In Hong Kong, the Supreme Court of Hong Kong (now known as the High Court of Hong Kong) was the final court of appeal during its colonial times which ended with transfer of sovereignty in 1997. The final adjudication power, as in any other British Colonies, rested with the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council (JCPC) in London, United Kingdom. Now the power of final adjudication is vested in the Court of Final Appeal created in 1997. Under the Basic Law, its constitution, the territory remains a common law jurisdiction. Consequently, judges from other common law jurisdictions (including England and Wales) can be recruited and continue to serve in the judiciary according to Article 92 of the Basic Law. On the other hand, the power of interpretation of the Basic Law itself is vested in the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress (NPCSC) in Beijing (without retroactive effect), and the courts are authorised to interpret the Basic Law when trying cases, in accordance with Article 158 of the Basic Law. This arrangement became controversial in light of the right of abode issue in 1999, raising concerns for judicial independence.

When did Britain formally surrender sovreignty over Hong Kong?

When Hong Kong was a colony of Great Britain, which body was the highest court of appeal?

the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council (JCPC)

Where is the JCPC located?

London, United Kingdom

When was the Court of Final Appeal established?

The Standing Committee of the National People's Congress is seated in what city?

Beijing

What event occurred in Hong Kong in 1979?

I'm not sure.

What is also known as the CJPC?

I'm not sure.

What was created in 1979?

I'm not sure.

What does Article 29 of the Basic Law state?

I'm not sure.

What does Article 185 of the Basic Law state?

I'm not sure.


In India, the Supreme Court of India was created on January 28, 1950 after adoption of the Constitution. Article 141 of the Constitution of India states that the law declared by Supreme Court is to be binding on all Courts within the territory of India. It is the highest court in India and has ultimate judicial authority to interpret the Constitution and decide questions of national law (including local bylaws). The Supreme Court is also vested with the power of judicial review to ensure the application of the rule of law.

On what date was India's Supreme Court established?

January 28, 1950

What article of India's Constitution makes decisions by their Supreme Court binding on lower courts?

Article 141

India's Supreme Court has ultimate power to determine interpretations of what?

the Constitution

When the Supreme Court ensures that lower courts have properly applied the law it is called what?

judicial review

In addition to national laws, India's Supreme Court may also interpret what regulations?

local bylaws

What was created on January 29, 1850?

I'm not sure.

What was adopted after the creation of the Supreme Court of India?

I'm not sure.

What does Article 414 of the Constitution of India say?

I'm not sure.

Why is the Supreme Court vested with the power of judicial authority?

I'm not sure.


The Supreme Court is the highest court in Ireland. It has authority to interpret the constitution, and strike down laws and activities of the state that it finds to be unconstitutional. It is also the highest authority in the interpretation of the law. Constitutionally it must have authority to interpret the constitution but its further appellate jurisdiction from lower courts is defined by law. The Irish Supreme Court consists of its presiding member, the Chief Justice, and seven other judges. Judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the President in accordance with the binding advice of the Government. The Supreme Court sits in the Four Courts in Dublin.

What is the highest ranking court in Ireland?

The Supreme Court

Ireland's highest court has the power to determine whether laws are allowed by what document?

the constitution

Who is the highest judge in Ireland's Supreme Court?

the Chief Justice

Besides chief justice, how many other judges sit on Ireland's Supreme Court?

seven other judges

Where is Ireland's Supreme Court seated?

the Four Courts in Dublin

The lower courts are made of a Chief Justice and how many other judges?

I'm not sure.

What organization's advice does the Chief Justice take when appointing Supreme Court Judges?

I'm not sure.

Where does the appellate court sit in Dublin?

I'm not sure.


Israel's Supreme Court is at the head of the court system in the State of Israel. It is the highest judicial instance. The Supreme Court sits in Jerusalem. The area of its jurisdiction is the entire State. A ruling of the Supreme Court is binding upon every court, other than the Supreme Court itself. The Israeli supreme court is both an appellate court and the high court of justice. As an appellate court, the Supreme Court considers cases on appeal (both criminal and civil) on judgments and other decisions of the District Courts. It also considers appeals on judicial and quasi-judicial decisions of various kinds, such as matters relating to the legality of Knesset elections and disciplinary rulings of the Bar Association. As the High Court of Justice (Hebrew: Beit Mishpat Gavoha Le'Zedek בית משפט גבוה לצדק; also known by its initials as Bagatz בג"ץ), the Supreme Court rules as a court of first instance, primarily in matters regarding the legality of decisions of State authorities: Government decisions, those of local authorities and other bodies and persons performing public functions under the law, and direct challenges to the constitutionality of laws enacted by the Knesset. The court has broad discretionary authority to rule on matters in which it considers it necessary to grant relief in the interests of justice, and which are not within the jurisdiction of another court or tribunal. The High Court of Justice grants relief through orders such as injunction, mandamus and Habeas Corpus, as well as through declaratory judgments. The Supreme Court can also sit at a further hearing on its own judgment. In a matter on which the Supreme Court has ruled - whether as a court of appeals or as the High Court of Justice - with a panel of three or more justices, it may rule at a further hearing with a panel of a larger number of justices. A further hearing may be held if the Supreme Court makes a ruling inconsistent with a previous ruling or if the Court deems that the importance, difficulty or novelty of a ruling of the Court justifies such hearing. The Supreme Court also holds the unique power of being able to order "trial de novo" (a retrial).

Where is Israel's Supreme Court located?

Jerusalem

Israel's Supreme Court fulfills what two major functions?

both an appellate court and the high court of justice

Israel's legislative body is called what?

the Knesset

Israel's Supreme court has uses what internal method to review its own decisions?

a panel of three or more justices

A retrial is also called what?

"trial de novo"

Where does the Israeli appellate court sit?

I'm not sure.

What types of cases does the appeals court hear?

I'm not sure.

What does the Supreme Court of Jusice grant?

I'm not sure.

What is an "order trial de novo" also known as?

I'm not sure.


The new Supreme Court of New Zealand was officially established at the beginning of 2004, although it did not come into operation until July. The High Court of New Zealand was until 1980 known as the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court has a purely appellate jurisdiction and hears appeals from the Court of Appeal of New Zealand. In some cases, an appeal may be removed directly to the Supreme Court from the High Court. For certain cases, particularly cases which commenced in the District Court, a lower court (typically the High Court or the Court of Appeal) may be the court of final jurisdiction.

When did New Zealand's Supreme Court come into being?

What is the role of New Zealand's highest court?

purely appellate

What court's decisions may be appealed to New Zealand's supreme court?

Court of Appeal of New Zealand

New Zealand's second ranking court is known as what?

the High Court

Local decisions by what judicial body may remain within the jurisdiction of local courts?

the District Court

What was officially established at the beginning of 1980?

I'm not sure.

What was the Supreme Court known as until 2004?

I'm not sure.

Where are appeals always moved to from the High Court?

I'm not sure.

What are the District Court and Court of Appeal considered to be?

I'm not sure.


With respect to Pakistan's territories (i.e. FATA, Azad Kashmir, Northern Areas and Islamabad Capital Territory (ICT)) the Supreme Court's jurisdiction is rather limited and varies from territory to territory; it can hear appeals only of a constitutional nature from FATA and Northern Areas, while ICT generally functions the same as provinces. Azad Kashmir has its own courts system and the constitution of Pakistan does not apply to it as such; appeals from Azad Kashmir relate to its relationship with Pakistan.

What are some of the territories within Pakistan?

FATA, Azad Kashmir, Northern Areas and Islamabad Capital Territory (ICT)

What type of cases may Pakistan's Supreme Court hear from FATA?

appeals only of a constitutional nature

What Pakistani territory's own courts retain supremacy?

Azad Kashmir

What is the relationship between Pakistan's Constitution and Azad Kashmir?

does not apply to it

What is the Islamabad Territory Capital also known as?

I'm not sure.

What are FATA, Azad Northern, Kashmir Areas, and ICT?

I'm not sure.

Which province has its own courts system?

I'm not sure.


The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom is the ultimate court for criminal and civil matters in England, Wales and Northern Ireland and for civil matters in Scotland. (The supreme court for criminal matters in Scotland is the High Court of Justiciary.) The Supreme Court was established by the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 with effect from 1 October 2009, replacing and assuming the judicial functions of the House of Lords. Devolution issues under the Scotland Act 1998, Government of Wales Act and Northern Ireland Act were also transferred to the new Supreme Court by the Constitutional Reform Act, from the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council.

The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom holds Supremacy in what jurisdictions?

England, Wales and Northern Ireland and for civil matters in Scotland

What is the high court in Scotland that has supremacy on criminal matters?

the High Court of Justiciary

What legislation established the Supremacy of the Supreme Court of the UK?

Constitutional Reform Act 2005

When did this act go into affect?

1 October 2009

What body previously had judicial supremacy in the UK prior to this?

House of Lords

The Constitutional Reform Act of 2009 established what?

I'm not sure.

What went into effect in 2005?

I'm not sure.

What issues were addressed under the Scotland Act of 1989?

I'm not sure.

What was the first judicial body in the United Kingdom?

I'm not sure.

Where is the Supreme court the ultimate court for criminal and judicial matters?

I'm not sure.


The titles of state supreme court vary, which can cause confusion between jurisdictions because one state may use a name for its highest court that another uses for a lower court. In New York, Maryland, and the District of Columbia the highest court is called the Court of Appeals, a name used by many states for their intermediate appellate courts. Further, trial courts of general jurisdiction in New York are called the Supreme Court, and the intermediate appellate court is called the Supreme Court, Appellate Division. In West Virginia, the highest court of the state is the Supreme Court of Appeals. In Maine and Massachusetts the highest court is styled the "Supreme Judicial Court"; the last is the oldest appellate court of continuous operation in the Western Hemisphere.

What may cause some confusion in the US regarding state supreme courts?

titles of state supreme court vary

The Court of Appeals is the high court in which US States or territories?

New York, Maryland, and the District of Columbia

What is West Virginia's highest court called?

Supreme Court of Appeals

What state's supreme court is the oldest appellate court body in the western hemisphere?

Massachusetts

Supreme Courts in New York serve what function?

trial courts of general jurisdiction

What is the highest court in Virginia?

I'm not sure.

What state has the oldest judicial court of continuous operation in the Western Hemisphere?

I'm not sure.

In New York, what is the intermediate judicial court called?

I'm not sure.


In Austria, the Austrian Constitution of 1920 (based on a draft by Hans Kelsen) introduced judicial review of legislative acts for their constitutionality. This function is performed by the Constitutional Court (Verfassungsgerichtshof), which is also charged with the review of administrative acts on whether they violate constitutionally guaranteed rights. Other than that, administrative acts are reviewed by the Administrative Court (Verwaltungsgerichtshof). The Supreme Court (Oberste Gerichtshof (OGH)), stands at the top of Austria's system of "ordinary courts" (ordentliche Gerichte) as the final instance in issues of private law and criminal law.

What document established judicial oversight of legislation in Austria?

the Austrian Constitution of 1920

What court is charged with the responsibility of deciding the constitutionality of laws in Austria?

Constitutional Court

What is the German word for this constitutional high court?

Verfassungsgerichtshof

What is the Constitutional Court's power over the executive branch of Austrian government?

the review of administrative acts on whether they violate constitutionally guaranteed rights

The Supreme Court of Austria is known by what German name?

Oberste Gerichtshof (OGH)

What was drafted in 1902?

I'm not sure.

Who wrote the Austrian Constitution?

I'm not sure.

What is the Austrian term for Administrative Court?

I'm not sure.

What is the Austrian term for Constitutional Court?

I'm not sure.

What is the Austrian term for "ordinary courts?"

I'm not sure.


In Brazil, the Supreme Federal Tribunal (Supremo Tribunal Federal) is the highest court. It is both the constitutional court and the court of last resort in Brazilian law. It only reviews cases that may be unconstitutional or final habeas corpus pleads for criminal cases. It also judges, in original jurisdiction, cases involving members of congress, senators, ministers of state, members of the high courts and the President and Vice-President of the Republic. The Superior Court of Justice (Tribunal Superior de Justiça) reviews State and Federal Circuit courts decisions for civil law and criminal law cases, when dealing with federal law or conflicting rulings. The Superior Labour Tribunal (Tribunal Superior do Trabalho) reviews cases involving labour law. The Superior Electoral Tribunal (Tribunal Superior Eleitoral) is the court of last resort of electoral law, and also oversees general elections. The Superior Military Tribunal (Tribunal Superior Militar) is the highest court in matters of federal military law.

What is the highest court in Brazil?

Supreme Federal Tribunal (Supremo Tribunal Federal)

What are the two areas this court has supremacy over?

cases that may be unconstitutional or final habeas corpus pleads for criminal cases

Which legislative bodies does this court sit in cases over?

cases involving members of congress, senators

What other government officials are subject to judgments of Brazil's highest court?

ministers of state, members of the high courts and the President and Vice-President of the Republic

What is Brazil's high court for labor law?

The Superior Labour Tribunal (Tribunal Superior do Trabalho)

The Superior Labour Tribunal oversees what type of elections?

I'm not sure.

What two types of cases does the Superior Military Tribunal only review?

I'm not sure.

What conflicting outcomes does the Superior Electoral Tribunal deal with?

I'm not sure.

What is the Brazilian name for the Supreme Court?

I'm not sure.


Final interpretation of and amendments to the German Constitution, the Grundgesetz, is the task of the Bundesverfassungsgericht (Federal Constitutional Court), which is the de facto highest German court, as it can declare both federal and state legislation ineffective, and has the power to overrule decisions of all other federal courts, despite not being a regular court of appeals on itself in the German court system. It is also the only court possessing the power and authority to outlaw political parties, if it is deemed that these parties have repeatedly violated articles of the Constitution.

What is Germany's constitution called?

the Grundgesetz

What German high court has the responsibility for interpreting this document?

Bundesverfassungsgericht

The english translation of this court and its duties is what?

Federal Constitutional Court

What unique electoral power does this German high court possess?

the power and authority to outlaw political parties

Under what circumstances may the court enact this responsibility?

it is deemed that these parties have repeatedly violated articles of the Constitution

What is the German term for the German Constitutional Court?

I'm not sure.

What is the German term for Federal Constitution?

I'm not sure.

What can happen to a political party if it has repeatedly violated the German Court System?

I'm not sure.

What can the German Court declare in regard to legislation?

I'm not sure.


When it comes to civil and criminal cases, the Bundesgerichtshof is at the top of the hierarchy of courts. The other branches of the German judicial system each have their own appellate systems, each topped by a high court; these are the Bundessozialgericht for matters of social security, the Bundesarbeitsgericht for employment and labour, the Bundesfinanzhof for taxation and financial issues, and the Bundesverwaltungsgericht for administrative law. The so-called Gemeinsamer Senat der Obersten Gerichtshöfe (Joint Senate of the Supreme Courts) is not a supreme court in itself, but an ad-hoc body that is convened in only when one supreme court intends to diverge from another supreme court's legal opinion or when a certain case exceeds the authority of one court. As the courts have well-defined areas of responsibility, situations like these are rather rare and so, the Joint Senate gathers very infrequently, and only to consider matters which are mostly definitory.

The German high court has jurisdiction over what two areas of law?

civil and criminal cases

What court has supremacy for matters of social security?

Bundessozialgericht

What court sits in supremacy for cases related to employment and labor law in Germany?

Bundesarbeitsgericht

Germany's Joint Senate of the Supreme Courts is also known by what name?

Gemeinsamer Senat der Obersten Gerichtshöfe

What else does Bundesgerichtshof deal with besides taxation?

I'm not sure.

What is the Bundessozialgericht at the top of?

I'm not sure.

What type of law is Bundesarbeitsgericht for?

I'm not sure.

What is the German term for the Senate of the Supreme Courts?

I'm not sure.

How often does the Joint Supreme Court gather?

I'm not sure.


In the Netherlands, the Supreme Court of the Netherlands is the highest. Its decisions, known as "arresten", are absolutely final. The court is banned from testing legislation against the constitution, pursuant to the principle of the sovereignty of the States-General; the court can, however, test legislation against some treaties. Also, the ordinary courts in the Netherlands, including the Hoge Raad, do not deal with administrative law, which is dealt with in separate administrative courts, the highest of which is the Council of State (Raad van State)

Decisions of the Dutch Supreme Court are called what?

arresten

The Supreme Court of the Netherlands cannot interpret what?

legislation against the constitution

What areas of interpretative oversight does the supreme court have?

legislation against some treaties

Holland's regular court system does not handle cases related to what area of law?

administrative law

The high court for administrative law is also known as what?

Council of State (Raad van State)

What is another term for the Supreme Court of the Netherlands?

I'm not sure.

What is the court banned from according to the principle of the States-General?

I'm not sure.

What is the term for the Council of States-General?

I'm not sure.

What is the name of a court that deals with administrative law?

I'm not sure.


While the Philippines is generally considered a civil law nation, its Supreme Court is heavily modelled after the American Supreme Court. This can be attributed to the fact that the Philippines was colonized by both Spain and the United States, and the system of laws of both nations strongly influenced the development of Philippine laws and jurisprudence. Even as the body of Philippine laws remain mostly codified, the Philippine Civil Code expressly recognizes that decisions of the Supreme Court "form part of the law of the land", belonging to the same class as statutes. The 1987 Philippine Constitution also explicitly grants to the Supreme Court the power of judicial review over laws and executive actions. The Supreme Court is composed of 1 Chief Justice and 14 Associate Justices. The court sits either en banc or in divisions, depending on the nature of the case to be decided.

What type of legal system is the Philippines officially?

a civil law nation

The high court in The Philippines is modeled after what judicial body?

the American Supreme Court

What document grants the Philippines Supreme Court the right of judicial review?

1987 Philippine Constitution

How many justices make up the Philippines Supreme Court?

1 Chief Justice and 14 Associate Justices

When all judges of a court hear a case at once it is called?

en banc

What nation's court is the American Supreme Court heavily modeled after?

I'm not sure.

In addition to the Philippines, what country was Spain colonized by?

I'm not sure.

What was written in 1897?

I'm not sure.

What does the Philippine Statute Code state about the decisions of the Supreme Court?

I'm not sure.


Spanish Supreme Court is the highest court for all cases in Spain (both private and public). Only those cases related to human rights can be appealed at the Constitutional Court (which also decides about acts accordance with Spanish Constitution).
In Spain, high courts cannot create binding precedents; however, lower rank courts usually observe Supreme Court interpretations. In most private law cases, two Supreme Court judgements supporting a claim are needed to appeal at the Supreme Court.
Five sections form the Spanish Supreme court:

The Spanish Supreme Court hears all cases related to law in what areas?

private and public

What types of cases can be appealed to Spain's Constitutional Court?

those cases related to human rights

What is the other power of this latter court?

decides about acts accordance with Spanish Constitution

High courts in Spain do not establish what for lower court rulings?

binding precedents

In practicality, how do lower courts typically view the rulings of higher courts?

lower rank courts usually observe Supreme Court interpretations

What are five Supreme Court judgement supporting a claim needed for?

I'm not sure.

What do lower rank courts always observe?

I'm not sure.

What action does the Supreme Court only allow for cases related to human rights?

I'm not sure.


In Sweden, the Supreme Court and the Supreme Administrative Court respectively function as the highest courts of the land. The Supreme Administrative Court considers cases concerning disputes between individuals and administrative organs, as well as disputes among administrative organs, while the Supreme Court considers all other cases. The judges are appointed by the Government. In most cases, the Supreme Courts will only grant leave to appeal a case (prövningstillstånd) if the case involves setting a precedent in the interpretation of the law. Exceptions are issues where the Supreme Court is the court of first instance. Such cases include an application for a retrial of a criminal case in the light of new evidence, and prosecutions made against an incumbent minister of the Government for severe neglect of duty. If a lower court has to try a case which involves a question where there is no settled interpretation of the law, it can also refer the question to the relevant Supreme Court for an answer.

Sweden's two high courts are what?

the Supreme Court and the Supreme Administrative Court

What is a type of case heard by the Supreme Administrative Court?

cases concerning disputes between individuals and administrative organs

The Supreme Court hears what?

all other cases

How are judges placed on Sweden's high courts?

appointed by the Government

The ability to appeal a case provided by Sweden's court system is called what?

prövningstillstånd

What is the Swedish term for government?

I'm not sure.

What other cases does the Supreme Court consider besides disputes between individuals and administrative organs?

I'm not sure.

What two courts are equally the highest courts of the land?

I'm not sure.

The Supreme Court appoints what position?

I'm not sure.


In Sri Lanka, the Supreme Court of Sri Lanka was created in 1972 after the adoption of a new Constitution. The Supreme Court is the highest and final superior court of record and is empowered to exercise its powers, subject to the provisions of the Constitution. The court rulings take precedence over all lower Courts. The Sri Lanka judicial system is complex blend of both common-law and civil-law. In some cases such as capital punishment, the decision may be passed on to the President of the Republic for clemency petitions. However, when there is 2/3 majority in the parliament in favour of president (as with present), the supreme court and its judges' powers become nullified as they could be fired from their positions according to the Constitution, if the president wants. Therefore, in such situations, Civil law empowerment vanishes.

When was the Supreme Court of Sri Lanka created?

The Sri Lankan Supreme Court's decisions override what?

all lower Courts

Sri Lankan law mixes what two categories of jurisprudence?

common-law and civil-law

What majority is necessary in the Sri Lankan Parliament to dismiss a president and the Court?

What was created in 1927?

I'm not sure.

What was adopted before 1972?

I'm not sure.

What do capital-law and civil-law blend together to make?

I'm not sure.

The president of the country may play a role in what type of cases?

I'm not sure.


In South Africa, a "two apex" system existed from 1994 to 2013. The Supreme Court of Appeal (SCA) was created in 1994 and replaced the Appellate Division of the Supreme Court of South Africa as the highest court of appeal in non-constitutional matters. The SCA is subordinate to the Constitutional Court, which is the highest court in matters involving the interpretation and application of the Constitution. But in August 2013 the Constitution was amended to make the Constitutional Court the country's single apex court, superior to the SCA in all matters, both constitutional and non-constitutional.

South Africa used what type of system to determine it's high courts until 2013?

"two apex"

When was the Supreme Court of Appeal created?

What court in South Africa has authority over the SCA?

the Constitutional Court

When did the Constitutional Court become the highest court in South Africa in all matters?

August 2013

What existed from 1993 to 2014?

I'm not sure.

What was created in 2013 to replace the Appellate Division of the Supreme Court of South Africa?

I'm not sure.

What was amended in August 1994?

I'm not sure.

What is the Constitutional Court subordinate to?

I'm not sure.


In most nations with constitutions modelled after the Soviet Union, the legislature was given the power of being the court of last resort. In the People's Republic of China, the final power to interpret the law is vested in the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress (NPCSC). This power includes the power to interpret the basic laws of Hong Kong and Macau, the constitutional documents of the two special administrative regions which are common law and Portuguese-based legal system jurisdictions respectively. This power is a legislative power and not a judicial one in that an interpretation by the NPCSC does not affect cases which have already been decided.

What nation's model gives the power of the high court to the legistlature?

Soviet Union

What is the name of China's high court which sits as a legislative committee?

Standing Committee of the National People's Congress (NPCSC)

Current decisions by the NPCSC do not affect what?

cases which have already been decided

Hong Kong's legal system was traditionally based on what?

common law

Macau's legal system comes from what tradition?

Portuguese-based legal system

What is the NCPSC also known as?

I'm not sure.

What country can interpret the laws of Macau and China?

I'm not sure.

What country is the Chinese legal system based on?

I'm not sure.


Textual criticism is a branch of textual scholarship, philology, and literary criticism that is concerned with the identification of textual variants in either manuscripts or printed books. Ancient scribes made alterations when copying manuscripts by hand. Given a manuscript copy, several or many copies, but not the original document, the textual critic might seek to reconstruct the original text (the archetype or autograph) as closely as possible. The same processes can be used to attempt to reconstruct intermediate versions, or recensions, of a document's transcription history. The ultimate objective of the textual critic's work is the production of a "critical edition" containing a scholarly curated text.

What type of documents does a textual critic usually analyze?

a manuscript copy, several or many copies, but not the original document

What is the proper name for textual scholarship?

philology

Why are there differences in ancient copies of the same text?

Ancient scribes made alterations when copying manuscripts by hand

What do textual critics call a revised edition of a text?

recensions

What type of edition does a textual critic usually analyze?

I'm not sure.

What is the goal of the textual author?

I'm not sure.

What is the proper name for textual profession?

I'm not sure.

Why are there differences in modern copies of the same text?

I'm not sure.

What do textual critics call a perfectly translated edition of a text?

I'm not sure.


Many ancient works, such as the Bible and the Greek tragedies,[citation needed] survive in hundreds of copies, and the relationship of each copy to the original may be unclear. Textual scholars have debated for centuries which sources are most closely derived from the original, hence which readings in those sources are correct.[citation needed] Although biblical books that are letters, like Greek plays, presumably had one original, the question of whether some biblical books, like the Gospels, ever had just one original has been discussed. Interest in applying textual criticism to the Qur'an has also developed after the discovery of the Sana'a manuscripts in 1972, which possibly date back to the 7–8th centuries.

Interest in an analysis of what text has arose in the early 1970's?

Qur'an

Why are scholars concerned with analysis of the Gospels over the letters?

biblical books that are letters, like Greek plays, presumably had one original

Why is it important for textual critics to analyze the Gospels?

the question of whether some biblical books, like the Gospels, ever had just one original has been discussed

What manuscripts prompted a textual analysis of the Qur'an

Sana'a manuscripts

When were the Sana'a manuscripts probably written?

possibly date back to the 7–8th centuries.

Interest in an analysis of what text has arose in the early 8th century?

I'm not sure.

Why are scholars concerned with analysis of plays?

I'm not sure.

Why is it important for textual critics to analyze plays?

I'm not sure.

What books prompted a textual analysis of modern work?

I'm not sure.

Which manuscript was written in 1972?

I'm not sure.


In the English language, the works of Shakespeare have been a particularly fertile ground for textual criticism—both because the texts, as transmitted, contain a considerable amount of variation, and because the effort and expense of producing superior editions of his works have always been widely viewed as worthwhile. The principles of textual criticism, although originally developed and refined for works of antiquity, the Bible, and Shakespeare, have been applied to many works, extending backwards from the present to the earliest known written documents, in Mesopotamia and Egypt—a period of about five millennia. However, the application of textual criticism to non-religious works does not antedate the invention of printing. While Christianity has been relatively receptive to textual criticism, application of it to the Jewish (Masoretic) Torah and the Qur'an is, to the devout, taboo.[citation needed]

What is one reasons Shakespeare is a good place to focus on textual criticism?

the texts, as transmitted, contain a considerable amount of variation,

Aside from Shakespeare, what is another book that is a major focus of textual criticism?

Bible

Name two of the oldest civilizations that textual criticism has focused on.

Mesopotamia and Egypt

Why is there opposition to textual criticism of Jewish and Muslim religious books?

is, to the devout, taboo.

Over approximately what expanse of time can textual criticism be applied to written works?

a period of about five millennia

Why do critics hate focusing on Shakespeare?

I'm not sure.

What book did Shakespeare write?

I'm not sure.

When were the most recent documents in criticism?

I'm not sure.

It's too taboo to criticize the Torah, Qur'an, and what other religion?

I'm not sure.


Maas comments further that "A dictation revised by the author must be regarded as equivalent to an autograph manuscript". The lack of autograph manuscripts applies to many cultures other than Greek and Roman. In such a situation, a key objective becomes the identification of the first exemplar before any split in the tradition. That exemplar is known as the archetype. "If we succeed in establishing the text of [the archetype], the constitutio (reconstruction of the original) is considerably advanced.

What is the first goal when attempting to analyze a new text?

identification of the first exemplar

Why is finding the first exemplar important in textual criticism?

split in the tradition

The exemplar is otherwise known as what?

the archetype

The final product of reconstruction is known as what?

the constitutio

What is the second goal when attempting to analyze a new text?

I'm not sure.

Why is finding the last exemplar important in textual criticism?

I'm not sure.

The first product of reconstruction is known as what?

I'm not sure.

The middle product of reconstruction is known as what?

I'm not sure.

The final product of reconstruction is known as what?

I'm not sure.


The textual critic's ultimate objective is the production of a "critical edition".[citation needed] This contains the text that the author has determined most closely approximates the original, and is accompanied by an apparatus criticus or critical apparatus. The critical apparatus presents the author's work in three parts: first, a list or description of the evidence that the editor used (names of manuscripts, or abbreviations called sigla); second, the editor's analysis of that evidence (sometimes a simple likelihood rating),[citation needed]; and third, a record of rejected variants of the text (often in order of preference).[citation needed]

What is included in or accompanies in "critical edition"?

apparatus criticus or critical apparatus

What is the purpose of the critical apparatus?

presents the author's work in three parts

What is the goal of the textual critic?

a "critical edition"

A critical edition of a text is accompanied by what?

apparatus criticus or critical apparatus.

What is included in the first part of the critical apparatus?

a list or description of the evidence that the editor used (names of manuscripts, or abbreviations called sigla)

What is included in the second part of the critical apparatus?

the editor's analysis of that evidence (sometimes a simple likelihood rating)

What is included in the final part of the critical apparatus?

a record of rejected variants of the text (often in order of preference)

What is included in "ultimate edition"?

I'm not sure.

What is the purpose of the rejected apparatus?

I'm not sure.

How many parts is in the textual apparatus?

I'm not sure.

What is the fourth part in the critical apparatus?

I'm not sure.


Before mechanical printing, literature was copied by hand, and many variations were introduced by copyists. The age of printing made the scribal profession effectively redundant. Printed editions, while less susceptible to the proliferation of variations likely to arise during manual transmission, are nonetheless not immune to introducing variations from an author's autograph. Instead of a scribe miscopying his source, a compositor or a printing shop may read or typeset a work in a way that differs from the autograph. Since each scribe or printer commits different errors, reconstruction of the lost original is often aided by a selection of readings taken from many sources. An edited text that draws from multiple sources is said to be eclectic. In contrast to this approach, some textual critics prefer to identify the single best surviving text, and not to combine readings from multiple sources.

Why are there multiple variations of texts before the advent of the printing press?

literature was copied by hand

Are printed editions immune to variation?

not immune to introducing variations from an author's autograph

How do differences in works arise when using a printing press?

a compositor or a printing shop may read or typeset a work in a way that differs from the autograph

An edited text compiled through many sources is known as what?

eclectic.

How did they copy literature before they did it by hand?

I'm not sure.

How did they copy literature after mechanical printing?

I'm not sure.

How do printing presses provide identical copies?

I'm not sure.

Why do textual critics prefer to use multiple sources?

I'm not sure.


When comparing different documents, or "witnesses", of a single, original text, the observed differences are called variant readings, or simply variants or readings. It is not always apparent which single variant represents the author's original work. The process of textual criticism seeks to explain how each variant may have entered the text, either by accident (duplication or omission) or intention (harmonization or censorship), as scribes or supervisors transmitted the original author's text by copying it. The textual critic's task, therefore, is to sort through the variants, eliminating those most likely to be un-original, hence establishing a "critical text", or critical edition, that is intended to best approximate the original. At the same time, the critical text should document variant readings, so the relation of extant witnesses to the reconstructed original is apparent to a reader of the critical edition. In establishing the critical text, the textual critic considers both "external" evidence (the age, provenance, and affiliation of each witness) and "internal" or "physical" considerations (what the author and scribes, or printers, were likely to have done).

Different documents that represent the same original text are called what?

witnesses

What are the variations in the text of witnesses known as?

variant readings, or simply variants or readings.

How or why do variations enter a witness text?

either by accident (duplication or omission) or intention (harmonization or censorship)

As well as representing the original text, a critical text must also do what?

document variant readings

Why is it important to document variations in witness texts when compiling a critical text?

so the relation of extant witnesses to the reconstructed original is apparent to a reader of the critical edition.

Identical documents that represent different text are called what?

I'm not sure.

What are the similarities in the text of witnesses known as?

I'm not sure.

When do variations enter a witness text?

I'm not sure.

What is the fourth way the textual critic considers evidence?

I'm not sure.

What is the fifth way the textual critic considers evidence?

I'm not sure.


The collation of all known variants of a text is referred to as a variorum, namely a work of textual criticism whereby all variations and emendations are set side by side so that a reader can track how textual decisions have been made in the preparation of a text for publication. The Bible and the works of William Shakespeare have often been the subjects of variorum editions, although the same techniques have been applied with less frequency to many other works, such as Walt Whitman's Leaves of Grass, and the prose writings of Edward Fitzgerald.

What is a variorum?

The collation of all known variants of a text

What is the purpose of a variorum?

so that a reader can track how textual decisions have been made in the preparation of a text for publication

Name one author who is less frequently the subject of a variorum.

Edward Fitzgerald

Name two works that are often the subject of a variorum.

The Bible and the works of William Shakespeare

What is the name for the collation of all unknown variants of a text?

I'm not sure.

What is it called when the variations are texts are read separately?

I'm not sure.

What book wasn't a product of variorum?

I'm not sure.

What author wasn't part of a variorum?

I'm not sure.

Leaves of Grass did not undergo what process?

I'm not sure.


Eclectic readings also normally give an impression of the number of witnesses to each available reading. Although a reading supported by the majority of witnesses is frequently preferred, this does not follow automatically. For example, a second edition of a Shakespeare play may include an addition alluding to an event known to have happened between the two editions. Although nearly all subsequent manuscripts may have included the addition, textual critics may reconstruct the original without the addition.

What is often included in an eclectic reading?

an impression of the number of witnesses

Why would someone prefer a second edition to a first edition?

a second edition of a Shakespeare play may include an addition alluding to an event known to have happened between the two editions

Do textual critics always include additions found in the majority of subsequent versions of a work?

textual critics may reconstruct the original without the addition.

What do eclectic readings not do?

I'm not sure.

Why do people prefer a first edition Shakespeare play?

I'm not sure.

Which edition did not include an addition alluding to an event?

I'm not sure.

Textual critics may reconstruct the last edition of a work without what?

I'm not sure.


External evidence is evidence of each physical witness, its date, source, and relationship to other known witnesses. Critics will often prefer the readings supported by the oldest witnesses. Since errors tend to accumulate, older manuscripts should have fewer errors. Readings supported by a majority of witnesses are also usually preferred, since these are less likely to reflect accidents or individual biases. For the same reasons, the most geographically diverse witnesses are preferred. Some manuscripts show evidence that particular care was taken in their composition, for example, by including alternative readings in their margins, demonstrating that more than one prior copy (exemplar) was consulted in producing the current one. Other factors being equal, these are the best witnesses. The role of the textual critic is necessary when these basic criteria are in conflict. For instance, there will typically be fewer early copies, and a larger number of later copies. The textual critic will attempt to balance these criteria, to determine the original text.

What is external evidence?

evidence of each physical witness, its date, source, and relationship to other known witnesses.

Why are older manuscripts preferred?

Since errors tend to accumulate, older manuscripts should have fewer errors.

What characteristic of a compilation of witnesses is the most beneficial to a textual critic?

geographically diverse

What characteristic of a single witness is the most beneficial to a textual critic?

more than one prior copy (exemplar) was consulted in producing the current one

External evidence is evidence of each physical witness, its date, source, relationship to other known witnesses, and what else?

I'm not sure.

Why do critics prefer the newest witnesses?

I'm not sure.

Why do critics prefer minority of witnesses?

I'm not sure.

Why do critics prefer geographically similar witnesses?

I'm not sure.

There are more early copies than what type of copies?

I'm not sure.


Two common considerations have the Latin names lectio brevior (shorter reading) and lectio difficilior (more difficult reading). The first is the general observation that scribes tended to add words, for clarification or out of habit, more often than they removed them. The second, lectio difficilior potior (the harder reading is stronger), recognizes the tendency for harmonization—resolving apparent inconsistencies in the text. Applying this principle leads to taking the more difficult (unharmonized) reading as being more likely to be the original. Such cases also include scribes simplifying and smoothing texts they did not fully understand.

Define "lectio brevior"

shorter reading

Define "lectio difficilior"

more difficult reading

What is the main principle of lectio brevior?

scribes tended to add words, for clarification or out of habit

What is the main principle of lectio difficilior?

the tendency for harmonization—resolving apparent inconsistencies in the text.

Is a lectio brevrio or lectio difficilior approach more akin to the original text?

Applying this principle leads to taking the more difficult (unharmonized) reading as being more likely to be the original.

What's the term for "longer reading"?

I'm not sure.

What's the term for "easier reading"?

I'm not sure.

What is the term for when words are deducted for clarification?

I'm not sure.

What is the term for when there are consistencies in the text?

I'm not sure.


Brooke Foss Westcott (1825–1901) and Fenton J. A. Hort (1828–1892) published an edition of the New Testament in Greek in 1881. They proposed nine critical rules, including a version of Bengel's rule, "The reading is less likely to be original that shows a disposition to smooth away difficulties." They also argued that "Readings are approved or rejected by reason of the quality, and not the number, of their supporting witnesses", and that "The reading is to be preferred that most fitly explains the existence of the others."

How many rules were proposed in the 1881 publication of the New Testament in Greek?

They proposed nine critical rules

What is Bengel's rule?

The reading is less likely to be original that shows a disposition to smooth away difficulties.

Does ease of reading correlate to accuracy in relation to the original text?

"The reading is to be preferred that most fitly explains the existence of the others."

What is more important for a textual critic: quality or quantity?

Readings are approved or rejected by reason of the quality, and not the number, of their supporting witnesses

What is the criteria needed to include or dismiss a reading when critiquing texts?

The reading is to be preferred that most fitly explains the existence of the others.

When did Westcott and Hort meet?

I'm not sure.

When did Westcott and Hort go into business together?

I'm not sure.

When did they propose Bengel's rule?

I'm not sure.

The number of supporting witnesses explains why readings are what?

I'm not sure.

Which reading is less preferred?

I'm not sure.


Since the canons of criticism are highly susceptible to interpretation, and at times even contradict each other, they may be employed to justify a result that fits the textual critic's aesthetic or theological agenda. Starting in the 19th century, scholars sought more rigorous methods to guide editorial judgment. Best-text editing (a complete rejection of eclecticism) became one extreme. Stemmatics and copy-text editing – while both eclectic, in that they permit the editor to select readings from multiple sources – sought to reduce subjectivity by establishing one or a few witnesses presumably as being favored by "objective" criteria.[citation needed] The citing of sources used, and alternate readings, and the use of original text and images helps readers and other critics determine to an extent the depth of research of the critic, and to independently verify their work.

Is textual criticism immune to bias on the part of the critic?

justify a result that fits the textual critic's aesthetic or theological agenda

When did scientists begin searching for a more defined guideline for textual criticism?

19th century

What inclusion helps readers and critics understand the motivation behind the compiler?

The citing of sources used, and alternate readings, and the use of original text and images

What is a further benefit of including sources, texts and original images in a critique?

the depth of research of the critic

What canons are not susceptible to interpretation?

I'm not sure.

What canons are not contradictory?

I'm not sure.

When did scholars stop looking for more rigorous methods?

I'm not sure.

The editor sought to raise subjectivity by what?

I'm not sure.

Who was only permitted to select one reading?

I'm not sure.


Stemmatics, stemmology or stemmatology is a rigorous approach to textual criticism. Karl Lachmann (1793–1851) greatly contributed to making this method famous, even though he did not invent it. The method takes its name from the word stemma. The Ancient Greek word στέμματα and its loanword in classical Latin stemmata may refer to "family trees". This specific meaning shows the relationships of the surviving witnesses (the first known example of such a stemma, albeit with the name, dates from 1827). The family tree is also referred to as a cladogram. The method works from the principle that "community of error implies community of origin." That is, if two witnesses have a number of errors in common, it may be presumed that they were derived from a common intermediate source, called a hyparchetype. Relations between the lost intermediates are determined by the same process, placing all extant manuscripts in a family tree or stemma codicum descended from a single archetype. The process of constructing the stemma is called recension, or the Latin recensio.

What is stemmatics?

a rigorous approach to textual criticism

What is a cladogram?

The family tree is also referred to as a cladogram.

What is implied when two witnesses have a number of errors in common?

it may be presumed that they were derived from a common intermediate source

What is a hyparchetype?

a common intermediate source

What is recension?

The process of constructing the stemma

A loose approach to textual criticism is called what?

I'm not sure.

When did Karl Lachmann contribute to making stemmatics famous?

I'm not sure.

How did Lachmann make stemmatics famous?

I'm not sure.

The final stage of the stemma is called what?

I'm not sure.

Recension and Latin recensio is latin for what?

I'm not sure.


The process of selectio resembles eclectic textual criticism, but applied to a restricted set of hypothetical hyparchetypes. The steps of examinatio and emendatio resemble copy-text editing. In fact, the other techniques can be seen as special cases of stemmatics in which a rigorous family history of the text cannot be determined but only approximated. If it seems that one manuscript is by far the best text, then copy text editing is appropriate, and if it seems that a group of manuscripts are good, then eclecticism on that group would be proper.

Which steps most closely resembles copy-text editing?

examinatio and emendatio

What process is best used when only one manuscript is viable?

copy text editing

What process is best used when there are a number of viable manuscripts available?

eclecticism

The process of selectio does not resemble what type of criticism?

I'm not sure.

Eclectic criticism is not similar to what type of process?

I'm not sure.

Which steps do not resemble copy-text editing?

I'm not sure.

What process is not used when there are a number of viable manuscripts available?

I'm not sure.

When manuscripts are bad, what process gets used?

I'm not sure.


The critic Joseph Bédier (1864–1938) launched a particularly withering attack on stemmatics in 1928. He surveyed editions of medieval French texts that were produced with the stemmatic method, and found that textual critics tended overwhelmingly to produce trees divided into just two branches. He concluded that this outcome was unlikely to have occurred by chance, and that therefore, the method was tending to produce bipartite stemmas regardless of the actual history of the witnesses. He suspected that editors tended to favor trees with two branches, as this would maximize the opportunities for editorial judgment (as there would be no third branch to "break the tie" whenever the witnesses disagreed). He also noted that, for many works, more than one reasonable stemma could be postulated, suggesting that the method was not as rigorous or as scientific as its proponents had claimed.

What was Joseph Bédier's main criticism of the stemmatic method?

critics tended overwhelmingly to produce trees divided into just two branches.

Why is a methos that only produces two branches seen as inferior?

the method was tending to produce bipartite stemmas regardless of the actual history of the witnesses.

To what did Joseph Bédier attribute the prevalence of the stemmatic method?

editors tended to favor trees with two branches

Why would editors only want two alternative branches when analyzing a text?

this would maximize the opportunities for editorial judgment

What was the final implication of Joseph Bédier's analysis of the stemmatic method?

the method was not as rigorous or as scientific as its proponents had claimed.

Why did Joseph Bédier prefer stemmatics?

I'm not sure.

Why is a method that only produces two branches seen as the best?

I'm not sure.

Trees with two branches minimized opportunities for that?

I'm not sure.

When witnesses agree, what did the third branch do?

I'm not sure.

Which method was more rigorous than originally claimed?

I'm not sure.


The stemmatic method's final step is emendatio, also sometimes referred to as "conjectural emendation." But in fact, the critic employs conjecture at every step of the process. Some of the method's rules that are designed to reduce the exercise of editorial judgment do not necessarily produce the correct result. For example, where there are more than two witnesses at the same level of the tree, normally the critic will select the dominant reading. However, it may be no more than fortuitous that more witnesses have survived that present a particular reading. A plausible reading that occurs less often may, nevertheless, be the correct one.

What is the last step in the stemmatic method?

emendatio

At what point can a critic using the stemmatic become less concerned with critical analysis?

the critic employs conjecture at every step of the process

Why may the dominant reading may be the weaker reading?

, it may be no more than fortuitous that more witnesses have survived that present a particular reading

What is the first step in the stemmatic method?

I'm not sure.

What judgement produces the correct result?

I'm not sure.

Which reading does the critic select when there are only two witnesses at the same tree?

I'm not sure.

A reading that occurs left often is always considered what?

I'm not sure.


The bibliographer Ronald B. McKerrow introduced the term copy-text in his 1904 edition of the works of Thomas Nashe, defining it as "the text used in each particular case as the basis of mine." McKerrow was aware of the limitations of the stemmatic method, and believed it was more prudent to choose one particular text that was thought to be particularly reliable, and then to emend it only where the text was obviously corrupt. The French critic Joseph Bédier likewise became disenchanted with the stemmatic method, and concluded that the editor should choose the best available text, and emend it as little as possible.

When was the term copy-text introduced?

What was the initial definition of copy-text?

the text used in each particular case as the basis of mine

Explain the process used by McKerrow as an alternative to the stemmaic method

choose one particular text that was thought to be particularly reliable, and then to emend it only where the text was obviously corrupt.

When was Ronald B. McKerrow born?

I'm not sure.

What year did Thomas Nashe introduce the term copy-text?

I'm not sure.

Thomas Nash is a bibliographer who published whose works?

I'm not sure.

Nashe was aware of limitations of which method?

I'm not sure.

Ronald B. McKerror was a french critic who did like which method?

I'm not sure.


By 1939, in his Prolegomena for the Oxford Shakespeare, McKerrow had changed his mind about this approach, as he feared that a later edition – even if it contained authorial corrections – would "deviate more widely than the earliest print from the author's original manuscript." He therefore concluded that the correct procedure would be "produced by using the earliest "good" print as copy-text and inserting into it, from the first edition which contains them, such corrections as appear to us to be derived from the author." But, fearing the arbitrary exercise of editorial judgment, McKerrow stated that, having concluded that a later edition had substantive revisions attributable to the author, "we must accept all the alterations of that edition, saving any which seem obvious blunders or misprints."

Why did McKerrow alter his previous method of criticism?

deviate more widely than the earliest print from the author's original manuscript."

How did McKerrow alter his approach to copy-text analysis?

inserting into it, from the first edition which contains them, such corrections as appear to us to be derived from the author."

What did McKerrow concede about his new copy-text method?

we must accept all the alterations of that edition, saving any which seem obvious blunders or misprints

What work was the first to see McKerrow use his new method?

Prolegomena for the Oxford Shakespeare

What book did Shakespeare publish in 1939?

I'm not sure.

McKerrow stayed firm in which opinion?

I'm not sure.

How many revisions did early editions have?

I'm not sure.

McKerrow thinks we should only accept one revision for what reason?

I'm not sure.


Although Greg argued that an editor should be free to use his judgment to choose between competing substantive readings, he suggested that an editor should defer to the copy-text when "the claims of two readings ... appear to be exactly balanced. ... In such a case, while there can be no logical reason for giving preference to the copy-text, in practice, if there is no reason for altering its reading, the obvious thing seems to be to let it stand." The "exactly balanced" variants are said to be indifferent.

Are there times when an editor's judgement should be deferred?

the claims of two readings ... appear to be exactly balanced

What should one do when two readings are contradictory but balanced?

if there is no reason for altering its reading, the obvious thing seems to be to let it stand.

What do editors call variants that are exactly balanced?

indifferent

Who argued that an editor should not be free to use their own judgement?

I'm not sure.

What do editors call variants that are not balanced?

I'm not sure.

What is the term for variants that are somewhat balanced?

I'm not sure.

An editor should not defer to what when variants are balanced?

I'm not sure.


Whereas Greg had limited his illustrative examples to English Renaissance drama, where his expertise lay, Bowers argued that the rationale was "the most workable editorial principle yet contrived to produce a critical text that is authoritative in the maximum of its details whether the author be Shakespeare, Dryden, Fielding, Nathaniel Hawthorne, or Stephen Crane. The principle is sound without regard for the literary period." For works where an author's manuscript survived – a case Greg had not considered – Bowers concluded that the manuscript should generally serve as copy-text. Citing the example of Nathaniel Hawthorne, he noted:

Is the idea formed by Greg limited to a specific time period?

The principle is sound without regard for the literary period.

What will an editor do in the case where an author's work was not wiped out?

the manuscript should generally serve as copy-text

What where the limitations of Greg's analyses?

English Renaissance drama

What is the main criticism of Greg's work?

works where an author's manuscript survived

Who limited their examples to French Renaissance drama?

I'm not sure.

Greg was a novice in which period of drama?

I'm not sure.

According to Bowers, the manuscript should not serve as what?

I'm not sure.

The principle of copy-text is sound with regard to what?

I'm not sure.


McKerrow had articulated textual criticism's goal in terms of "our ideal of an author's fair copy of his work in its final state". Bowers asserted that editions founded on Greg's method would "represent the nearest approximation in every respect of the author's final intentions." Bowers stated similarly that the editor's task is to "approximate as nearly as possible an inferential authorial fair copy." Tanselle notes that, "Textual criticism ... has generally been undertaken with a view to reconstructing, as accurately as possible, the text finally intended by the author".

What are editors trying to ultimately accomplish?

our ideal of an author's fair copy of his work in its final state

If an editor can't achieve an exact reproduction of an authors work, what should be the goal?

approximate as nearly as possible an inferential authorial fair copy

What did Bower's say about Greg's method?

represent the nearest approximation in every respect of the author's final intentions

What did Tanselle say about textual criticism?

has generally been undertaken with a view to reconstructing, as accurately as possible, the text finally intended by the author

What are editors trying to ultimately stop?

I'm not sure.

What happens when an editor achieves an exact reproduction of an authors work?

I'm not sure.

What did Tanselle say about modern authors?

I'm not sure.

Bowers asserted that editions founded on Greg's method would not represent what?

I'm not sure.


Bowers and Tanselle argue for rejecting textual variants that an author inserted at the suggestion of others. Bowers said that his edition of Stephen Crane's first novel, Maggie, presented "the author's final and uninfluenced artistic intentions." In his writings, Tanselle refers to "unconstrained authorial intention" or "an author's uninfluenced intentions." This marks a departure from Greg, who had merely suggested that the editor inquire whether a later reading "is one that the author can reasonably be supposed to have substituted for the former", not implying any further inquiry as to why the author had made the change.

Who argued against works where the author listens to input from others?

Bowers and Tanselle

Who wanted to determine why an author made changes to a work?

Tanselle

Does Greg believe a later work can be substituted for a earlier one?

a later reading "is one that the author can reasonably be supposed to have substituted for the former

What idea did Tanselle champion?

unconstrained authorial intention

Who argued for works where the author listens to input from others?

I'm not sure.

Who didn't want to determine why an author made changes to a work?

I'm not sure.

Who believes an earlier work can be substituted for a later one?

I'm not sure.

Constrained authorial intention was whose idea?

I'm not sure.


Bowers confronted a similar problem in his edition of Maggie. Crane originally printed the novel privately in 1893. To secure commercial publication in 1896, Crane agreed to remove profanity, but he also made stylistic revisions. Bowers's approach was to preserve the stylistic and literary changes of 1896, but to revert to the 1893 readings where he believed that Crane was fulfilling the publisher's intention rather than his own. There were, however, intermediate cases that could reasonably have been attributed to either intention, and some of Bowers's choices came under fire – both as to his judgment, and as to the wisdom of conflating readings from the two different versions of Maggie.

What alterations did Crane make to secure commercial publication?

remove profanity, but he also made stylistic revisions

What was Bower's first step in editing multiple works into a single product?

to preserve the stylistic and literary changes of 1896

What was Bower's second step in editing multiple works into a single product?

to revert to the 1893 readings where he believed that Crane was fulfilling the publisher's intention rather than his own

What was one of the criticisms Bowers faced after editing Maggie?

his judgment

I what year was Maggie printed for commercial use?

What was the first step Bowers took in editing a single work with two versions?

to preserve the stylistic and literary changes of 1896,

What was the second step Bowers took in editing a single work with two versions?

to revert to the 1893 readings where he believed that Crane was fulfilling the publisher's intention

What changes were made for the commercial publication of Maggie?

to remove profanity, but he also made stylistic revisions

When was Maggie first published?

What changes did Maggie make to secure commercial publication?

I'm not sure.

When did Maggie publish her edition of Bowers?

I'm not sure.

What was Bower's final step in editing a single work into multiple versions?

I'm not sure.

When was the third version of Maggie published?

I'm not sure.

When was the fifth and final version of Maggie published?

I'm not sure.


Some critics believe that a clear-text edition gives the edited text too great a prominence, relegating textual variants to appendices that are difficult to use, and suggesting a greater sense of certainty about the established text than it deserves. As Shillingsburg notes, "English scholarly editions have tended to use notes at the foot of the text page, indicating, tacitly, a greater modesty about the "established" text and drawing attention more forcibly to at least some of the alternative forms of the text".

Are appendices easy to use for the average reader?

appendices that are difficult to use,

Can a reader be certain of the validity of information found in a clear-text edition?

suggesting a greater sense of certainty about the established text than it deserves

How do most editors work around the reference problems of clear-text editing?

notes at the foot of the text page

Where can a reader find more information on text variants after noticing a footnote?

appendices

Who believes that clear-text doesn't give enough prominence?

I'm not sure.

What are generally easy to use?

I'm not sure.

Shillingsburg says which editions don't use notes at the bottom of the page?

I'm not sure.

What does not draw attention to alternative forms of text?

I'm not sure.


Cladistics is a technique borrowed from biology, where it was originally named phylogenetic systematics by Willi Hennig. In biology, the technique is used to determine the evolutionary relationships between different species. In its application in textual criticism, the text of a number of different manuscripts is entered into a computer, which records all the differences between them. The manuscripts are then grouped according to their shared characteristics. The difference between cladistics and more traditional forms of statistical analysis is that, rather than simply arranging the manuscripts into rough groupings according to their overall similarity, cladistics assumes that they are part of a branching family tree and uses that assumption to derive relationships between them. This makes it more like an automated approach to stemmatics. However, where there is a difference, the computer does not attempt to decide which reading is closer to the original text, and so does not indicate which branch of the tree is the "root"—which manuscript tradition is closest to the original. Other types of evidence must be used for that purpose.

What is the biological basis for Cladistics?

to determine the evolutionary relationships between different species

How is evolution applied to textual criticism?

manuscripts are then grouped according to their shared characteristics

How is cladistics similar to the stemmatic method?

cladistics assumes that they are part of a branching family tree

What is the main difference between cladistics and stemmatics?

does not indicate which branch of the tree is the "root"

What is a technique borrowed from physics?

I'm not sure.

Phylogenetic systematics was originally called what?

I'm not sure.

How is cladistics the opposite of the stemmatic method?

I'm not sure.

What is the mathmatical basis for Cladistics?

I'm not sure.


Although some earlier unpublished studies had been prepared, not until the early 1970s was true textual criticism applied to the Book of Mormon. At that time BYU Professor Ellis Rasmussen and his associates were asked by the LDS Church to begin preparation for a new edition of the Holy Scriptures. One aspect of that effort entailed digitizing the text and preparing appropriate footnotes, another aspect required establishing the most dependable text. To that latter end, Stanley R. Larson (a Rasmussen graduate student) set about applying modern text critical standards to the manuscripts and early editions of the Book of Mormon as his thesis project – which he completed in 1974. To that end, Larson carefully examined the Original Manuscript (the one dictated by Joseph Smith to his scribes) and the Printer’s Manuscript (the copy Oliver Cowdery prepared for the Printer in 1829–1830), and compared them with the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd editions of the Book of Mormon to determine what sort of changes had occurred over time and to make judgments as to which readings were the most original. Larson proceeded to publish a useful set of well-argued articles on the phenomena which he had discovered. Many of his observations were included as improvements in the 1981 LDS edition of the Book of Mormon.

When did textual criticism applied to the Book of Mormon?

the early 1970s

What was one portion of preparing a new edition of the Holy Scriptures?

digitizing the text and preparing appropriate footnotes

How was the most reliable version of the Holy Scriptures determined?

applying modern text critical standards to the manuscripts

When did Larson finish his project?

Whose observations were included in the 1981 publication of the Book of Mormon?

Larson

What year did true textual criticism stop being applied?

I'm not sure.

What school did Ellis Rasmussen not teach at?

I'm not sure.

What church did not want a new edition of the holy scriptures?

I'm not sure.

What class did Larson teach at Rasmussen?

I'm not sure.

When did Larson begin his thesis project?

I'm not sure.


By 1979, with the establishment of the Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies (FARMS) as a California non-profit research institution, an effort led by Robert F. Smith began to take full account of Larson’s work and to publish a Critical Text of the Book of Mormon. Thus was born the FARMS Critical Text Project which published the first volume of the 3-volume Book of Mormon Critical Text in 1984. The third volume of that first edition was published in 1987, but was already being superseded by a second, revised edition of the entire work, greatly aided through the advice and assistance of then Yale doctoral candidate Grant Hardy, Dr. Gordon C. Thomasson, Professor John W. Welch (the head of FARMS), Professor Royal Skousen, and others too numerous to mention here. However, these were merely preliminary steps to a far more exacting and all-encompassing project.

What is FARMS?

Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies

Who spearheaded the Critical Text of the Book of Mormon project?

Robert F. Smith

How many years did it take to publish all three volumes of the Book of Mormon Critical Text?

the first volume of the 3-volume Book of Mormon Critical Text in 1984. The third volume of that first edition was published in 1987

Was the third volume of the first edition deemed sufficient?

The third volume of that first edition was published in 1987, but was already being superseded by a second, revised edition of the entire work

Who is the head of FARMS?

Professor John W. Welch

When did FARMS stop existing?

I'm not sure.

When was the fifth volume of Critical Text Project published?

I'm not sure.

What book did Grant Hardy publish in 1987?

I'm not sure.

Larson begin the research for what project?

I'm not sure.

FARMS was funded by whom?

I'm not sure.


In 1988, with that preliminary phase of the project completed, Professor Skousen took over as editor and head of the FARMS Critical Text of the Book of Mormon Project and proceeded to gather still scattered fragments of the Original Manuscript of the Book of Mormon and to have advanced photographic techniques applied to obtain fine readings from otherwise unreadable pages and fragments. He also closely examined the Printer’s Manuscript (owned by the Community of Christ—RLDS Church in Independence, Missouri) for differences in types of ink or pencil, in order to determine when and by whom they were made. He also collated the various editions of the Book of Mormon down to the present to see what sorts of changes have been made through time.

When was phase one completed?

Who took over after the preliminary phase?

Professor Skousen

Why did Professor Skousen gather fragments and have them analyzed?

to obtain fine readings

What process what used to study the gathered fragments?

advanced photographic techniques

On what did Skousen analyze ink and pencil remnants?

Printer’s Manuscript

What year was the final phase of the project completed?

I'm not sure.

Professor Skousen left what position in 1988?

I'm not sure.

Who sold the community of christ church?

I'm not sure.

What did Skousen delete ink and pencil remnants from?

I'm not sure.


Shemaryahu Talmon, who summarized the amount of consensus and genetic relation to the Urtext of the Hebrew Bible, concluded that major divergences which intrinsically affect the sense are extremely rare. As far as the Hebrew Bible referenced by Old Testament is concerned, almost all of the textual variants are fairly insignificant and hardly affect any doctrine. Professor Douglas Stuart states: "It is fair to say that the verses, chapters, and books of the Bible would read largely the same, and would leave the same impression with the reader, even if one adopted virtually every possible alternative reading to those now serving as the basis for current English translations."

How common are variations in text that alter the meaning of the Urtext of the Hebrew Bible?

extremely rare

To what degree do variations in the Old Testament alter the meaning?

hardly affect any doctrine

Who claims that the Old Testament is essentially the same throughout all variations?

Professor Douglas Stuart

How many variations of the Old Testament offer the same meaning?

virtually every possible alternative reading

What book did Douglas Stuart summarize?

I'm not sure.

How many of the textual variants are significant?

I'm not sure.

How many variants change the doctrine considerably?

I'm not sure.

Stuart thought the Bible is largely different because of what?

I'm not sure.


While textual criticism developed into a discipline of thorough analysis of the Bible — both the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament — scholars also use it to determine the original content of classic texts, such as Plato's Republic. There are far fewer witnesses to classical texts than to the Bible, so scholars can use stemmatics and, in some cases, copy text editing. However, unlike the New Testament where the earliest witnesses are within 200 years of the original, the earliest existing manuscripts of most classical texts were written about a millennium after their composition. All things being equal, textual scholars expect that a larger time gap between an original and a manuscript means more changes in the text.

Does the Bible or Plato's Republic have more witnesses?

There are far fewer witnesses to classical texts than to the Bible

What's the gap between original Christian texts and subsequent editions of the same works?

within 200 years

What's the gap between original classical texts and subsequent editions of the same works?

about a millennium after their composition

How does the expanse of time correlate to authenticity with regard to original and subsequent versions of texts?

a larger time gap between an original and a manuscript means more changes in the text.

Plato's Republic has more witnesses than what?

I'm not sure.

The Bible has fewer witnesses than what types of work?

I'm not sure.

When were the latest witnesses of the New Testament?

I'm not sure.

Textual scholars expect there to be a smaller time gap between an original and what?

I'm not sure.

There are fewer changes in a text when there is a larger what?

I'm not sure.


Scientific and critical editions can be protected by copyright as works of authorship if enough creativity/originality is provided. The mere addition of a word, or substitution of a term with another one believed to be more correct, usually does not achieve such level of originality/creativity. All the notes accounting for the analysis and why and how such changes have been made represent a different work autonomously copyrightable if the other requirements are satisfied. In the European Union critical and scientific editions may be protected also by the relevant neighboring right that protects critical and scientific publications of public domain works as made possible by art. 5 of the Copyright Term Directive. Not all EU member States have transposed art. 5 into national law.

What is the criteria for copyright?

if enough creativity/originality is provided

What minor things can be included and not invalidate a copyright?

The mere addition of a word, or substitution of a term with another one believed to be more correct

Are footnotes included in the copyright of the original work?

All the notes accounting for the analysis and why and how such changes have been made represent a different work autonomously copyrightable

What rights do scientific publications in the EU enjoy?

the relevant neighboring right that protects critical and scientific publications of public domain works

What does not matter in order to be copyrighted?

I'm not sure.

What minor things can be included and validate a copyright?

I'm not sure.

Non-scientific editions can be protected by what?

I'm not sure.

What are not protected by copyright?

I'm not sure.

All EU member states have transposed what into law?

I'm not sure.


A gramophone record (phonograph record in American English) or vinyl record, commonly known as a "record", is an analogue sound storage medium in the form of a flat polyvinyl chloride (previously shellac) disc with an inscribed, modulated spiral groove. The groove usually starts near the periphery and ends near the center of the disc. Phonograph records are generally described by their diameter in inches (12", 10", 7"), the rotational speed in rpm at which they are played (16 2⁄3, 33 1⁄3, 45, 78), and their time capacity resulting from a combination of those parameters (LP – long playing 33 1⁄3 rpm, SP – 78 rpm single, EP – 12-inch single or extended play, 33 or 45 rpm); their reproductive quality or level of fidelity (high-fidelity, orthophonic, full-range, etc.), and the number of audio channels provided (mono, stereo, quad, etc.).

What does LP stand for when it comes to time capacity?

long playing

What are common diameters found in phonograph records?

12", 10", 7"

What is a gramophone or 'vinyl' record?

analogue sound storage medium

Where does the groove on a vinyl record typically start?

near the periphery

In what method is the rotational speed measured in?

rpm


The phonograph disc record was the primary medium used for music reproduction until late in the 20th century, replacing the phonograph cylinder record–with which it had co-existed from the late 1880s through to the 1920s–by the late 1920s. Records retained the largest market share even when new formats such as compact cassette were mass-marketed. By the late 1980s, digital media, in the form of the compact disc, had gained a larger market share, and the vinyl record left the mainstream in 1991. From the 1990s to the 2010s, records continued to be manufactured and sold on a much smaller scale, and were especially used by disc jockeys (DJ)s, released by artists in some genres, and listened to by a niche market of audiophiles. The phonograph record has made a niche resurgence in the early 21st century – 9.2 million records were sold in the U.S. in 2014, a 260% increase since 2009. Likewise, in the UK sales have increased five-fold from 2009 to 2014.

What was the primary use of a phonographic disc record?

music reproduction

Which year did vinyl records leave the main steam media market?

From the 1990s to 2010s who was the primary consumer of vinyl records?

disc jockeys (DJ)s

Approximately how many phonograph records were sold in 2014?

9.2 million

What is the niche market of phonograph record fans known as?

audiophiles


The phonautograph, patented by Léon Scott in 1857, used a vibrating diaphragm and stylus to graphically record sound waves as tracings on sheets of paper, purely for visual analysis and without any intent of playing them back. In the 2000s, these tracings were first scanned by audio engineers and digitally converted into audible sound. Phonautograms of singing and speech made by Scott in 1860 were played back as sound for the first time in 2008. Along with a tuning fork tone and unintelligible snippets recorded as early as 1857, these are the earliest known recordings of sound.

What was the original intent of the phonautograph?

visual analysis

In what years where phonautograms converted to audible sound?

What year were the earliest known recordings of sound?

By whom was the phonautograms patented?

Léon Scott

In what year was phonautograms patented?


In 1877, Thomas Edison invented the phonograph. Unlike the phonautograph, it was capable of both recording and reproducing sound. Despite the similarity of name, there is no documentary evidence that Edison's phonograph was based on Scott's phonautograph. Edison first tried recording sound on a wax-impregnated paper tape, with the idea of creating a "telephone repeater" analogous to the telegraph repeater he had been working on. Although the visible results made him confident that sound could be physically recorded and reproduced, his notes do not indicate that he actually reproduced sound before his first experiment in which he used tinfoil as a recording medium several months later. The tinfoil was wrapped around a grooved metal cylinder and a sound-vibrated stylus indented the tinfoil while the cylinder was rotated. The recording could be played back immediately. The Scientific American article that introduced the tinfoil phonograph to the public mentioned Marey, Rosapelly and Barlow as well as Scott as creators of devices for recording but, importantly, not reproducing sound. Edison also invented variations of the phonograph that used tape and disc formats. Numerous applications for the phonograph were envisioned, but although it enjoyed a brief vogue as a startling novelty at public demonstrations, the tinfoil phonograph proved too crude to be put to any practical use. A decade later, Edison developed a greatly improved phonograph that used a hollow wax cylinder instead of a foil sheet. This proved to be both a better-sounding and far more useful and durable device. The wax phonograph cylinder created the recorded sound market at the end of the 1880s and dominated it through the early years of the 20th century.

In what year did Thomas Edison invent the phonograph?

How did the phonograph differ from the phonautograph?

capable of both recording and reproducing sound

What was unique about Einsteins invention?

reproducing sound

At what era was the recorded sound market introduced?


Lateral-cut disc records were developed in the United States by Emile Berliner, who named his system the "gramophone", distinguishing it from Edison's wax cylinder "phonograph" and Columbia's wax cylinder "graphophone". Berliner's earliest discs, first marketed in 1889, but only in Europe, were 5 inches (13 cm) in diameter, and were played with a small hand-propelled machine. Both the records and the machine were adequate only for use as a toy or curiosity, due to the limited sound quality. In the United States in 1894, under the Berliner Gramophone trademark, Berliner started marketing records with somewhat more substantial entertainment value, along with somewhat more substantial gramophones to play them. Berliner's records had poor sound quality compared to wax cylinders, but his manufacturing associate Eldridge R. Johnson eventually improved the sound quality. Abandoning Berliner's "Gramophone" trademark for legal reasons, in 1901 Johnson's and Berliner's separate companies reorganized to form the Victor Talking Machine Company, whose products would come to dominate the market for many years. Emile Berliner moved his company to Montreal in 1900. The factory which became RCA Victor stills exists. There is a dedicated museum in Montreal for Berliner.

What is the name of lateral cut disc records?

gramophone

What was an issue found with Berliner's records initially?

poor sound quality

Where were lateral cut disc records developed?

United States

What is 'Victor Talking Machine now known as?

RCA Victor

Where is the museum dedicated to Berliner located?

Montreal


In 1901, 10-inch disc records were introduced, followed in 1903 by 12-inch records. These could play for more than three and four minutes respectively, while contemporary cylinders could only play for about two minutes. In an attempt to head off the disc advantage, Edison introduced the Amberol cylinder in 1909, with a maximum playing time of 4½ minutes (at 160 rpm), which in turn were superseded by Blue Amberol Records, which had a playing surface made of celluloid, a plastic, which was far less fragile. Despite these improvements, during the 1910s discs decisively won this early format war, although Edison continued to produce new Blue Amberol cylinders for an ever-dwindling customer base until late in 1929. By 1919 the basic patents for the manufacture of lateral-cut disc records had expired, opening the field for countless companies to produce them. Analog disc records would dominate the home entertainment market until they were outsold by the digital compact disc in the late 1980s (which was in turn supplanted by digital audio recordings distributed via online music stores and Internet file sharing).

What was the name of the discs Edison introduced in 1909?

Blue Amberol cylinders

What year did the patent for lateral cut discs expire?

What format dominated the market in the late 1980s?

digital compact disc

What disc format was the least fragile prior to 1919?

Amberol cylinder

What was the playing surface of the blue amerbol cylinder discs made of?

celluloid


Early recordings were made entirely acoustically, the sound being collected by a horn and piped to a diaphragm, which vibrated the cutting stylus. Sensitivity and frequency range were poor, and frequency response was very irregular, giving acoustic recordings an instantly recognizable tonal quality. A singer practically had to put his or her face in the recording horn. Lower-pitched orchestral instruments such as cellos and double basses were often doubled (or replaced) by louder wind instruments, such as tubas. Standard violins in orchestral ensembles were commonly replaced by Stroh violins, which became popular with recording studios.

What were two drawback of early recordings?

Sensitivity and frequency range were poor

How would one make to early recordings?

face in the recording horn

What types of violins worked best with early recordings?

Stroh violins

What instruments did not record well?

Lower-pitched orchestral instruments

How was the frequency response in early recordings?

very irregular


Contrary to popular belief, if placed properly and prepared-for, drums could be effectively used and heard on even the earliest jazz and military band recordings. The loudest instruments such as the drums and trumpets were positioned the farthest away from the collecting horn. Lillian Hardin Armstrong, a member of King Oliver's Creole Jazz Band, which recorded at Gennett Records in 1923, remembered that at first Oliver and his young second trumpet, Louis Armstrong, stood next to each other and Oliver's horn could not be heard. "They put Louis about fifteen feet over in the corner, looking all sad." For fading instrumental parts in and out while recording, some performers were placed on a moveable platform, which could draw the performer(s) nearer or further away as required.[citation needed]

What tool was used to improve sound quality in early recordings for special effects?

moveable platform

Where were loud instruments best placed for good sound quality?

farthest away from the collecting horn

How far away has a trumpeter been known to stand?

fifteen feet

Were drums heard on early jazz recordings?

drums could be effectively used

What was the item called that recorded the sounds?

collecting horn


During the first half of the 1920s, engineers at Western Electric, as well as independent inventors such as Orlando Marsh, developed technology for capturing sound with a microphone, amplifying it with vacuum tubes, then using the amplified signal to drive an electromagnetic recording head. Western Electric's innovations resulted in a greatly expanded and more even frequency response, creating a dramatically fuller, clearer and more natural-sounding recording. Distant or less strong sounds that were impossible to record by the old methods could now be captured. Volume was now limited only by the groove spacing on the record and the limitations of the intended playback device. Victor and Columbia licensed the new electrical system from Western Electric and began issuing electrically recorded discs in 1925. The first classical recording was of Chopin impromptus and Schubert's Litanei by Alfred Cortot for Victor.

What was an early took used to amplify sounds?

vacuum tubes

What company was vital in progression of quality sound recordings?

Western Electric

How early were electrically recorded discs made available for purchase?

What was new about the way Western Electrics method of capturing sound?

microphone

How could the sounds produced by Western Electric be described?

fuller, clearer and more natural


Electrical recording preceded electrical home reproduction because of the initial high cost of the new system. In 1925, the Victor company introduced the Victor Orthophonic Victrola, an acoustical record player that was specifically designed to play electrically recorded discs, as part of a line that also included electrically reproducing Electrolas. The acoustical Orthophonics ranged in price from US$95 to US$300, depending on cabinetry; by comparison, the cheapest Electrola cost US$650, the price of a new Ford automobile in an era when clerical jobs paid about $20 a week.

What was a drawback of early home recording systems?

high cost

What was the initial cost range of early recording devices?

US$95 to US$300

What year  was the  Victor Orthophonic Victrola released?

What was the typical weekly pay of a worker in 1925?

What options were available that effected the cost of the Victor Orthophonic Victorla?

cabinetry


The earliest disc records (1889–1894) were made of various materials including hard rubber. Around 1895, a shellac-based compound was introduced and became standard. Exact formulas for this compound varied by manufacturer and over the course of time, but it was typically composed of about one-third shellac and about two-thirds mineral filler, which meant finely pulverized rock, usually slate and limestone, with an admixture of cotton fibers to add tensile strength, carbon black for color (without this, it tended to be a "dirty" gray or brown color that most record companies considered unattractive), and a very small amount of a lubricant to facilitate mold release during manufacture. Some makers, notably Columbia Records, used a laminated construction with a core disc of coarser material or fiber. The production of shellac records continued until the end of the 78 rpm format (i.e., the late 1950s in most developed countries, but well into the 1960s in some other places), but increasingly less abrasive formulations were used during its declining years and very late examples in truly like-new condition can have as low noise levels as vinyl.

What materials were discs made of in 1889-1894?

hard rubber

What was the standard material for discs around 1895?

a shellac-based compound

What company was known for laminate construction of discs?

Columbia Records

What material give the vinyl records their known black color?

carbon

What material is used in order to release the vinyl records from their molds?

lubricant


Flexible or so-called "unbreakable" records made of unusual materials were introduced by a number of manufacturers at various times during the 78 rpm era. In the UK, Nicole records, made of celluloid or a similar substance coated onto a cardboard core disc, were produced for a few years beginning in 1904, but they suffered from an exceptionally high level of surface noise. In the United States, Columbia Records introduced flexible, fiber-cored "Marconi Velvet Tone Record" pressings in 1907, but the advantages and longevity of their relatively noiseless surfaces depended on the scrupulous use of special gold-plated Marconi Needles and the product was not a success. Thin, flexible plastic records such as the German Phonycord and the British Filmophone and Goodson records appeared around 1930 but also did not last long. The contemporary French Pathé Cellodiscs, made of a very thin black plastic, which uncannily resembles the vinyl "sound sheet" magazine inserts of the 1965–1985 era, were similarly short-lived. In the US, Hit of the Week records, made of a patented translucent plastic called Durium coated on a heavy brown paper base, were introduced in early 1930. A new issue came out every week and they were sold at newsstands like a weekly magazine. Although inexpensive and commercially successful at first, they soon fell victim to the Great Depression and production in the US ended in 1932. Related Durium records continued to be made somewhat later in the UK and elsewhere, and as remarkably late as 1950 in Italy, where the name "Durium" survived far into the LP era as a trademark on ordinary vinyl records. Despite all these attempts at innovation, shellac compounds continued to be used for the overwhelming majority of commercial 78 rpm records during the lifetime of the format.

What was a major downfall of the success of Durium records?

Great Depression

What year were Durium records no longer released in the US?

What are most 78 rpm records made of?

shellac compounds

What was a common problem found in early flexible records?

surface noise

What was the thin translucent plastic most successfully used to make discs called?

Durium


In 1931, RCA Victor introduced their vinyl-based Victrolac compound as a material for some unusual-format and special-purpose records. By the end of the 1930s vinyl's advantages of light weight, relative unbreakability and low surface noise had made it the material of choice for prerecorded radio programming and other critical applications. When it came to ordinary 78 rpm records, however, the much higher cost of the raw material, as well as its vulnerability to the heavy pickups and crudely mass-produced steel needles still commonly used in home record players, made its general substitution for shellac impractical at that time. During the Second World War, the United States Armed Forces produced thousands of 12-inch vinyl 78 rpm V-Discs for use by the troops overseas. After the war, the wider use of vinyl became more practical as new record players with relatively lightweight crystal pickups and precision-ground styli made of sapphire or an exotic osmium alloy proliferated. In late 1945, RCA Victor began offering special transparent red vinyl De Luxe pressings of some classical 78s, at a de luxe price. Later, Decca Records introduced vinyl Deccalite 78s, while other record companies came up with vinyl concoctions such as Metrolite, Merco Plastic and Sav-o-flex, but these were mainly used to produce "unbreakable" children's records and special thin vinyl DJ pressings for shipment to radio stations.

What material was used by RCA Victor for special purpose records?

vinyl-based Victrolac compound

What was Metrolite and Sav-o-flex materials primarily used for?

children's records

What year was the Victrolac compound released?

What were advantages of vinyl in the 1930's?

light weight, relative unbreakability and low surface noise

What was a downfall of ordinary 78 rpm vinyls in household house?

higher cost