On June 16, 1988, 6,000 to 8,000 people gathered in Lviv to hear speakers declare no confidence in the local list of delegates to the 19th Communist Party conference, to begin on June 29. On June 21, a rally in Lviv attracted 50,000 people who had heard about a revised delegate list. Authorities attempted to disperse the rally in front of Druzhba Stadium. On July 7, 10,000 to 20,000 people witnessed the launch of the Democratic Front to Promote Perestroika. On July 17, a group of 10,000 gathered in the village Zarvanytsia for Millennium services celebrated by Ukrainian Greek-Catholic Bishop Pavlo Vasylyk. The militia tried to disperse attendees, but it turned out to be the largest gathering of Ukrainian Catholics since Stalin outlawed the Church in 1946. On August 4, which came to be known as "Bloody Thursday," local authorities violently suppressed a demonstration organized by the Democratic Front to Promote Perestroika. Forty-one people were detained, fined, or sentenced to 15 days of administrative arrest. On September 1, local authorities violently displaced 5,000 students at a public meeting lacking official permission at Ivan Franko State University.

How many people attended the Lviv rally?

Where was the dispersal attempt made?

in front of Druzhba Stadium

Who tried to stop the rally?

Authorities

Who led the Millennium celebration in Zarvanytsia?

Pavlo Vasylyk

Who wanted to break up the celebration?

militia


On November 13, 1988, approximately 10,000 people attended an officially sanctioned meeting organized by the cultural heritage organization Spadschyna, the Kyiv University student club Hromada, and the environmental groups Zelenyi Svit ("Green World") and Noosfera, to focus on ecological issues. From November 14–18, 15 Ukrainian activists were among the 100 human-, national- and religious-rights advocates invited to discuss human rights with Soviet officials and a visiting delegation of the U.S. Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe (also known as the Helsinki Commission). On December 10, hundreds gathered in Kiev to observe International Human Rights Day at a rally organized by the Democratic Union. The unauthorized gathering resulted in the detention of local activists.

What is the English translation of Zelenyi Svit?

Green World

What sort of issues were Zenlenyi Svit and Noosfera concerned with?

ecological

What sort of organization is Spadschnyna?

cultural heritage

What did people gather to observe on December 10th?

International Human Rights Day


The Partyja BPF (Belarusian Popular Front) was established in 1988 as a political party and cultural movement for democracy and independence, à la the Baltic republics’ popular fronts. The discovery of mass graves in Kurapaty outside Minsk by historian Zianon Pazniak, the Belarusian Popular Front’s first leader, gave additional momentum to the pro-democracy and pro-independence movement in Belarus. It claimed that the NKVD performed secret killings in Kurapaty. Initially the Front had significant visibility because its numerous public actions almost always ended in clashes with the police and the KGB.

When did The Partyja BDF start?

Who found mass graves?

Zianon Pazniak

What is Pazniak's occupation?

historian

Where were the graves found?

Kurapaty

In addition to the police who did the BDF often have conflicts with?

KGB


Spring 1989 saw the people of the Soviet Union exercising a democratic choice, albeit limited, for the first time since 1917, when they elected the new Congress of People's Deputies. Just as important was the uncensored live TV coverage of the legislature's deliberations, where people witnessed the previously feared Communist leadership being questioned and held accountable. This example fueled a limited experiment with democracy in Poland, which quickly led to the toppling of the Communist government in Warsaw that summer – which in turn sparked uprisings that overthrew communism in the other five Warsaw Pact countries before the end of 1989, the year the Berlin Wall fell. These events showed that the people of Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union did not support Gorbachev's drive to modernize Communism; rather, they preferred to abandon it altogether.

What was elected in 1989?

new Congress of People's Deputies

Who was questioned on live TV?

Communist leadership

Where was the Communist government overthrown first?

Warsaw

When did the Berlin Wall get torn down?

What did Eastern European people want to do with communism?

abandon it


In the March 26 general elections, voter participation was an impressive 89.8%, and 1,958 (including 1,225 district seats) of the 2,250 CPD seats were filled. In district races, run-off elections were held in 76 constituencies on April 2 and 9 and fresh elections were organized on April 20 and 14 to May 23, in the 199 remaining constituencies where the required absolute majority was not attained. While most CPSU-endorsed candidates were elected, more than 300 lost to independent candidates such as Yeltsin, physicist Andrei Sakharov and lawyer Anatoly Sobchak.

What percentage of people voted on March 26?

How many constituencies had run-off elections?

How many CPSU endorsement having candidates lost to independents?

more than 300


In the first session of the new Congress of People's Deputies, from May 25 to June 9, hardliners retained control but reformers used the legislature as a platform for debate and criticism – which was broadcast live and uncensored. This transfixed the population; nothing like this freewheeling debate had ever been witnessed in the U.S.S.R. On May 29, Yeltsin managed to secure a seat on the Supreme Soviet, and in the summer he formed the first opposition, the Inter-Regional Deputies Group, composed of Russian nationalists and liberals. Composing the final legislative group in the Soviet Union, those elected in 1989 played a vital part in reforms and the eventual breakup of the Soviet Union during the next two years.

Who used the legislative session to debate and criticize?

reformers

Who made up the Inter-Regional Deputies Group?

Russian nationalists and liberals.

When did Yeltsin acquire a seat on the Supreme Soviet?

May 29


On October 25, 1989, the Supreme Soviet voted to eliminate special seats for the Communist Party and other official organizations in national and local elections, responding to sharp popular criticism that such reserved slots were undemocratic. After vigorous debate, the 542-member Supreme Soviet passed the measure 254-85 (with 36 abstentions). The decision required a constitutional amendment, ratified by the full congress, which met December 12–25. It also passed measures that would allow direct elections for presidents of each of the 15 constituent republics. Gorbachev strongly opposed such a move during debate but was defeated.

What did the Communist Party lose on October 25, 1989 with regards to elections?

special seats

Who voted to get rid of the special seats?

the Supreme Soviet

When did congress meet to ratify the amendment to remove special election seats?

December 12–25


The six Warsaw Pact countries of Eastern Europe, while nominally independent, were widely recognized in the international community as the Soviet satellite states. All had been occupied by the Soviet Red Army in 1945, had Soviet-style socialist states imposed upon them, and had very restricted freedom of action in either domestic or international affairs. Any moves towards real independence were suppressed by military force – in the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 and the Prague Spring in 1968. Gorbachev abandoned the oppressive and expensive Brezhnev Doctrine, which mandated intervention in the Warsaw Pact states, in favor of non-intervention in the internal affairs of allies – jokingly termed the Sinatra Doctrine in a reference to the Frank Sinatra song "My Way".

What year did the Prague Spring take place?

What happened to Prague and Hungary's attempts at independence?

suppressed by military force

Under what doctrine was the Soviet Union required to intervene in the Warsaw Pact states?

Brezhnev Doctrine

Other than being expensive what was wrong with the Brezhnev Doctrine?

oppressive

What is the nickname for Gorbachev's new doctrine?

Sinatra Doctrine


The Baltic Way or Baltic Chain (also Chain of Freedom Estonian: Balti kett, Latvian: Baltijas ceļš, Lithuanian: Baltijos kelias, Russian: Балтийский путь) was a peaceful political demonstration on August 23, 1989. An estimated 2 million people joined hands to form a human chain extending 600 kilometres (370 mi) across Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, which had been forcibly reincorporated into the Soviet Union in 1944. The colossal demonstration marked the 50th anniversary of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact that divided Eastern Europe into spheres of influence and led to the occupation of the Baltic states in 1940.

How many people were involved in the Baltic Chain?

estimated 2 million

How long was the chain?

600 kilometres

What states did the chain extend over?

Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania

What anniversary did the chain take place on?

50th anniversary of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact

What part of Europe was split up by the pact?

Eastern


On December 7, 1989, the Communist Party of Lithuania under the leadership of Algirdas Brazauskas, split from the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and abandoned its claim to have a constitutional "leading role" in politics. A smaller loyalist faction of the Communist Party, headed by hardliner Mykolas Burokevičius, was established and remained affiliated with the CPSU. However, Lithuania’s governing Communist Party was formally independent from Moscow's control – a first for Soviet Republics and a political earthquake that prompted Gorbachev to arrange a visit to Lithuania the following month in a futile attempt to bring the local party back under control.

Who was in charge of Lithuania's Communist Party in 1989

Algirdas Brazauskas

What party did  Lithuania's Communist Party break apart from?

Communist Party of the Soviet Union

Who was in charge of the loyalist faction?

Mykolas Burokevičius,

What place's control was the Communist Party of Lithuania out from under after the split?

Moscow's

Who visited with the hope of bringing back the Communist Party of Lithuania to the Soviet Party?

Gorbachev


On July 16, 1989, the Popular Front of Azerbaijan held its first congress and elected Abulfaz Elchibey, who would become President, as its Chairman. On August 19, 600,000 protesters jammed Baku’s Lenin Square (now Azadliq Square) to demand the release of political prisoners. In the second half of 1989, weapons were handed out in Nagorno-Karabakh. When Karabakhis got hold of small arms to replace hunting rifles and crossbows, casualties began to mount; bridges were blown up, roads were blockaded, and hostages were taken.

When was Abulfaz Elchibey elected to Chairman of the Popular Front?

July 16, 1989

How many protesters filled Lenin Square on August 19th?

What did the protesters want?

release of political prisoners


In a new and effective tactic, the Popular Front launched a rail blockade of Armenia, which caused petrol and food shortages because 85 percent of Armenia's freight came from Azerbaijan. Under pressure from the Popular Front the Communist authorities in Azerbaijan started making concessions. On September 25, they passed a sovereignty law that gave precedence to Azerbaijani law, and on October 4, the Popular Front was permitted to register as a legal organization as long as it lifted the blockade. Transport communications between Azerbaijan and Armenia never fully recovered. Tensions continued to escalate and on December 29, Popular Front activists seized local party offices in Jalilabad, wounding dozens.

What did the Popular Front do to Armenian railways?

blockade

What shortages were caused by the blockade?

petrol and food

How much freight into Armenia originated in Azerbaijan?

85 percent

When was the sovereignty law passed?

September 25

What in Jalilibad was taken over by the Popular Front?

local party offices


On April 7, 1989, Soviet troops and armored personnel carriers were sent to Tbilisi after more than 100,000 people protested in front of Communist Party headquarters with banners calling for Georgia to secede from the Soviet Union and for Abkhazia to be fully integrated into Georgia. On April 9, 1989, troops attacked the demonstrators; some 20 people were killed and more than 200 wounded. This event radicalized Georgian politics, prompting many to conclude that independence was preferable to continued Soviet rule. On April 14, Gorbachev removed Jumber Patiashvili as First Secretary of the Georgian Communist Party and replaced him with former Georgian KGB chief Givi Gumbaridze.

What did the protesters want Georgia to leave?

Soviet Union

What did the protesters hope to see become a part of Georgia?

Abkhazia

How many people died in the April 9 attack?

What happened to Georgian politics as a result of the attack?

radicalized


In Ukraine, Lviv and Kiev celebrated Ukrainian Independence Day on January 22, 1989. Thousands gathered in Lviv for an unauthorized moleben (religious service) in front of St. George's Cathedral. In Kiev, 60 activists met in a Kiev apartment to commemorate the proclamation of the Ukrainian People's Republic in 1918. On February 11–12, 1989, the Ukrainian Language Society held its founding congress. On February 15, 1989, the formation of the Initiative Committee for the Renewal of the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church was announced. The program and statutes of the movement were proposed by the Writers Association of Ukraine and were published in the journal Literaturna Ukraina on February 16, 1989. The organization heralded Ukrainian dissidents such as Vyacheslav Chornovil.

What is commemorated on January 22 in Ukraine?

Ukrainian Independence Day

What is a moleben?

religious service

Where was the moleben held?

in front of St. George's Cathedral.


In late February, large public rallies took place in Kiev to protest the election laws, on the eve of the March 26 elections to the USSR Congress of People's Deputies, and to call for the resignation of the first secretary of the Communist Party of Ukraine, Volodymyr Scherbytsky, lampooned as "the mastodon of stagnation." The demonstrations coincided with a visit to Ukraine by Soviet President Gorbachev. On February 26, 1989, between 20,000 and 30,000 people participated in an unsanctioned ecumenical memorial service in Lviv, marking the anniversary of the death of 19th Century Ukrainian artist and nationalist Taras Shevchenko.

What were people protesting in Kiev during the last part of February?

election laws

Who did the protesters want to resign?

Volodymyr Scherbytsky

What was Scherbytsky's nickname?

the mastodon of stagnation

Who visited the Ukraine while the protests were taking place?

Gorbachev

How many people attended the service in Lviv?

between 20,000 and 30,000


On March 4, 1989, the Memorial Society, committed to honoring the victims of Stalinism and cleansing society of Soviet practices, was founded in Kiev. A public rally was held the next day. On March 12, A pre-election meeting organized in Lviv by the Ukrainian Helsinki Union and the Marian Society Myloserdia (Compassion) was violently dispersed, and nearly 300 people were detained. On March 26, elections were held to the union Congress of People's Deputies; by-elections were held on April 9, May 14, and May 21. Among the 225 Ukrainian deputies, most were conservatives, though a handful of progressives made the cut.

What ideology's victims were being honored by the Memorial Society?

Stalinism

How many people from the pre-election meeting in Lviv were detained?

nearly 300

Members of what ideology were more heavily elected to the union Congress of People's Deputies?

conservatives

How many deputies were elected?


From April 20–23, 1989, pre-election meetings were held in Lviv for four consecutive days, drawing crowds of up to 25,000. The action included an one-hour warning strike at eight local factories and institutions. It was the first labor strike in Lviv since 1944. On May 3, a pre-election rally attracted 30,000 in Lviv. On May 7, The Memorial Society organized a mass meeting at Bykivnia, site of a mass grave of Ukrainian and Polish victims of Stalinist terror. After a march from Kiev to the site, a memorial service was staged.

How many people attended the Lviv pre-election meetings?

How long did the warning strike last?

one-hour

Where did the strike take place?

eight local factories and institutions

Prior to the warning strike when was the last labor strike in Lviv?

At what sight was the Bykivnia meeting held?

mass grave


From mid-May to September 1989, Ukrainian Greek-Catholic hunger strikers staged protests on Moscow's Arbat to call attention to the plight of their Church. They were especially active during the July session of the World Council of Churches held in Moscow. The protest ended with the arrests of the group on September 18. On May 27, 1989, the founding conference of the Lviv regional Memorial Society was held. On June 18, 1989, an estimated 100,000 faithful participated in public religious services in Ivano-Frankivsk in western Ukraine, responding to Cardinal Myroslav Lubachivsky's call for an international day of prayer.

What were the hunger strikers hoping to draw attention to?

plight of their Church.

When did the Lviv regional Memorial Society have its first conference?

May 27, 1989

How many people attended the services in western Ukraine?

an estimated 100,000


On August 19, 1989, the Russian Orthodox Parish of Saints Peter and Paul announced it would be switching to the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church. On September 2, 1989, tens of thousands across Ukraine protested a draft election law that reserved special seats for the Communist Party and for other official organizations: 50,000 in Lviv, 40,000 in Kiev, 10,000 in Zhytomyr, 5,000 each in Dniprodzerzhynsk and Chervonohrad, and 2,000 in Kharkiv. From September 8–10, 1989, writer Ivan Drach was elected to head Rukh, the People's Movement of Ukraine, at its founding congress in Kiev. On September 17, between 150,000 and 200,000 people marched in Lviv, demanding the legalization of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church. On September 21, 1989, exhumation of a mass grave begins in Demianiv Laz, a nature preserve south of Ivano-Frankivsk. On September 28, First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Ukraine Volodymyr Shcherbytsky, a holdover from the Brezhnev era, was replaced by Vladimir Ivashko.

What were the protesters on September 2 demonstrating against?

draft election law

How many protesters were there in Lviv?

Who was put in charge of the People's Movement of Ukraine?

Ivan Drach

Where did the People's Movement hold its founding congress?

Kiev


On October 1, 1989, a peaceful demonstration of 10,000 to 15,000 people was violently dispersed by the militia in front of Lviv's Druzhba Stadium, where a concert celebrating the Soviet "reunification" of Ukrainian lands was being held. On October 10, Ivano-Frankivsk was the site of a pre-election protest attended by 30,000 people. On October 15, several thousand people gathered in Chervonohrad, Chernivtsi, Rivne, and Zhytomyr; 500 in Dnipropetrovsk; and 30,000 in Lviv to protest the election law. On October 20, faithful and clergy of the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church participated in a synod in Lviv, the first since its forced liquidation in the 1930s.

How many people demonstrated on October 1?

10,000 to 15,000

Who attacked the protest?

militia

Where did the attack occur?

in front of Lviv's Druzhba Stadium

What was happening in the stadium at the time?

concert

Prior to the October 20 synod, when was the last one held in Lviv?


On October 24, the union Supreme Soviet passed a law eliminating special seats for Communist Party and other official organizations' representatives. On October 26, twenty factories in Lviv held strikes and meetings to protest the police brutality of October 1 and the authorities' unwillingness to prosecute those responsible. From October 26–28, the Zelenyi Svit (Friends of the Earth – Ukraine) environmental association held its founding congress, and on October 27 the Ukrainian Supreme Soviet passed a law eliminating the special status of party and other official organizations.

How many factories had strikes on October 26?

twenty

Where were the strikes?

Lviv

What were the strikes in protest against?

police brutality


On October 28, 1989, the Ukrainian Supreme Soviet decreed that effective January 1, 1990, Ukrainian would be the official language of Ukraine, while Russian would be used for communication between ethnic groups. On the same day The Congregation of the Church of the Transfiguration in Lviv left the Russian Orthodox Church and proclaimed itself the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church. The following day, thousands attended a memorial service at Demianiv Laz, and a temporary marker was placed to indicate that a monument to the "victims of the repressions of 1939–1941" soon would be erected.

What was made Ukraine's official language in 1990?

Ukrainian

Who decided Ukraine's official language?

Ukrainian Supreme Soviet

For what reason would the Russian be spoken?

communication between ethnic groups

Where was the January 2 memorial service?

Demianiv Laz


In mid-November The Shevchenko Ukrainian Language Society was officially registered. On November 19, 1989, a public gathering in Kiev attracted thousands of mourners, friends and family to the reburial in Ukraine of three inmates of the infamous Gulag Camp No. 36 in Perm in the Ural Mountains: human-rights activists Vasyl Stus, Oleksiy Tykhy, and Yuriy Lytvyn. Their remains were reinterred in Baikove Cemetery. On November 26, 1989, a day of prayer and fasting was proclaimed by Cardinal Myroslav Lubachivsky, thousands of faithful in western Ukraine participated in religious services on the eve of a meeting between Pope John Paul II and Soviet President Gorbachev. On November 28, 1989, the Ukrainian SSR's Council for Religious Affairs issued a decree allowing Ukrainian Catholic congregations to register as legal organizations. The decree was proclaimed on December 1, coinciding with a meeting at the Vatican between the pope and the Soviet president.

When was The Shevchenko Ukrainian Language Society made official?

mid-November

The three human rights activists reburied November 19th were prisoners where?

Gulag Camp No. 36

Where was Gulag Camp No. 36 located?

Perm in the Ural Mountains

Where were the activists reburied?

Baikove Cemetery.

Who met with Gorbachev on November 22?

Pope John Paul II


On September 30, 1989, thousands of Belorussians, denouncing local leaders, marched through Minsk to demand additional cleanup of the 1986 Chernobyl disaster site in Ukraine. Up to 15,000 protesters wearing armbands bearing radioactivity symbols and carrying the banned red-and-white Belorussian national flag filed through torrential rain in defiance of a ban by local authorities. Later, they gathered in the city center near the government's headquarters, where speakers demanded resignation of Yefrem Sokolov, the republic's Communist Party leader, and called for the evacuation of half a million people from the contaminated zones.

What did the Belorussians wish to be cleaned up?

Chernobyl disaster site

Where did the Chernobyl Disaster occur?

Ukraine

When did the Chernobyl disaster happen?

What symbol did the protesters wear on their arms?

radioactivity symbols

How was the weather during the protest?

torrential rain


Thousands of Soviet troops were sent to the Fergana Valley, southeast of the Uzbek capital Tashkent, to re-establish order after clashes in which local Uzbeks hunted down members of the Meskhetian minority in several days of rioting between June 4–11, 1989; about 100 people were killed. On June 23, 1989, Gorbachev removed Rafiq Nishonov as First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Uzbek SSR and replaced him with Karimov, who went on to lead Uzbekistan as a Soviet Republic and subsequently as an independent state.

Who went to the Fergana Valley to restore order?

Soviet troops

Where is the Fergana Valley located?

southeast of the Uzbek capital

Who were targeted by the local Uzbeks?

members of the Meskhetian minority

Who was fired from First Secretary position by Gorbachev?

Rafiq Nishonov

Who replaced Nishonov?

Karimov


In Kazakhstan on June 19, 1989, young men carrying guns, firebombs, iron bars and stones rioted in Zhanaozen, causing a number of deaths. The youths tried to seize a police station and a water-supply station. They brought public transportation to a halt and shut down various shops and industries. By June 25, the rioting had spread to five other towns near the Caspian Sea. A mob of about 150 people armed with sticks, stones and metal rods attacked the police station in Mangishlak, about 90 miles from Zhanaozen, before they were dispersed by government troops flown in by helicopters. Mobs of young people also rampaged through Yeraliev, Shepke, Fort-Shevchenko and Kulsary, where they poured flammable liquid on trains housing temporary workers and set them on fire.

Where was the fatal June 19th riots?

Zhanaozen

Who were the rioters?

young men

What did the rioters try to take over?

police station and a water-supply station

How many towns had riots of their own following the initial riots?

five

What was attacked in Mangishlak?

police station


Ethnic tensions had escalated between the Armenians and Azerbaijanis in spring and summer 1988. On January 9, 1990, after the Armenian parliament voted to include Nagorno-Karabakh within its budget, renewed fighting broke out, hostages were taken, and four Soviet soldiers were killed. On January 11, Popular Front radicals stormed party buildings and effectively overthrew the communist powers in the southern town of Lenkoran. Gorbachev resolved to regain control of Azerbaijan; the events that ensued are known as "Black January." Late on January 19, 1990, after blowing up the central television station and cutting the phone and radio lines, 26,000 Soviet troops entered the Azerbaijani capital Baku, smashing barricades, attacking protesters, and firing into crowds. On that night and during subsequent confrontations (which lasted until February), more than 130 people died – the majority of whom were civilians. More than 700 civilians were wounded, hundreds were detained, but only a few were actually tried for alleged criminal offenses.

Which two groups saw increasing ethnic conflicts in 1988?

Armenians and Azerbaijanis

Who was killed in the January 9 riots?

four Soviet soldiers

How many people died in the Soviet response to the clashes?

more than 130

What were the January incidents called?

Black January

How many Soviet troops occupied Baku?


Following the hardliners' takeover, the September 30, 1990 elections (runoffs on October 14) were characterized by intimidation; several Popular Front candidates were jailed, two were murdered, and unabashed ballot stuffing took place even in the presence of Western observers. The election results reflected the threatening environment; out of the 350 members, 280 were Communists, with only 45 opposition candidates from the Popular Front and other non-communist groups, who together formed a Democratic Bloc ("Dembloc"). In May 1990 Mutalibov was elected Chairman of the Supreme Soviet unopposed.

What party's candidates were murdered in the September 30 elections?

Popular Front

How many members were from opposition parties?

How many total members were there?

Who was elected to be Chairman in May?

Mutalibov


On January 21, 1990, Rukh organized a 300-mile (480 km) human chain between Kiev, Lviv, and Ivano-Frankivsk. Hundreds of thousands joined hands to commemorate the proclamation of Ukrainian independence in 1918 and the reunification of Ukrainian lands one year later (1919 Unification Act). On January 23, 1990, the Ukrainian Greek-Catholic Church held its first synod since its liquidation by the Soviets in 1946 (an act which the gathering declared invalid). On February 9, 1990, the Ukrainian Ministry of Justice officially registered Rukh. However, the registration came too late for Rukh to stand its own candidates for the parliamentary and local elections on March 4. At the 1990 elections of people's deputies to the Supreme Council (Verkhovna Rada), candidates from the Democratic Bloc won landslide victories in western Ukrainian oblasts. A majority of the seats had to hold run-off elections. On March 18, Democratic candidates scored further victories in the run-offs. The Democratic Bloc gained about 90 out of 450 seats in the new parliament.

How many miles long was the human chain?

Who organized this chain?

Rukh

What country's independence were the chain members celebrating?

Ukrainian

When had the Ukrainian Greek-Catholic Church been broken up by the Soviets?

In 1990 which party had most of the election victories?

the Democratic Bloc


On April 6, 1990, the Lviv City Council voted to return St. George Cathedral to the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church. The Russian Orthodox Church refused to yield. On April 29–30, 1990, the Ukrainian Helsinki Union disbanded to form the Ukrainian Republican Party. On May 15 the new parliament convened. The bloc of conservative communists held 239 seats; the Democratic Bloc, which had evolved into the National Council, had 125 deputies. On June 4, 1990, two candidates remained in the protracted race for parliament chair. The leader of the Communist Party of Ukraine (CPU), Volodymyr Ivashko, was elected with 60 percent of the vote as more than 100 opposition deputies boycotted the election. On June 5–6, 1990, Metropolitan Mstyslav of the U.S.-based Ukrainian Orthodox Church was elected patriarch of the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church (UAOC) during that Church's first synod. The UAOC declared its full independence from the Moscow Patriarchate of the Russian Orthodox Church, which in March had granted autonomy to the Ukrainian Orthodox church headed by Metropolitan Filaret.

Who was voted to get their cathedral back in 1990?

Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church

What party was formed from the dissolved Ukrainian Helsinki Union?

Ukrainian Republican Party

What was the first day that the new parliament met?

May 15

Who became the new patriarch of the UAOC in 1990?

Metropolitan Mstyslav


On June 22, 1990, Volodymyr Ivashko withdrew his candidacy for leader of the Communist Party of Ukraine in view of his new position in parliament. Stanislav Hurenko was elected first secretary of the CPU. On July 11, Ivashko resigned from his post as chairman of the Ukrainian Parliament after he was elected deputy general secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The Parliament accepted the resignation a week later, on July 18. On July 16 Parliament overwhelmingly approved the Declaration on State Sovereignty of Ukraine - with a vote of 355 in favour and four against. The people's deputies voted 339 to 5 to proclaim July 16 a Ukrainian national holiday.

Who was elected to be the new deputy general secretary of the Communist Part of the Soviet Union in July?

Volodymyr Ivashko

How long did it take Parliament to accept Ivashko's resignation?

a week

How many Parliament members voted against the Declaration on State Sovereignty of Ukraine?

four


On July 23, 1990, Leonid Kravchuk was elected to replace Ivashko as parliament chairman. On July 30, Parliament adopted a resolution on military service ordering Ukrainian soldiers "in regions of national conflict such as Armenia and Azerbaijan" to return to Ukrainian territory. On August 1, Parliament voted overwhelmingly to shut down the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant. On August 3, it adopted a law on the economic sovereignty of the Ukrainian republic. On August 19, the first Ukrainian Catholic liturgy in 44 years was celebrated at St. George Cathedral. On September 5–7, the International Symposium on the Great Famine of 1932–1933 was held in Kiev. On September 8, The first "Youth for Christ" rally since 1933 took place held in Lviv, with 40,000 participants. In September 28–30, the Green Party of Ukraine held its founding congress. On September 30, nearly 100,000 people marched in Kiev to protest against the new union treaty proposed by Gorbachev.

Who would succeed Ivashko as the chairman of Parliament?

Leonid Kravchuk

What did Parliament vote to shut down in August?

Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant

Where was the August 9 liturgy held?

St. George Cathedral.

Prior to the September 8th rally when was the last Youth for Christ rally held?

How many people attended the Youth for Christ rally?


On October 25–28, 1990, Rukh held its second congress and declared that its principal goal was the "renewal of independent statehood for Ukraine". On October 28 UAOC faithful, supported by Ukrainian Catholics, demonstrated near St. Sophia’s Cathedral as newly elected Russian Orthodox Church Patriarch Aleksei and Metropolitan Filaret celebrated liturgy at the shrine. On November 1, the leaders of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church and of the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church, respectively, Metropolitan Volodymyr Sterniuk and Patriarch Mstyslav, met in Lviv during anniversary commemorations of the 1918 proclamation of the Western Ukrainian National Republic.

Where was the UAOC protest held?

near St. Sophia’s Cathedral

Who were in the cathedral at the time of the protest?

Russian Orthodox Church Patriarch Aleksei and Metropolitan Filaret

What had Aleksei and Filaret been up to at the time of the protest?

liturgy


On January 13, 1991, Soviet troops, along with the KGB Spetsnaz Alpha Group, stormed the Vilnius TV Tower in Lithuania to suppress the independence movement. Fourteen unarmed civilians were killed and hundreds more injured. On the night of July 31, 1991, Russian OMON from Riga, the Soviet military headquarters in the Baltics, assaulted the Lithuanian border post in Medininkai and killed seven Lithuanian servicemen. This event further weakened the Soviet Union's position internationally and domestically, and stiffened Lithuanian resistance.

What was attacked by Soviet troops on January 13?

Vilnius TV Tower

Where was the TV Tower located?

Lithuania

What were the Soviets hoping to stop?

independence movement

How many civilians died in the attack?

Fourteen

What was attacked by Russians on July 31?

Lithuanian border post in Medininkai


Faced with growing separatism, Gorbachev sought to restructure the Soviet Union into a less centralized state. On August 20, 1991, the Russian SFSR was scheduled to sign a New Union Treaty that would have converted the Soviet Union into a federation of independent republics with a common president, foreign policy and military. It was strongly supported by the Central Asian republics, which needed the economic advantages of a common market to prosper. However, it would have meant some degree of continued Communist Party control over economic and social life.

What was Gorbachev attempting to decentralize?

Soviet Union

What was supposed to be signed on August 20?

New Union Treaty

Who supported the treaty?

Central Asian republics,

What would have maintained power if the treaty was signed?

Communist Party


More radical reformists were increasingly convinced that a rapid transition to a market economy was required, even if the eventual outcome meant the disintegration of the Soviet Union into several independent states. Independence also accorded with Yeltsin's desires as president of the Russian Federation, as well as those of regional and local authorities to get rid of Moscow’s pervasive control. In contrast to the reformers' lukewarm response to the treaty, the conservatives, "patriots," and Russian nationalists of the USSR – still strong within the CPSU and the military – were opposed to weakening the Soviet state and its centralized power structure.

What did radicals want to change the economy to?

market economy

What were they prepared to have happen to the Soviet Union in order to get a market economy?

disintegration

What was Yeltsin president of?

the Russian Federation,

Whose control were regional authorities hoping to do away with?

Moscow’s


Thousands of Muscovites came out to defend the White House (the Russian Federation's parliament and Yeltsin's office), the symbolic seat of Russian sovereignty at the time. The organizers tried but ultimately failed to arrest Yeltsin, who rallied opposition to the coup with speech-making atop a tank. The special forces dispatched by the coup leaders took up positions near the White House, but members refused to storm the barricaded building. The coup leaders also neglected to jam foreign news broadcasts, so many Muscovites watched it unfold live on CNN. Even the isolated Gorbachev was able to stay abreast of developments by tuning into BBC World Service on a small transistor radio.

Who arrived to protect the White House?

Muscovites

Who did the organizers want to arrest?

Yeltsin

Where was Yeltsin during the coup?

atop a tank

What was Yeltsin doing on the tank?

speech-making

What TV channel carried the broadcast of the coup?

CNN


On December 8, the leaders of Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus secretly met in Belavezhskaya Pushcha, in western Belarus, and signed the Belavezha Accords, which proclaimed the Soviet Union had ceased to exist and announced formation of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) as a looser association to take its place. They also invited other republics to join the CIS. Gorbachev called it an unconstitutional coup. However, by this time there was no longer any reasonable doubt that, as the preamble of the Accords put it, "the USSR, as a subject of international law and a geopolitical reality, is ceasing its existence."

Where was the secret meeting of the leaders?

Belarus

What was signed at the secret meeting in Balarus?

Belavezha Accords

When was the meeting held?

December 8

What was formed to replace the Soviet Union?

the Commonwealth of Independent States

What was coming to an end?

the USSR


On December 12, the Supreme Soviet of the Russian SFSR formally ratified the Belavezha Accords and renounced the 1922 Union Treaty. The Russian deputies were also recalled from the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. The legality of this action was questionable, since Soviet law did not allow a republic to unilaterally recall its deputies. However, no one in either Russia or the Kremlin objected. Any objections from the latter would have likely had no effect, since the Soviet government had effectively been rendered impotent long before December. In effect, the largest and most powerful republic had seceded from the Union. Later that day, Gorbachev hinted for the first time that he was considering stepping down.

When were the Belavezha Accords ratified?

December 12

Who ratified the Accords?

the Supreme Soviet of the Russian SFSR

Who was recalled?

Russian deputies

Who showed signs that he was considering resigning his position?

Gorbachev


Doubts remained over the authority of the Belavezha Accords to disband the Soviet Union, since they were signed by only three republics. However, on December 21, 1991, representatives of 11 of the 12 former republics – all except Georgia – signed the Alma-Ata Protocol, which confirmed the dissolution of the Union and formally established the CIS. They also "accepted" Gorbachev's resignation. While Gorbachev hadn't made any formal plans to leave the scene yet, he did tell CBS News that he would resign as soon as he saw that the CIS was indeed a reality.

Which republic did not sign the Alma-Ata Protocol?

Georgia

How many of the former republics had representatives sign the Protocol?

What did the Protocol establish?

CIS

What was dissolved by the Protocol?

Union

Which news organization did Gorbachev talk to about his resignation plans?

CBS


In a nationally televised speech early in the morning of December 25, 1991, Gorbachev resigned as president of the USSR – or, as he put it, "I hereby discontinue my activities at the post of President of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics." He declared the office extinct, and all of its powers (such as control of the nuclear arsenal) were ceded to Yeltsin. A week earlier, Gorbachev had met with Yeltsin and accepted the fait accompli of the Soviet Union's dissolution. On the same day, the Supreme Soviet of the Russian SFSR adopted a statute to change Russia's legal name from "Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic" to "Russian Federation," showing that it was now a sovereign state.

When did Gorbachev resign?

December 25, 1991

Who was given control after Gorbachev left?

Yeltsin

What was Russia's new legal name?

Russian Federation

What was the Russian Federations previous legal name?

Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic


On the night of December 25, 1991, at 7:32 p.m. Moscow time, after Gorbachev left the Kremlin, the Soviet flag was lowered for the last time, and the Russian tricolor was raised in its place, symbolically marking the end of the Soviet Union. The next day, December 26, 1991, the Council of Republics, the upper chamber of the Union's Supreme Soviet, issued a formal Declaration recognizing that the Soviet Union had ceased to exist as a state and subject of international law, and voted both itself and the Soviet Union out of existence (the other chamber of the Supreme Soviet, the Council of the Union, had been unable to work since December 12, 1991, when the recall of the Russian deputies left it without a quorum). The following day Yeltsin moved into Gorbachev's former office, though the Russian authorities had taken over the suite two days earlier. By December 31, 1991, the few remaining Soviet institutions that had not been taken over by Russia ceased operation, and individual republics assumed the central government's role.

What went down after Gorbachev departed from the Kremlin?

Soviet flag

What replaced the Soviet flag?

Russian tricolor

When did Gorbachev make his final Kremlin exit?

December 25, 1991, at 7:32 p.m. Moscow time

What was declared as having ceased to exist?

the Soviet Union

What body also stopped existing following a vote by itself to end itself?

upper chamber of the Union's Supreme Soviet,


The Alma-Ata Protocol also addressed other issues, including UN membership. Notably, Russia was authorized to assume the Soviet Union's UN membership, including its permanent seat on the Security Council. The Soviet Ambassador to the UN delivered a letter signed by Russian President Yeltsin to the UN Secretary-General dated December 24, 1991, informing him that by virtue of the Alma-Ata Protocol, Russia was the successor state to the USSR. After being circulated among the other UN member states, with no objection raised, the statement was declared accepted on the last day of the year, December 31, 1991.

Which country took over the Soviet Union's UN membership?

Russia

What made Russia the successor state to the USSR?

Alma-Ata Protocol

Who wrote the letter to the UN secretary general informing them that Russia would be replacing the USSR?

Yeltsin

What was the date on the Yeltsin letter?

December 24, 1991

When did the UN accept the statement?

December 31, 1991


On November 18, 1990, the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church enthroned Mstyslav as Patriarch of Kiev and all Ukraine during ceremonies at Saint Sophia's Cathedral. Also on November 18, Canada announced that its consul-general to Kiev would be Ukrainian-Canadian Nestor Gayowsky. On November 19, the United States announced that its consul to Kiev would be Ukrainian-American John Stepanchuk. On November 19, the chairmen of the Ukrainian and Russian parliaments, respectively, Kravchuk and Yeltsin, signed a 10-year bilateral pact. In early December 1990 the Party of Democratic Rebirth of Ukraine was founded; on December 15, the Democratic Party of Ukraine was founded.

Who was set up as Patriarch of Kiev and all Ukraine on the 18th of November?

Mstyslav

Who gave Mstyslav this title?

Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church

Who was the Canadian consul-general to Kiev?

Nestor Gayowsky

What country made John Stepanchuk its consul-general to Kiev?

United States

How long lasting was the pact between Kravchuk and Yeltsin?


According to the canonical gospels, Jesus, whom Christians believe to be the Son of God as well as the Messiah (Christ), was arrested, tried, and sentenced by Pontius Pilate to be scourged, and finally crucified by the Romans. Jesus was stripped of his clothing and offered wine mixed with gall to drink, before being crucified. He was then hung for six hours (according to Mark's Gospel) between two convicted thieves. During this time, the soldiers affixed a sign to the top of the cross stating "Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews" in three languages. They then divided his garments among them, but cast lots for his seamless robe. After Jesus' death they pierced his side with a spear to be certain that he had died. The Bible records seven statements that Jesus made while he was on the cross, as well as several supernatural events that occurred.

Who was the person that tried Jesus?

Pontius Pilate

How long was Jesus hung for?

six hours

What did the sign say on top of Jesus' cross?

Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews

What was done to make sure Jesus was dead?

they pierced his side with a spear

How many statements did Jesus make on the cross?

seven statements

Who did Pontius Pilate believe that he was?

I'm not sure.

What did soldiers do to Christians as a punishment?

I'm not sure.

What is one thing that Pilate used to drink?

I'm not sure.

What did Pilate take from Jesus after winning a bet?

I'm not sure.

How many statements did the Romans make about Christians?

I'm not sure.


The baptism of Jesus and his crucifixion are considered to be two historically certain facts about Jesus. James Dunn states that these "two facts in the life of Jesus command almost universal assent" and "rank so high on the 'almost impossible to doubt or deny' scale of historical facts" that they are often the starting points for the study of the historical Jesus. Bart Ehrman states that the crucifixion of Jesus on the orders of Pontius Pilate is the most certain element about him. John Dominic Crossan states that the crucifixion of Jesus is as certain as any historical fact can be. Eddy and Boyd state that it is now "firmly established" that there is non-Christian confirmation of the crucifixion of Jesus. Craig Blomberg states that most scholars in the third quest for the historical Jesus consider the crucifixion indisputable. Christopher M. Tuckett states that, although the exact reasons for the death of Jesus are hard to determine, one of the indisputable facts about him is that he was crucified.

What is one of the historical certain facts about Jesus?

baptism of Jesus

Do non-Christians agree that the Crucifixion happened?

the crucifixion of Jesus is as certain as any historical fact can be

Is the exact reason known that Jesus got Crucified for?

the exact reasons for the death of Jesus are hard to determine

Who said the Crucifixion of Jesus is firmly established.

Eddy

Who said the Baptism of Jesus was Univeral Assent?

James Dunn

What kind of confirmation is there about the life of Pontius Pilate?

I'm not sure.

What do Eddy and Boyd believe about Pilate and and how he shaped the life of the Jewish people?

I'm not sure.

How many trials had Pilate presided over before Jesus?

I'm not sure.

What does the crucifixion of Jesus mean for understanding the life of Pilate?

I'm not sure.

Why did Pilate decide to turn Jesus over to the Jews?

I'm not sure.


Although almost all ancient sources relating to crucifixion are literary, the 1968 archeological discovery just northeast of Jerusalem of the body of a crucified man dated to the 1st century provided good confirmatory evidence that crucifixions occurred during the Roman period roughly according to the manner in which the crucifixion of Jesus is described in the gospels. The crucified man was identified as Yehohanan ben Hagkol and probably died about 70 AD, around the time of the Jewish revolt against Rome. The analyses at the Hadassah Medical School estimated that he died in his late 20s. Another relevant archaeological find, which also dates to the 1st century AD, is an unidentified heel bone with a spike discovered in a Jerusalem gravesite, now held by the Israel Antiquities Authority and displayed in the Israel Museum.

Are all sources of the crucification literary?

almost all ancient sources relating to crucifixion are literary

What evidence was found that Crucifixion did happen?

the 1968 archeological discovery

Who was the crucified man discovered in an archaeological find?

ben Hagkol

When was Ben Hagkol crucified?

about 70 AD

What institution holds a heel bone with a spike inserted?

Israel Museum

When did the Romans first take the city of Hagkol?

I'm not sure.

What year was the Israel Museum established?

I'm not sure.

What discovery was made northeast of the city of Hagkol?

I'm not sure.

What was the average age of Roman soldiers?

I'm not sure.

What did the Romans keep as a deterrent to others who would revolt?

I'm not sure.


The earliest detailed accounts of the death of Jesus are contained in the four canonical gospels. There are other, more implicit references in the New Testament epistles. In the synoptic gospels, Jesus predicts his death in three separate episodes. All four Gospels conclude with an extended narrative of Jesus' arrest, trial, crucifixion, burial, and accounts of resurrection. In each Gospel these five events in the life of Jesus are treated with more intense detail than any other portion of that Gospel's narrative. Scholars note that the reader receives an almost hour-by-hour account of what is happening.:p.91

What holds the records of the death of Jesus?

four canonical gospels

What part of the Bible references the death of Jesus?

New Testament epistles

How many times did Jesus predict his own death?

three

What part of Jesus' life is detailed in these gospels?

Jesus' arrest, trial, crucifixion, burial, and accounts of resurrection

How detailed is the description of Jesus' death?

hour-by-hour account

What part of the Bible was written later than the Old Testament?

I'm not sure.

How many scholars did it take to translate the New Testament?

I'm not sure.

How quickly were scholars able to interpret and translate the Bible?

I'm not sure.

What do scholars have to overcome when meeting bias about discussing Jesus?

I'm not sure.

How did scholars treat the Bible when trying to accurately translate it?

I'm not sure.


Combining statements in the canonical Gospels produces the following account: Jesus was arrested in Gethsemane following the Last Supper with the Twelve Apostles, and then stood trial before the Sanhedrin (a Jewish judicial body), Pontius Pilate (a Roman authority in Judaea), and Herod Antipas (king of Judea, appointed by Rome), before being handed over for crucifixion by the chief priests of the Jews. After being flogged, Jesus was mocked by Roman soldiers as the "King of the Jews", clothed in a purple robe, crowned with thorns, beaten and spat on. Jesus then had to make his way to the place of his crucifixion.

Where was Jesus arrested?

Gethsemane

What did Jesus do before he was arrested?

the Last Supper

How many Apostles were there at the Last Supper?

Twelve Apostles

How was Jesus tortured before he was crucified?

flogged

What was placed on Jesus' head?

crowned with thorns

What city was the Sanhedrin located in?

I'm not sure.

Who appointed the Sanhedrin to office to form a judicial body?

I'm not sure.

In front of what judicial body did the twelve apostles stand trial?

I'm not sure.

What group handed the twelve apostles over for crucifixion?

I'm not sure.

What was a punishment given to the twelve apostles?

I'm not sure.


Once at Golgotha, Jesus was offered wine mixed with gall to drink. Matthew's and Mark's Gospels record that he refused this. He was then crucified and hung between two convicted thieves. According to some translations from the original Greek, the thieves may have been bandits or Jewish rebels. According to Mark's Gospel, he endured the torment of crucifixion for some six hours from the third hour, at approximately 9 am, until his death at the ninth hour, corresponding to about 3 pm. The soldiers affixed a sign above his head stating "Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews" in three languages, divided his garments and cast lots for his seamless robe. The Roman soldiers did not break Jesus' legs, as they did to the other two men crucified (breaking the legs hastened the crucifixion process), as Jesus was dead already. Each gospel has its own account of Jesus' last words, seven statements altogether. In the Synoptic Gospels, various supernatural events accompany the crucifixion, including darkness, an earthquake, and (in Matthew) the resurrection of saints. Following Jesus' death, his body was removed from the cross by Joseph of Arimathea and buried in a rock-hewn tomb, with Nicodemus assisting.

What was Jesus offered to drink after his arrest?

wine mixed with gall

How many hours did Jesus endure Crucifixion?

six hours

How many accounts are there of Jesus' last words?

seven statements altogether

Who removed Jesus from the cross?

Joseph of Arimathea

What was offered to the two thieves to drink?

I'm not sure.

Did the two thieves drink the wine or refuse it?

I'm not sure.

How many statements did the two thieves make after being crucified?

I'm not sure.

Where were the two thieves buried after they died from crucifixion?

I'm not sure.

Who was related to the two thieves that were crucified?

I'm not sure.


There are several details that are only found in one of the gospel accounts. For instance, only Matthew's gospel mentions an earthquake, resurrected saints who went to the city and that Roman soldiers were assigned to guard the tomb, while Mark is the only one to state the actual time of the crucifixion (the third hour, or 9 am) and the centurion's report of Jesus' death. The Gospel of Luke's unique contributions to the narrative include Jesus' words to the women who were mourning, one criminal's rebuke of the other, the reaction of the multitudes who left "beating their breasts", and the women preparing spices and ointments before resting on the Sabbath. John is also the only one to refer to the request that the legs be broken and the soldier's subsequent piercing of Jesus' side (as fulfillment of Old Testament prophecy), as well as that Nicodemus assisted Joseph with burial.

What detail of Jesus's Crucifiction was only found in Matthew's Gospel?

an earthquake

Which gospel mentioned the time of Crucifiction?

Mark

Who did Jesus talk to in the Gospel of Luke?

words to the women who were mourning

What gospel talks about breaking Jesus' legs?

John

What prophecy was fulfilled by the piercing of Jesus' side?

Old Testament prophecy

What time did the Romans decide to guard the tomb of Jesus?

I'm not sure.

Who did the Roman soldiers speak to when they were in mourning?

I'm not sure.

What did one Roman soldier do to chastise the other?

I'm not sure.

What did the Roman soldiers do to celebrate their victory?

I'm not sure.

What did the Romans use when one of their soldiers had an injury?

I'm not sure.


According to the First Epistle to the Corinthians (1 Cor. 15:4), Jesus was raised from the dead ("on the third day" counting the day of crucifixion as the first) and according to the canonical Gospels, appeared to his disciples on different occasions before ascending to heaven. The account given in Acts of the Apostles, which says Jesus remained with the apostles for forty days, appears to differ from the account in the Gospel of Luke, which makes no clear distinction between the events of Easter Sunday and the Ascension. However, most biblical scholars agree that St. Luke also wrote the Acts of the Apostles as a follow-up volume to his Gospel account, and the two works must be considered as a whole.

Which Epistle details the raising of Jesus?

First Epistle to the Corinthians

Which writing detailed Jesus' appearance before ascension?

canonical Gospels

How long did Jesus stay with the Apostles per the Acts of the Apostles?

forty days

What day is accounted in the Gospel of Luke as the ascension?

Easter Sunday

Who wrote both accounts of the Crucifixion and ascension?

St. Luke

Where did St. Luke go after he died?

I'm not sure.

How many days had Luke been an apostle?

I'm not sure.

How many people saw Jesus when he was first seen after his crucifixion?

I'm not sure.

Who was the first apostle to see Jesus afte he was raised from the dead?

I'm not sure.

How often do scholars need to revise what they have written about the Bible?

I'm not sure.


In Mark, Jesus is crucified along with two rebels, and the day goes dark for three hours. Jesus calls out to God, then gives a shout and dies. The curtain of the Temple is torn in two. Matthew follows Mark, adding an earthquake and the resurrection of saints. Luke also follows Mark, though he describes the rebels as common criminals, one of whom defends Jesus, who in turn promises that he (Jesus) and the criminal will be together in paradise. Luke portrays Jesus as impassive in the face of his crucifixion. John includes several of the same elements as those found in Mark, though they are treated differently.

Who was crucified with Jesus per Mark?

two rebels

How does Mark say Jesus' life ends?

Jesus calls out to God, then gives a shout and dies

what natural disaster is mention when Jesus died?

an earthquake

What does Luke say one of the rebels does?

promises that he (Jesus) and the criminal will be together in paradise

How does Luke make Jesus seem at his Crucifixion?

impassive

How long were the two rebels hanging on crosses?

I'm not sure.

How was one criminal treated when crucified compared to the other?

I'm not sure.

What did one of the criminals do before he died from being crucified?

I'm not sure.

What happened to the clothes one of the criminals was wearing?

I'm not sure.

How did the criminals react to their own crucifixion?

I'm not sure.


An early non-Christian reference to the crucifixion of Jesus is likely to be Mara Bar-Serapion's letter to his son, written sometime after AD 73 but before the 3rd century AD. The letter includes no Christian themes and the author is presumed to be a pagan. The letter refers to the retributions that followed the unjust treatment of three wise men: Socrates, Pythagoras, and "the wise king" of the Jews. Some scholars see little doubt that the reference to the execution of the "king of the Jews" is about the crucifixion of Jesus, while others place less value in the letter, given the possible ambiguity in the reference.

Where can an early non-Christian reference be found to the Crucifixion?

Mara Bar-Serapion's letter to his son

What is the author of the letter assumed to be?

pagan

What does the letter reference?

retributions that followed the unjust treatment of three wise men

Other than Jesus, who was one of the wisemen?

Socrates

Does everyone agree with the content of the letter?

others place less value in the letter

Who did Socrates write a letter to about the crucifixion?

I'm not sure.

When did Socrates write a letter to his son about the crucifixion?

I'm not sure.

What religion is Socrates presumed to follow?

I'm not sure.

Who was Socrates referring to in his letter according to Pythagoras?

I'm not sure.

How much value did Pythagoras place in the crucifixion?

I'm not sure.


The consensus of modern scholarship is that the New Testament accounts represent a crucifixion occurring on a Friday, but a Thursday or Wednesday crucifixion have also been proposed. Some scholars explain a Thursday crucifixion based on a "double sabbath" caused by an extra Passover sabbath falling on Thursday dusk to Friday afternoon, ahead of the normal weekly Sabbath. Some have argued that Jesus was crucified on Wednesday, not Friday, on the grounds of the mention of "three days and three nights" in Matthew before his resurrection, celebrated on Sunday. Others have countered by saying that this ignores the Jewish idiom by which a "day and night" may refer to any part of a 24-hour period, that the expression in Matthew is idiomatic, not a statement that Jesus was 72 hours in the tomb, and that the many references to a resurrection on the third day do not require three literal nights.

What day is presumed the Crucifixion happened?

Friday

Why do some scholars propose a Thursday is possible?

a "double sabbath" caused by an extra Passover sabbath

Why do some other scholars argue that it happened on a Wednesday?

on the grounds of the mention of "three days and three nights" in Matthew

How long was Jesus said to be in the tomb?

three days and three nights

Was Jesus in the tomb exactly 72 hours?

references to a resurrection on the third day do not require three literal nights

On what day is it thought the first part of the New Testament was written?

I'm not sure.

What other two days could the New Testament could have been written?

I'm not sure.

Why would some scholars believe the beginning of the New Testament was written on Thursday?

I'm not sure.

What other day is believed the first part of the New Testament was written on instead of Friday?

I'm not sure.

During what period was the beginning of the New Testament written?

I'm not sure.


In Mark 15:25 crucifixion takes place at the third hour (9 a.m.) and Jesus' death at the ninth hour (3 p.m.). However, in John 19:14 Jesus is still before Pilate at the sixth hour. Scholars have presented a number of arguments to deal with the issue, some suggesting a reconciliation, e.g., based on the use of Roman timekeeping in John but not in Mark, yet others have rejected the arguments. Several notable scholars have argued that the modern precision of marking the time of day should not be read back into the gospel accounts, written at a time when no standardization of timepieces, or exact recording of hours and minutes was available, and time was often approximated to the closest three-hour period.

What time was the crucifiction per Mark?

9 a.m.

What time did Jesus die per Mark?

3 p.m.

Why do scholars say the times are different depending on the gospel it's written in?

based on the use of Roman timekeeping in John but not in Mark

What is another reason the times differ so much?

no standardization of timepieces, or exact recording of hours and minutes was available

How close was time guessed in the day of the Gospels?

approximated to the closest three-hour period

What time did Pilate hold court in the morning?

I'm not sure.

What did Pilate call for to make it easier to tell time?

I'm not sure.

During what time period was Pilate avaliable to be seen?

I'm not sure.

What did Pilate want with the Roman empire?

I'm not sure.

What was rejected by Rome when Pilate brought reconciliation to the table?

I'm not sure.


Luke's gospel also describes an interaction between Jesus and the women among the crowd of mourners following him, quoting Jesus as saying "Daughters of Jerusalem, do not weep for me, but weep for yourselves and for your children. For behold, the days are coming when they will say, 'Blessed are the barren and the wombs that never bore and the breasts that never nursed!' Then they will begin to say to the mountains, 'Fall on us,' and to the hills, 'Cover us.' For if they do these things when the wood is green, what will happen when it is dry?"[Lk. 23:28-31]

Who described an interaction between Jesus on the cross and women?

Luke's gospel

What did Jesus say to women in the crowd?

do not weep for me

Where are the words found in the Gospel?

Lk. 23:28-31

What followed Jesus around?

crowd of mourners

What was the ground like where Jesus was crucified?

I'm not sure.

What did the women gather to keep themselves warm?

I'm not sure.

What color did some women in Jerusalem like to wear?

I'm not sure.

What did Jesus do when he felt sorrow for Jerusalem?

I'm not sure.

What high area is usually green when new grass grows?

I'm not sure.


Calvary as an English name for the place is derived from the Latin word for skull (calvaria), which is used in the Vulgate translation of "place of a skull", the explanation given in all four Gospels of the Aramaic word Gûlgaltâ which was the name of the place where Jesus was crucified. The text does not indicate why it was so designated, but several theories have been put forward. One is that as a place of public execution, Calvary may have been strewn with the skulls of abandoned victims (which would be contrary to Jewish burial traditions, but not Roman). Another is that Calvary is named after a nearby cemetery (which is consistent with both of the proposed modern sites). A third is that the name was derived from the physical contour, which would be more consistent with the singular use of the word, i.e., the place of "a skull". While often referred to as "Mount Calvary", it was more likely a small hill or rocky knoll.

Where was Jesus Crucified?

Calvary

Where was the location of the Crucifixion detailed?

all four Gospels

What was one reason Calvary was chosen?

a place of public execution

What is rumored to be found in Calvary?

skulls of abandoned victims

What is a reason the place was called Calvary?

the name was derived from the physical contour

What language did most Romans know how to speak?

I'm not sure.

Where did the Romans usually speak Aramaic?

I'm not sure.

What did Romans do with Aramaic after they began speaking Latin?

I'm not sure.

On top of what formation was the Roman empire located?

I'm not sure.

What type of punishment did most people suffer who were buried in a nearby cemetery?

I'm not sure.


The Gospel of Matthew describes many women at the crucifixion, some of whom are named in the Gospels. Apart from these women, the three Synoptic Gospels speak of the presence of others: "the chief priests, with the scribes and elders"; two robbers crucified, one on Jesus' right and one on his left, whom the Gospel of Luke presents as the penitent thief and the impenitent thief; "the soldiers", "the centurion and those who were with him, keeping watch over Jesus"; passers-by; "bystanders", "the crowds that had assembled for this spectacle"; and "his acquaintances"

Matthew described that who was present at the Crucifixion?

many women

The three gospels speak of the presence of which priests?

the chief priests

How many people were crucified with Jesus?

two robbers crucified, one on Jesus' right and one on his left

Who kept watch over Jesus?

the soldiers

Name one other group present at the Crucifixion?

acquaintances

Who were the women keeping watch over according to his acquanitances?

I'm not sure.

How many acquaintances are named in the Gospels?

I'm not sure.

What had the scribes and elders been assembled for according to the women?

I'm not sure.

Where were the elders standing when Jesus was crucified?

I'm not sure.

What was the attidude of the scribes when watching the crucifixion?

I'm not sure.


Whereas most Christians believe the gibbet on which Jesus was executed was the traditional two-beamed cross, the Jehovah's Witnesses hold the view that a single upright stake was used. The Greek and Latin words used in the earliest Christian writings are ambiguous. The Koine Greek terms used in the New Testament are stauros (σταυρός) and xylon (ξύλον). The latter means wood (a live tree, timber or an object constructed of wood); in earlier forms of Greek, the former term meant an upright stake or pole, but in Koine Greek it was used also to mean a cross. The Latin word crux was also applied to objects other than a cross.

What kind of cross is generally believed that Jesus was crucified on?

traditional two-beamed cross

What cross do Jehovah Witnesses claim Jesus was crucified on?

single upright stake

What causes the different accounts of the cross used?

The Greek and Latin words used in the earliest Christian writings are ambiguous

What latin word was used to describe the cross used?

crux

Why was there doubt about the Latin word?

crux was also applied to objects other than a cross

What terms did Jehovah's Witnesses use to describe a cross?

I'm not sure.

What is the definition of koine?

I'm not sure.

What objects were the word gibbet also applied to?

I'm not sure.

What is the nature of the words Jehovah's Witnesses use to describe wood?

I'm not sure.

What language did Jehovah's Witnesses base their religious writings on?

I'm not sure.


However, early Christian writers who speak of the shape of the particular gibbet on which Jesus died invariably describe it as having a cross-beam. For instance, the Epistle of Barnabas, which was certainly earlier than 135, and may have been of the 1st century AD, the time when the gospel accounts of the death of Jesus were written, likened it to the letter T (the Greek letter tau, which had the numeric value of 300), and to the position assumed by Moses in Exodus 17:11–12. Justin Martyr (100–165) explicitly says the cross of Christ was of two-beam shape: "That lamb which was commanded to be wholly roasted was a symbol of the suffering of the cross which Christ would undergo. For the lamb, which is roasted, is roasted and dressed up in the form of the cross. For one spit is transfixed right through from the lower parts up to the head, and one across the back, to which are attached the legs of the lamb." Irenaeus, who died around the end of the 2nd century, speaks of the cross as having "five extremities, two in length, two in breadth, and one in the middle, on which [last] the person rests who is fixed by the nails."

What Epistle described the cross?

Epistle of Barnabas

Who says with certainty that the cross was made out of two beams?

Justin Martyr

Why was that type of cross important?

a symbol of the suffering

How many ends did the cross supposedly have?

five extremities

How is one attached to the cross?

fixed by the nails

In what year was Barnabas born?

I'm not sure.

What numeric value did the significance of the lamb have?

I'm not sure.

For how long was the Greek alphabet used?

I'm not sure.

What did Barnabas use to build a cross with?

I'm not sure.

How many times had Irenaeus seen a roasted lamb?

I'm not sure.


The assumption of the use of a two-beamed cross does not determine the number of nails used in the crucifixion and some theories suggest three nails while others suggest four nails. However, throughout history larger numbers of nails have been hypothesized, at times as high as 14 nails. These variations are also present in the artistic depictions of the crucifixion. In the Western Church, before the Renaissance usually four nails would be depicted, with the feet side by side. After the Renaissance most depictions use three nails, with one foot placed on the other. Nails are almost always depicted in art, although Romans sometimes just tied the victims to the cross. The tradition also carries to Christian emblems, e.g. the Jesuits use three nails under the IHS monogram and a cross to symbolize the crucifixion.

How many nails were suggested they used for the crucifixion?

three nails

According to some sources, what is theorized to be the maximum nails used?

14 nails

What adds to the confusion of the number of nails used?

artistic depictions of the crucifixion

What do all artworks have in common regarding the crucifixion?

Nails are almost always depicted

Jesuits claim how many nails were used?

three nails

How many paintings have been made about the crucifixion?

I'm not sure.

Before the Renaissance where did Jesuits usually place their art?

I'm not sure.

What artistic medium was appreciated by Romans?

I'm not sure.

There were 14 western churches before what period?

I'm not sure.

What are Romans usually depicted in?

I'm not sure.


The placing of the nails in the hands, or the wrists is also uncertain. Some theories suggest that the Greek word cheir (χειρ) for hand includes the wrist and that the Romans were generally trained to place nails through Destot's space (between the capitate and lunate bones) without fracturing any bones. Another theory suggests that the Greek word for hand also includes the forearm and that the nails were placed near the radius and ulna of the forearm. Ropes may have also been used to fasten the hands in addition to the use of nails.

Where were the nails placed?

the hands, or the wrists

Who claims the hands were pierced?

the Greek

The Romans tried to affix by avoiding what?

without fracturing any bones

What other location is offered by the Greek?

forearm

What other way to affix to the cross is there?

Ropes

Do theories say if Destot's bones were fractured?

I'm not sure.

What bones are the radius and ulna located between?

I'm not sure.

What did Destot use instead of nails to avoid fracturing bones?

I'm not sure.

What was the nationality of Destot?

I'm not sure.

What other location does Destot believe was used for crucifixion?

I'm not sure.


Another issue has been the use of a hypopodium as a standing platform to support the feet, given that the hands may not have been able to support the weight. In the 17th century Rasmus Bartholin considered a number of analytical scenarios of that topic. In the 20th century, forensic pathologist Frederick Zugibe performed a number of crucifixion experiments by using ropes to hang human subjects at various angles and hand positions. His experiments support an angled suspension, and a two-beamed cross, and perhaps some form of foot support, given that in an Aufbinden form of suspension from a straight stake (as used by the Nazis in the Dachau concentration camp during World War II), death comes rather quickly.

What was said to be used as a platform for crucifixion?

a hypopodium

Why was a platform used?

the hands may not have been able to support the weight

Who considered this topic in the 17th century?

Rasmus Bartholin

Who performed crucifixion experiments in the 20th century to test theories?

Frederick Zugibe

Who also used suspension as a form of punishment?

Nazis

In what century did Rasmos Bartholin perform crucifixion experiments?

I'm not sure.

What was the occupation of Rasmus Bartholin?

I'm not sure.

What was an aufbinden used for to support the feet in crucifixion?

I'm not sure.

Who did Bartholin hang in his experiments on crucifixion in the 20th century?

I'm not sure.

What did Bartholin use to hang human subjects during crucifixion experiments?

I'm not sure.


The only words of Jesus on the cross in the Mark and Matthew accounts, this is a quotation of Psalm 22. Since other verses of the same Psalm are cited in the crucifixion accounts, it is often considered a literary and theological creation. Geza Vermes, however, points out that the verse is cited in Aramaic rather than the Hebrew in which it usually would have been recited, and suggests that by the time of Jesus, this phrase had become a proverbial saying in common usage. Compared to the accounts in the other Gospels, which he describes as 'theologically correct and reassuring', he considers this phrase 'unexpected, disquieting and in consequence more probable'. He describes it as bearing 'all the appearances of a genuine cry'. Raymond Brown likewise comments that he finds 'no persuasive argument against attributing to the Jesus of Mark/Matt the literal sentiment of feeling forsaken expressed in the Psalm quote'.

What Psalm gives the words of Jesus on the cross?

Psalm 22

What contradiction is found in this Psalm?

verse is cited in Aramaic rather than the Hebrew

What was the psalm said to be in Jesus' time?

a proverbial saying in common usage

How do the other gospels describe Jesus' last words?

theologically correct and reassuring

How does the sentence appear to historians?

a genuine cry

What kind of writing did Geza Vermes usually produce?

I'm not sure.

What language did Geza Vermes study while in school?

I'm not sure.

What language was learned by Geza Vermes when he was a child?

I'm not sure.

How did Raymond Brown describe the effect Jesus had on society?

I'm not sure.

Does Geza Vermes believe that there is a valid argument against the existence of Jesus?

I'm not sure.


Some Christian writers considered the possibility that pagan commentators may have mentioned this event, mistaking it for a solar eclipse - although this would have been impossible during the Passover, which takes place at the full moon. Christian traveller and historian Sextus Julius Africanus and Christian theologian Origen refer to Greek historian Phlegon, who lived in the 2nd century AD, as having written "with regard to the eclipse in the time of Tiberius Caesar, in whose reign Jesus appears to have been crucified, and the great earthquakes which then took place"

As what was the event mistaken by some pagans?

a solar eclipse

Why was a solar eclipse impossible?

the full moon

Which Greek historian wrote about these natural occurrences?

Greek historian Phlegon

Who reigned Rome during the Crucifixion of Jesus?

Tiberius Caesar

What other event supposedly took place that shook people?

earthquakes

In what year was the first known solar eclipse?

I'm not sure.

During what event was Phlegon born?

I'm not sure.

What Jewish feast day was first celebrated in the 2nd century AD?

I'm not sure.

What did Origen believe he witnessed when he wrote about it in the 2nd century AD?

I'm not sure.

During who's rule did Origen write about an eclipse?

I'm not sure.


Sextus Julius Africanus further refers to the writings of historian Thallus: "This darkness Thallus, in the third book of his History, calls, as appears to me without reason, an eclipse of the sun. For the Hebrews celebrate the passover on the 14th day according to the moon, and the passion of our Saviour falls on the day before the passover; but an eclipse of the sun takes place only when the moon comes under the sun." Christian apologist Tertullian believed the event was documented in the Roman archives.

Which historian was referenced for the reports?

Thallus

What event did Thallus describe?

an eclipse of the sun

What day do Hebrews celebrate Passover?

the 14th day

When does the passion of Jesus fall?

the day before the passover

Where were these events documented?

the Roman archives

For how many years had the Romans kept archives?

I'm not sure.

Where did Africanus believe that the recording of the date of Passover was documented?

I'm not sure.

What was the occupation of Africanus?

I'm not sure.

His book of History was Tertullian's what in a series of books written?

I'm not sure.

When did the Romans begin their rule of Jerusalem?

I'm not sure.


Colin Humphreys and W. G. Waddington of Oxford University considered the possibility that a lunar, rather than solar, eclipse might have taken place. They concluded that such an eclipse would have been visible, for thirty minutes, from Jerusalem and suggested the gospel reference to a solar eclipse was the result of a scribe wrongly amending a text. Historian David Henige dismisses this explanation as 'indefensible' and astronomer Bradley Schaefer points out that the lunar eclipse would not have been visible during daylight hours.

What is recently considered the type of eclipse that occurred?

lunar

How long would a lunar eclipse be visible?

thirty minutes

What person possibly made a mistake while copying text?

a scribe wrongly amending a text

Which historian says this opinion is indefensible?

David Henige

What inconsistency would be found in this explanation?

the lunar eclipse would not have been visible during daylight hours

What university is David Henige employed by?

I'm not sure.

What event did David Henige believe might have happened instead of a solar eclipse?

I'm not sure.

For how many minutes did David Henige belive the lunar eclipse would be visible?

I'm not sure.

What city was Henige originally from?

I'm not sure.

What does Colin Humphreys dismiss the explanation as?

I'm not sure.


Modern biblical scholarship treats the account in the synoptic gospels as a literary creation by the author of the Mark Gospel, amended in the Luke and Matthew accounts, intended to heighten the importance of what they saw as a theologically significant event, and not intended to be taken literally. This image of darkness over the land would have been understood by ancient readers, a typical element in the description of the death of kings and other major figures by writers such as Philo, Dio Cassius, Virgil, Plutarch and Josephus. Géza Vermes describes the darkness account as typical of "Jewish eschatological imagery of the day of the Lord", and says that those interpreting it as a datable eclipse are "barking up the wrong tree".

Who created the account of Jesus?

author of the Mark Gospel

Who amended the account at a later date?

Luke

What prompts darkness over the land in old literary works?

the death of kings and other major figures

What ethnicity are these literary works mostly?

Jewish

Who describes the idea of an eclipse as totally wrong?

Géza Vermes

What does Philo believe those who take the image of darkness literally are doing?

I'm not sure.

What prompted Philo to become a writer?

I'm not sure.

What did Philo not intend to happen after someone read his writings?

I'm not sure.

What nationality was Dio Cassius?

I'm not sure.

What group of readers would have read works by Geza Vermes?

I'm not sure.


In his book The Crucifixion of Jesus, physician and forensic pathologist Frederick Zugibe studied the likely circumstances of the death of Jesus in great detail. Zugibe carried out a number of experiments over several years to test his theories while he was a medical examiner. These studies included experiments in which volunteers with specific weights were hanging at specific angles and the amount of pull on each hand was measured, in cases where the feet were also secured or not. In these cases the amount of pull and the corresponding pain was found to be significant.

Who wrote The Crucifixion of Jesus?

Frederick Zugibe

What did Frederick Zugibe study in detail for this book?

the likely circumstances of the death of Jesus

How did Zugibe try to prove his theories?

carried out a number of experiments over several years

What kind of experiments did Zugibe run?

experiments in which volunteers with specific weights were hanging

What specifics were recorded in his experiments?

amount of pull and the corresponding pain

What book was written by volunteers?

I'm not sure.

What did volunteers study to write the book about Jesus' crucifixion?

I'm not sure.

How did volunteers study how Jesus died?

I'm not sure.

In what way did volunteers hang Zugibe during the experiments?

I'm not sure.

What did volunteers find increased in Zugibe depending on if his feet were secured?

I'm not sure.


Christians believe that Jesus’ death was instrumental in restoring humankind to relationship with God. Christians believe that through faith in Jesus’ substitutionary death and triumphant resurrection people are reunited with God and receive new joy and power in this life as well as eternal life in heaven after the body’s death. Thus the crucifixion of Jesus along with his resurrection restores access to a vibrant experience of God’s presence, love and grace as well as the confidence of eternal life.

What do Christians believe regarding Jesus' death?

instrumental in restoring humankind to relationship with God

How are people united with God?

through faith in Jesus’ substitutionary death

What specific fact do Christians believe about death?

eternal life in heaven after the body’s death

Jesus's Resurrection fills believer with what?

confidence of eternal life

What feeling usually fills a believer regarding the resurrection?

joy

What is one thing people need to have to gain employment?

I'm not sure.

What kind of music do Christians often have during church service?

I'm not sure.

Who do Christians believe created the universe?

I'm not sure.

What is one thing that people are afraid of?

I'm not sure.

What is one thing you need to have in your house to see at night?

I'm not sure.


In Johannine "agent Christology" the submission of Jesus to crucifixion is a sacrifice made as an agent of God or servant of God, for the sake of eventual victory. This builds on the salvific theme of the Gospel of John which begins in John 1:29 with John the Baptist's proclamation: "The Lamb of God who takes away the sins of the world". Further reinforcement of the concept is provided in Revelation 21:14 where the "lamb slain but standing" is the only one worthy of handling the scroll (i.e. the book) containing the names of those who are to be saved.

What book details the submission of Jesus to being crucified?

agent Christology

Why did Jesus accept Crucifixion.

sake of eventual victory

What theme is central is the Gospel of John in resurrection?

salvific theme

How is Resurrection detailed in the book of Revelations?

lamb slain but standing

What is another name for Jesus given?

The Lamb of God

Why did Johannine accept who would be saved?

I'm not sure.

What book was written by John the Baptist?

I'm not sure.

What sacrifice did John the Baptist make as an agent of?

I'm not sure.

What did John the Baptist want to take away?

I'm not sure.

What did Johannine believe he was not?

I'm not sure.


Paul's Christology has a specific focus on the death and resurrection of Jesus. For Paul, the crucifixion of Jesus is directly related to his resurrection and the term "the cross of Christ" used in Galatians 6:12 may be viewed as his abbreviation of the message of the gospels. For Paul, the crucifixion of Jesus was not an isolated event in history, but a cosmic event with significant eschatological consequences, as in 1 Corinthians 2:8. In the Pauline view, Jesus, obedient to the point of death (Philippians 2:8) died "at the right time" (Romans 4:25) based on the plan of God. For Paul the "power of the cross" is not separable from the Resurrection of Jesus.

Who's Christology focuses on the death and Resurrection?

Paul's Christology

How is the crucifixion related to the resurrection per Paul?

directly related

What term does Paul use for the Gospels?

the cross of Christ

Paul claims the Resurrection was needed for what reason?

based on the plan of God

How does Paul view the Resurrection of Jesus?

power of the cross

At what time is it believed Paul wrote 1 Corinthians?

I'm not sure.

By what plan did Paul write some of the Gospels?

I'm not sure.

When have cosmic events usually happened?

I'm not sure.

What is the birth of Jesus thought to be in history?

I'm not sure.

Why is it believed that Paul was born?

I'm not sure.


John Calvin supported the "agent of God" Christology and argued that in his trial in Pilate's Court Jesus could have successfully argued for his innocence, but instead submitted to crucifixion in obedience to the Father. This Christological theme continued into the 20th century, both in the Eastern and Western Churches. In the Eastern Church Sergei Bulgakov argued that the crucifixion of Jesus was "pre-eternally" determined by the Father before the creation of the world, to redeem humanity from the disgrace caused by the fall of Adam. In the Western Church, Karl Rahner elaborated on the analogy that the blood of the Lamb of God (and the water from the side of Jesus) shed at the crucifixion had a cleansing nature, similar to baptismal water.

What did John Calvin claim Jesus could have done?

successfully argued for his innocence

Why did Jesus submit to crucifixion?

obedience to the Father

The Eastern Church believes what regarding the death and ressurection?

"pre-eternally" determined by the Father

What did Jesus's death accomplish per the Eastern Church?

redeem humanity from the disgrace caused by the fall of Adam

What is the blood of the lamb?

had a cleansing nature, similar to baptismal water

What kind of Christology was supported by Karl Rahner?

I'm not sure.

What did Karl Rahner believe Jesus could have successfully argued for?

I'm not sure.

According to Rahner how did Jesus submit during his trial?

I'm not sure.

How did John Calvin believe the crucifixion was determined?

I'm not sure.

What was the blood of Jesus similar to according to John Calvin?

I'm not sure.


Jesus' death and resurrection underpin a variety of theological interpretations as to how salvation is granted to humanity. These interpretations vary widely in how much emphasis they place on the death of Jesus as compared to his words. According to the substitutionary atonement view, Jesus' death is of central importance, and Jesus willingly sacrificed himself as an act of perfect obedience as a sacrifice of love which pleased God. By contrast the moral influence theory of atonement focuses much more on the moral content of Jesus' teaching, and sees Jesus' death as a martyrdom. Since the Middle Ages there has been conflict between these two views within Western Christianity. Evangelical Protestants typically hold a substitutionary view and in particular hold to the theory of penal substitution. Liberal Protestants typically reject substitutionary atonement and hold to the moral influence theory of atonement. Both views are popular within the Roman Catholic church, with the satisfaction doctrine incorporated into the idea of penance.

What does Jesus' death and Resurrection support?

how salvation is granted to humanity

How important is Jesus' death to modern theology?

central importance

Did Jesus sacrifice himself without fighting?

Jesus willingly sacrificed himself

Why did Jesus sacrifice himself?

an act of perfect obedience

What church is the sacrifice important to?

the Roman Catholic church

According to the moral influence theory, Jesus death is how important?

I'm not sure.

What kind of obedience do those believe in moral influence theory believe Jesus went to his death in?

I'm not sure.

What do moral influence theorists believe God thought of Jesus's sacrifice?

I'm not sure.

Since what period in time has the Roman Catholic Church existed?

I'm not sure.

What kind of substitution do moral influence theorists believe Jesus's death particularly was?

I'm not sure.


The presence of the Virgin Mary under the cross[Jn. 19:26-27] has in itself been the subject of Marian art, and well known Catholic symbolism such as the Miraculous Medal and Pope John Paul II's Coat of Arms bearing a Marian Cross. And a number of Marian devotions also involve the presence of the Virgin Mary in Calvary, e.g., Pope John Paul II stated that "Mary was united to Jesus on the Cross". Well known works of Christian art by masters such as Raphael (e.g., the Mond Crucifixion), and Caravaggio (e.g., his Entombment) depict the Virgin Mary as part of the crucifixion scene.

Who was present under the cross?

Virgin Mary

What symbol is popular in Marian Art?

Marian Cross

Which pope claims Mary was present at Jesus' Crucifixion?

Pope John Paul II

Who painted the Mond Crucifixion.

Raphael

Who was responsible for the art names "His Entombment"?

Caravaggio

What kind of medal did Raphael put in one of his paintings?

I'm not sure.

What pope did Caravaggio crate a portrait of?

I'm not sure.

What was Pope John Paul II wearing in his portrait?

I'm not sure.

Who did Caravaggio believe Mary was united to on the cross?

I'm not sure.

What famous artist worked for Pope John Paul II?

I'm not sure.


However, not all highest courts are named as such. Civil law states do not tend to have singular highest courts. Additionally, the highest court in some jurisdictions is not named the "Supreme Court", for example, the High Court of Australia; this is because decisions by the High Court could formerly be appealed to the Privy Council. On the other hand, in some places the court named the "Supreme Court" is not in fact the highest court; examples include the New York Supreme Court, the Supreme Courts of several Canadian provinces/territories and the former Supreme Court of Judicature of England and Wales, which are all superseded by higher Courts of Appeal.

What kinds of governed nations may not have a specific, individual high court?

Civil law states

What is an example of a highest court not being specifically called a Supreme Court?

the High Court of Australia

To which body can decisions made by this specific high court be appealed?

the Privy Council

What Canadian courts also are not specifically the highest courts in that country?

the Supreme Courts of several Canadian provinces/territories

What is the highest court in all jurisdictions named?

I'm not sure.

What do civil law states tend to have?

I'm not sure.

Where can decisions from the Privy Council be appealed to?

I'm not sure.

What is the Courts of Appeal superseded by in England?

I'm not sure.


Some countries have multiple "supreme courts" whose respective jurisdictions have different geographical extents, or which are restricted to particular areas of law. In particular, countries with a federal system of government typically[citation needed] have both a federal supreme court (such as the Supreme Court of the United States), and supreme courts for each member state (such as the Supreme Court of Nevada), with the former having jurisdiction over the latter only to the extent that the federal constitution extends federal law over state law. Jurisdictions with a civil law system often have a hierarchy of administrative courts separate from the ordinary courts, headed by a supreme administrative court as it the case in the Netherlands. A number of jurisdictions also maintain a separate constitutional court (first developed in the Czechoslovak Constitution of 1920), such as Austria, France, Germany, Luxemburg, Portugal, Spain and South Africa.

Countries with more than one supreme court may divide their primacy by what factors?

different geographical extents, or which are restricted to particular areas of law

What is an example of the highest court in a federal system of government?

the Supreme Court of the United States

What are some countries that have a separate supreme court to decide constitutional matters?

Austria, France, Germany, Luxemburg, Portugal, Spain and South Africa

A court system with a hierarchy of different administrative courts occurs in what kind of legal system?

a civil law system

How are some of the "federal court" jurisdictions divided?

I'm not sure.

What types of supreme courts to countries with a civil system of government have?

I'm not sure.

What document was written in 1902?

I'm not sure.

What do jurisdictions with a federal law system often have?

I'm not sure.


In jurisdictions using a common law system, the doctrine of stare decisis applies, whereby the principles applied by the supreme court in its decisions are binding upon all lower courts; this is intended to apply a uniform interpretation and implementation of the law. In civil law jurisdictions the doctrine of stare decisis is not generally considered to apply, so the decisions of the supreme court are not necessarily binding beyond the immediate case before it; however, in practice the decisions of the supreme court usually provide a very strong precedent, or jurisprudence constante, for both itself and all lower courts.

What term describes a system where the supreme court's decisions are binding over the lower courts?

stare decisis

What jurisdictions does this system not apply to?

civil law jurisdictions

In a civil law jurisdiction, rulings by a supreme court are only binding for which decisions?

the immediate case before it

Even in civil law jurisdictions, decisions by supreme courts establish what?

a very strong precedent

What is the legal term for the precedence established by multiple court rulings?

jurisprudence constante

What doctrine applies in jurisdictions that have a supreme court system?

I'm not sure.

What does stare decisis say about decisions made by lower courts in regard the supreme court?

I'm not sure.

What is the civil court precedent also known as?

I'm not sure.

What are not necessarily binding in common law jurisdictions?

I'm not sure.


In Canada, the Supreme Court of Canada was established in 1875 but only became the highest court in the country in 1949 when the right of appeal to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council was abolished. This court hears appeals of decisions made by courts of appeal from the provinces and territories and appeals of decisions made by the Federal Court of Appeal. The court's decisions are final and binding on the federal courts and the courts from all provinces and territories. The title "Supreme" can be confusing because, for example, The Supreme Court of British Columbia does not have the final say and controversial cases heard there often get appealed in higher courts - it is in fact one of the lower courts in such a process.

When was Canada's Supreme Court first established?

Canada's Supreme Court didn't actually become that country's highest court until when?

If a provincial case is appealed, how is the Supreme Court's decision applied?

The court's decisions are final and binding

Before 1949, Supreme Court decisions in Canada could be appealed to what body?

the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council

What was established in 1785?

I'm not sure.

What was abolished in 1499?

I'm not sure.

What does the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council hear?

I'm not sure.

Why can the title "Supreme Court" be confusing?

I'm not sure.