

I'm not sure.


However, in order to manage the tensions present in the Spanish transition to democracy, the drafters of the current Spanish constitution avoided giving labels such as 'federal' to the territorial arrangements. Besides, unlike in the federal system, the main taxes are taken centrally from Madrid (except for the Basque Country and Navarre, which were recognized in the Spanish democratic constitution as charter territories drawing from historical reasons) and then distributed to the Autonomous Communities.

How did they manage the tensions in the present of Spanish Transition to democracy?

the drafters of the current Spanish constitution avoided giving labels such as 'federal' to the territorial arrangements.

Which cities are recognized in the Spanish Democratic Constitution?

Basque Country and Navarre

Where are the main taxes taken?

Madrid

How did they ignore the tensions in the present of Spanish Transition to democracy?

I'm not sure.

How did they manage the tensions in the present of Spanish Transition to communism?

I'm not sure.

Which cities aren't recognized in the Spanish Democratic Constitution?

I'm not sure.

Which cities are recognized in the Spanish Socialist Constitution?

I'm not sure.

Where are the main taxes ignored?

I'm not sure.


Anarchists are against the State but are not against political organization or "governance"—so long as it is self-governance utilizing direct democracy. The mode of political organization preferred by anarchists, in general, is federalism or confederalism.[citation needed] However, the anarchist definition of federalism tends to differ from the definition of federalism assumed by pro-state political scientists. The following is a brief description of federalism from section I.5 of An Anarchist FAQ:

What are anarchists against?

State

What are anarchists not against?

not against political organization or "governance"—so long as it is self-governance utilizing direct democracy.

What mode of government does the anarchists prefer?

federalism or confederalism

What are anarchists for?

I'm not sure.

What aren't anarchists against?

I'm not sure.

What are anarchists against?

I'm not sure.

What mode of government does the anarchists hate?

I'm not sure.

What mode of sports does the anarchists prefer?

I'm not sure.


Alternatively, or in addition to this practice, the members of an upper house may be indirectly elected by the government or legislature of the component states, as occurred in the United States prior to 1913, or be actual members or delegates of the state governments, as, for example, is the case in the German Bundesrat and in the Council of the European Union. The lower house of a federal legislature is usually directly elected, with apportionment in proportion to population, although states may sometimes still be guaranteed a certain minimum number of seats.

Who can elect the members of the upper house?

government or legislature

Can the members of the upper house be elected directly or indirectly?

indirectly

Can the members of the lower house be elected directly or indirectly?

directly

Who can't elect the members of the upper house?

I'm not sure.

Who can elect the leaders of the upper house?

I'm not sure.

Can the members of the upper house be impeached directly or indirectly?

I'm not sure.

Can the members of the lower house be impeached directly or indirectly?

I'm not sure.

Can the citizens of the lower house be elected directly or indirectly?

I'm not sure.


Federalism, and other forms of territorially autonomy, is generally seen as a useful way to structure political systems in order prevent violence among different groups with countries because it allows certain groups to legislate at the subnational level. Some scholars have suggested, however, that federalism can divide countries and result in state collapse because it creates proto-states. Still others have shown that federalism is only divisive when it lacks mechanisms tthat encourage political parties to compete across regional boundaries.

What is federalism seen as?

a useful way to structure political systems in order prevent violence among different groups with countries

What does federalism allow?

it allows certain groups to legislate at the subnational level

What do scholars think of federalism?

Some scholars have suggested, however, that federalism can divide countries

What isn't federalism seen as?

I'm not sure.

What is communism seen as?

I'm not sure.

What doesn't federalism allow?

I'm not sure.

What does federalism not allow?

I'm not sure.

What don't scholars think of federalism?

I'm not sure.


The post-Imperial nature of Russian subdivision of government changed towards a generally autonomous model which began with the establishment of the USSR (of which Russia was governed as part). It was liberalized in the aftermath of the Soviet Union, with the reforms under Boris Yeltsin preserving much of the Soviet structure while applying increasingly liberal reforms to the governance of the constituent republics and subjects (while also coming into conflict with Chechen secessionist rebels during the Chechen War). Some of the reforms under Yeltsin were scaled back by Vladimir Putin.

What happened to Russia's subdivision of government?

changed towards a generally autonomous model

When was Russia's subdivision liberalized?

in the aftermath of the Soviet Union

Who was in charge when the reforms was going on?

Boris Yeltsin

Who scaled back some reforms from Yeltsin?

Vladimir Putin

What happened to Prussia's subdivision of government?

I'm not sure.

When wasn't Russia's subdivision liberalized?

I'm not sure.

Who wasn't in charge when the reform was going on?

I'm not sure.

Who was in charge when the reforms was scrapped?

I'm not sure.

Who escalted some reforms from Yeltsin?

I'm not sure.


Federalism in the United States is the evolving relationship between state governments and the federal government of the United States. American government has evolved from a system of dual federalism to one of associative federalism. In "Federalist No. 46," James Madison asserted that the states and national government "are in fact but different agents and trustees of the people, constituted with different powers." Alexander Hamilton, writing in "Federalist No. 28," suggested that both levels of government would exercise authority to the citizens' benefit: "If their [the peoples'] rights are invaded by either, they can make use of the other as the instrument of redress." (1)

What is federalism in the United States?

ederalism in the United States is the evolving relationship between state governments and the federal government of the United States

How has the American government evolved?

American government has evolved from a system of dual federalism to one of associative federalism.

What happened in Federalist No.46?

James Madison asserted that the states and national government

What happened in Federalist No. 28

"Federalist No. 28," suggested that both levels of government would exercise authority to the citizens' benefit

What is federalism out the United States?

I'm not sure.

How has the American government devolved?

I'm not sure.

What happened in Federalist No.64?

I'm not sure.

What never happened in Federalist No.46?

I'm not sure.

What happened in Federalist No. 82

I'm not sure.


Because the states were preexisting political entities, the U.S. Constitution did not need to define or explain federalism in any one section but it often mentions the rights and responsibilities of state governments and state officials in relation to the federal government. The federal government has certain express powers (also called enumerated powers) which are powers spelled out in the Constitution, including the right to levy taxes, declare war, and regulate interstate and foreign commerce. In addition, the Necessary and Proper Clause gives the federal government the implied power to pass any law "necessary and proper" for the execution of its express powers. Other powers—the reserved powers—are reserved to the people or the states. The power delegated to the federal government was significantly expanded by the Supreme Court decision in McCulloch v. Maryland (1819), amendments to the Constitution following the Civil War, and by some later amendments—as well as the overall claim of the Civil War, that the states were legally subject to the final dictates of the federal government.

Why did the constitution didn't have to explain federalism?

Because the states were preexisting political entities

What is another word for express powers?

enumerated powers

Where can we find express powers?

in the Constitution

What are the expressed powers?

the right to levy taxes, declare war, and regulate interstate and foreign commerce.

What does the Necessary and Proper Clause do?

gives the federal government the implied power to pass any law "necessary and proper" for the execution of its express powers

Why did the constitution have to explain federalism?

I'm not sure.

What is another word for suppress powers?

I'm not sure.

Where can we find suppress powers?

I'm not sure.

What are the suppressed powers?

I'm not sure.

What does the Unnecessary and Proper Clause do?

I'm not sure.


The Federalist Party of the United States was opposed by the Democratic-Republicans, including powerful figures such as Thomas Jefferson. The Democratic-Republicans mainly believed that: the Legislature had too much power (mainly because of the Necessary and Proper Clause) and that they were unchecked; the Executive had too much power, and that there was no check on the executive; a dictator would arise; and that a bill of rights should be coupled with the constitution to prevent a dictator (then believed to eventually be the president) from exploiting or tyrannizing citizens. The federalists, on the other hand, argued that it was impossible to list all the rights, and those that were not listed could be easily overlooked because they were not in the official bill of rights. Rather, rights in specific cases were to be decided by the judicial system of courts.

What was the federalist party of the United States opposed to?

Democratic-Republicans

What did the democratic-republican party believe in?

the Legislature had too much power (mainly because of the Necessary and Proper Clause) and that they were unchecked

Who decided the rights in specific cases?

the judicial system of courts

What was the federalist party of the United States in support of?

I'm not sure.

What was the federalist party of the United Nations opposed to?

I'm not sure.

What did the democratic-republican party not believe in?

I'm not sure.

What did the democratic-republican party oppose?

I'm not sure.

Who decided the rights in all cases?

I'm not sure.


The meaning of federalism, as a political movement, and of what constitutes a 'federalist', varies with country and historical context.[citation needed] Movements associated with the establishment or development of federations can exhibit either centralising or decentralising trends.[citation needed] For example, at the time those nations were being established, factions known as "federalists" in the United States and Australia advocated the formation of strong central government. Similarly, in European Union politics, federalists mostly seek greater EU integration. In contrast, in Spain and in post-war Germany, federal movements have sought decentralisation: the transfer of power from central authorities to local units. In Canada, where Quebec separatism has been a political force for several decades, the "federalist" impulse aims to keep Quebec inside Canada.

What is the meaning of federalism?

as a political movement, and of what constitutes a 'federalist', varies with country and historical context

What types of movements are associated with federalism?

Movements associated with the establishment or development of federations can exhibit either centralising or decentralising trends.

What countries advocate for a strong central government?

United States and Australia

What isn't the meaning of federalism?

I'm not sure.

What is the meaning of anti-federalism?

I'm not sure.

What types of movements aren't associated with federalism?

I'm not sure.

What types of non-movements are associated with federalism?

I'm not sure.

What countries are against a strong central government?

I'm not sure.