The Alps have been crossed for war and commerce, and by pilgrims, students and tourists. Crossing routes by road, train or foot are known as passes, and usually consist of depressions in the mountains in which a valley leads from the plains and hilly pre-mountainous zones. In the medieval period hospices were established by religious orders at the summits of many of the main passes. The most important passes are the Col de l'Iseran (the highest), the Brenner Pass, the Mont-Cenis, the Great St. Bernard Pass, the Col de Tende, the Gotthard Pass, the Semmering Pass, and the Stelvio Pass.

What have been crossed for war and commerce?

The Alps

What was established during medieval periods by religious orders?

hospices

Where were hospices established?

the summits of many of the main passes

What is the highest of the most important passes of the Alps?

Col de l'Iseran


Crossing the Italian-Austrian border, the Brenner Pass separates the Ötztal Alps and Zillertal Alps and has been in use as a trading route since the 14th century. The lowest of the Alpine passes at 985 m (3,232 ft), the Semmering crosses from Lower Austria to Styria; since the 12th century when a hospice was built there it has seen continuous use. A railroad with a tunnel 1 mile (1.6 km) long was built along the route of the pass in the mid-19th century. With a summit of 2,469 m (8,100 ft), the Great St. Bernard Pass is one of the highest in the Alps, crossing the Italian-Swiss border east of the Pennine Alps along the flanks of Mont Blanc. The pass was used by Napoleon Bonaparte to cross 40,000 troops in 1800. The Saint Gotthard Pass crosses from Central Switzerland to Ticino; in the late 19th century the 14 km (9 mi) long Saint Gotthard Tunnel was built connecting Lucerne in Switzerland, with Milan in Italy. The Mont Cenis pass has been a major commercial road between Western Europe and Italy. Now the pass has been supplanted by the Fréjus Road and Rail tunnel. At 2,756 m (9,042 ft), the Stelvio Pass in northern Italy is one of the highest of the Alpine passes; the road was built in the 1820s. The highest pass in the alps is the col de l'Iseran in Savoy (France) at 2,770 m (9,088 ft).

What seperates the Otztal Alps and Zillertal Alps?

the Brenner Pass

How long has the Brenner Pass been used as a trading route?

since the 14th century

The lowest of the Alpine passes at what elevation?

985 m (3,232 ft)

Who crossed the Great St. Bernard Pass with 40,000 troops?

Napoleon Bonaparte

Where is the highest point in the alps located?

col de l'Iseran in Savoy (France)


Important geological concepts were established as naturalists began studying the rock formations of the Alps in the 18th century. In the mid-19th century the now defunct theory of geosynclines was used to explain the presence of "folded" mountain chains but by the mid-20th century the theory of plate tectonics became widely accepted.

Who began studying the rock formations of the Alps

naturalists

When did the studying of rock formations begin in the Alps?

the 18th century

What was used in the mid-19th century to explain the presence of "folded" mountain chains?

theory of geosynclines

What theory was more widely accepted by the mid-20th century?

the theory of plate tectonics


The formation of the Alps (the Alpine orogeny) was an episodic process that began about 300 million years ago. In the Paleozoic Era the Pangaean supercontinent consisted of a single tectonic plate; it broke into separate plates during the Mesozoic Era and the Tethys sea developed between Laurasia and Gondwana during the Jurassic Period. The Tethys was later squeezed between colliding plates causing the formation of mountain ranges called the Alpide belt, from Gibraltar through the Himalayas to Indonesia—a process that began at the end of the Mesozoic and continues into the present. The formation of the Alps was a segment of this orogenic process, caused by the collision between the African and the Eurasian plates that began in the late Cretaceous Period.

When did the formation of the alps began?

about 300 million years ago

What did the Pangaean supercontinent consisted of what during the Paleozoic Era?

a single tectonic plate

When did the single tectonic plate break into separate plates?

the Mesozoic Era

The Tethys sea developed during what period of time?

Jurassic Period

The collision between the African and the Eurasian plates began during what time?

the late Cretaceous Period


Under extreme compressive stresses and pressure, marine sedimentary rocks were uplifted, creating characteristic recumbent folds, or nappes, and thrust faults. As the rising peaks underwent erosion, a layer of marine flysch sediments was deposited in the foreland basin, and the sediments became involved in younger nappes (folds) as the orogeny progressed. Coarse sediments from the continual uplift and erosion were later deposited in foreland areas as molasse. The molasse regions in Switzerland and Bavaria were well-developed and saw further upthrusting of flysch.

What was uplifted from extreme compressive stresses and pressure?

marine sedimentary rocks

When did the layer of marine flysch sediments get deposited in the foreland basin?

As the rising peaks underwent erosion

What were later deposited in foreland areas as molasse?

Coarse sediments

Switzerland and Bavaria saw a further upthrusting of what?

flysch


The Alpine orogeny occurred in ongoing cycles through to the Paleogene causing differences in nappe structures, with a late-stage orogeny causing the development of the Jura Mountains. A series of tectonic events in the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous periods caused different paleogeographic regions. The Alps are subdivided by different lithology (rock composition) and nappe structure according to the orogenic events that affected them. The geological subdivision differentiates the Western, Eastern Alps and Southern Alps: the Helveticum in the north, the Penninicum and Austroalpine system in the center and, south of the Periadriatic Seam, the Southern Alpine system.

What caused the development of the Jura Mountains?

a late-stage orogeny

What cause different paleogeographic regions in the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous periods?

A series of tectonic events

What is another word for rock composition?

lithology

What geological subdivision is located in the north?

Helveticum


According to geologist Stefan Schmid, because the Western Alps underwent a metamorphic event in the Cenozoic Era while the Austroalpine peaks underwent an event in the Cretaceous Period, the two areas show distinct differences in nappe formations. Flysch deposits in the Southern Alps of Lombardy probably occurred in the Cretaceous or later.

What is Stefan Schmid's profession?

geologist

What happened to the Western Alps during the Cenozoic Era

a metamorphic event

When did the Austroalpine peaks undergo their event?

the Cretaceous Period

The Western Alps and the Austroalpine peaks show distinct differences in what?

nappe formations

When did Flysch deposits probably occur in the Southern Alps of Lombardy?

Cretaceous


Peaks in France, Italy and Switzerland lie in the "Houillière zone", which consists of basement with sediments from the Mesozoic Era. High "massifs" with external sedimentary cover are more common in the Western Alps and were affected by Neogene Period thin-skinned thrusting whereas the Eastern Alps have comparatively few high peaked massifs. Similarly the peaks in Switzerland extending to western Austria (Helvetic nappes) consist of thin-skinned sedimentary folding that detached from former basement rock.

What area do peaks in France, Italy, and Switzerland lie in?

Houillière zone

What are more common in the Western Alps?

High "massifs"

When compared to the Western Alps, what area has few high peaked massifs?

Eastern Alps


In simple terms the structure of the Alps consists of layers of rock of European, African and oceanic (Tethyan) origin. The bottom nappe structure is of continental European origin, above which are stacked marine sediment nappes, topped off by nappes derived from the African plate. The Matterhorn is an example of the ongoing orogeny and shows evidence of great folding. The tip of the mountain consists of gneisses from the African plate; the base of the peak, below the glaciated area, consists of European basement rock. The sequence of Tethyan marine sediments and their oceanic basement is sandwiched between rock derived from the African and European plates.

Layers of rock from Europe, Africa and the ocean make up what?

the structure of the Alps

What is the origin of the bottom nappe structure?

continental Europe

Where are the top of the nappes derived from?

the African plate

What is an example of the ongoing orogeny?

The Matterhorn


The core regions of the Alpine orogenic belt have been folded and fractured in such a manner that erosion created the characteristic steep vertical peaks of the Swiss Alps that rise seemingly straight out of the foreland areas. Peaks such as Mont Blanc, the Matterhorn, and high peaks in the Pennine Alps, the Briançonnais, and Hohe Tauern consist of layers of rock from the various orogenies including exposures of basement rock.

What happened to the Alpine orogenic belt that gave it the steep vertical peak?

folded and fractured

Mont Blanc, the Matterhorn, and peaks in the Pennine Alps cosist of what?

layers of rock from the various orogenies

What are the common characteristics of the Alpine Orogenic Belt?

steep vertical peaks


The Union Internationale des Associations d'Alpinisme (UIAA) has defined a list of 82 "official" Alpine summits that reach at least 4,000 m (13,123 ft). The list includes not only mountains, but also subpeaks with little prominence that are considered important mountaineering objectives. Below are listed the 22 "four-thousanders" with at least 500 m (1,640 ft) of prominence.

What group defined a list of 82 official Apline summits that reach 4,000m?

Union Internationale des Associations d'Alpinisme (UIAA)

What is included in the list of 82 official Apline summits other than Mountains?

subpeaks with little prominence that are considered important mountaineering objectives

The list of twenty two summits has summits with at least how much prominence?

500 m (1,640 ft)


While Mont Blanc was first climbed in 1786, most of the Alpine four-thousanders were climbed during the first half of the 19th century; the ascent of the Matterhorn in 1865 marked the end of the golden age of alpinism. Karl Blodig (1859–1956) was among the first to successfully climb all the major 4,000 m peaks. He completed his series of ascents in 1911.

When was Mont Blanc first climbed?

When were most of the Alpine fourthousanders climber?

first half of the 19th century

When was the ascent of the Matterhorn?

What did the ascent of the Matterhorn mark?

the end of the golden age of alpinism

Who was among the first to successfully climb all the major 4,000m peaks?

Karl Blodig


The first British Mont Blanc ascent was in 1788; the first female ascent in 1819. By the mid-1850s Swiss mountaineers had ascended most of the peaks and were eagerly sought as mountain guides. Edward Whymper reached the top of the Matterhorn in 1865 (after seven attempts), and in 1938 the last of the six great north faces of the Alps was climbed with the first ascent of the Eiger Nordwand (north face of the Eiger).

When was the first British Mont Blanc ascent?

When was the first female ascent on Mont Blanc?

When had Swiss mountaineers ascended most of the peaks?

the mid-1850s

What year did Edward Whymper reach the top of the Matterhorn?

When were the last of the six great north faces of the Alps climbed?


The Alps are a source of minerals that have been mined for thousands of years. In the 8th to 6th centuries BC during the Hallstatt culture, Celtic tribes mined copper; later the Romans mined gold for coins in the Bad Gastein area. Erzberg in Styria furnishes high-quality iron ore for the steel industry. Crystals are found throughout much of the Alpine region such as cinnabar, amethyst, and quartz. The cinnabar deposits in Slovenia are a notable source of cinnabar pigments.

What have been mined in the Alps for thousands of years?

minerals

What did Celtic tribes mine from the Alps?

copper

What did the Romans mine in the Bad Gastein area?

gold

What does Erzberd in Styria furnish?

high-quality iron ore

The cinnabar deposits are found in what area?

Slovenia


Alpine crystals have been studied and collected for hundreds of years, and began to be classified in the 18th century. Leonhard Euler studied the shapes of crystals, and by the 19th century crystal hunting was common in Alpine regions. David Friedrich Wiser amassed a collection of 8000 crystals that he studied and documented. In the 20th century Robert Parker wrote a well-known work about the rock crystals of the Swiss Alps; at the same period a commission was established to control and standardize the naming of Alpine minerals.

How long have Alpine crystals been studied and collected?

hundreds of years

When did the alpine crystals begin to be classified?

the 18th century

Who studied the shapes of crystals?

Leonhard Euler

By the 19th century what was common in the Alpine regions?

crystal hunting

Who amassed a collection 8000 crystals?

David Friedrich Wiser


In the Miocene Epoch the mountains underwent severe erosion because of glaciation, which was noted in the mid-19th century by naturalist Louis Agassiz who presented a paper proclaiming the Alps were covered in ice at various intervals—a theory he formed when studying rocks near his Neuchâtel home which he believed originated to the west in the Bernese Oberland. Because of his work he came to be known as the "father of the ice-age concept" although other naturalists before him put forth similar ideas.

Where did the mountains undergo serve erosion?

Miocene Epoch

What was the cause of the severe erosion?

glaciation

Who noted the severe erosion of the mountains?

Louis Agassiz

What was Louis Agassiz also known as?

the "father of the ice-age concept"


Agassiz studied glacier movement in the 1840s at the Unteraar Glacier where he found the glacier moved 100 m (328 ft) per year, more rapidly in the middle than at the edges. His work was continued by other scientists and now a permanent laboratory exists inside a glacier under the Jungfraujoch, devoted exclusively to the study of Alpine glaciers.

Where did Agassiz study during the 1840s?

the Unteraar Glacier

Agassiz found that the Unteraar Glacier moved how much per year?

100 m (328 ft)

The movement of the Unteraar Glacier moved more rapidly in what part?

the middle


Glaciers pick up rocks and sediment with them as they flow. This causes erosion and the formation of valleys over time. The Inn valley is an example of a valley carved by glaciers during the ice ages with a typical terraced structure caused by erosion. Eroded rocks from the most recent ice age lie at the bottom of the valley while the top of the valley consists of erosion from earlier ice ages. Glacial valleys have characteristically steep walls (reliefs); valleys with lower reliefs and talus slopes are remnants of glacial troughs or previously infilled valleys. Moraines, piles of rock picked up during the movement of the glacier, accumulate at edges, center and the terminus of glaciers.

What is an example of a valley carved by glaciers during the ice ages?

The Inn valley

What lays at the bottom of the Inn Valley

Eroded rocks from the most recent ice age

The top of the Inn Valley consists of what?

erosion from earlier ice ages

What are Moraines?

piles of rock picked up during the movement of the glacier

Where have moraines accumulated?

at edges, center and the terminus of glaciers.


Alpine glaciers can be straight rivers of ice, long sweeping rivers, spread in a fan-like shape (Piedmont glaciers), and curtains of ice that hang from vertical slopes of the mountain peaks. The stress of the movement causes the ice to break and crack loudly, perhaps explaining why the mountains were believed to be home to dragons in the medieval period. The cracking creates unpredictable and dangerous crevasses, often invisible under new snowfall, which cause the greatest danger to mountaineers.

How do Piedmont glaciers appear?

spread in a fan-like shape

What causes the ice to break and crack loudly?

The stress of the movement

What does the cracking of the ice create?

unpredictable and dangerous crevasses


Glaciers end in ice caves (the Rhone Glacier), by trailing into a lake or river, or by shedding snowmelt on a meadow. Sometimes a piece of glacier will detach or break resulting in flooding, property damage and loss of life. In the 17th century about 2500 people were killed by an avalanche in a village on the French-Italian border; in the 19th century 120 homes in a village near Zermatt were destroyed by an avalanche.

What causes flooding, property damage, and loss of life?

a piece of glacier will detach or break

What killed about 2500 people in the 17th century?

an avalanche

How many homes in a village near Zermatt were destroyed by an avalanche in the 19th century?

120 homes


High levels of precipitation cause the glaciers to descend to permafrost levels in some areas whereas in other, more arid regions, glaciers remain above about the 3,500 m (11,483 ft) level. The 1,817 square kilometres (702 sq mi) of the Alps covered by glaciers in 1876 had shrunk to 1,342 km2 (518 sq mi) by 1973, resulting in decreased river run-off levels. Forty percent of the glaciation in Austria has disappeared since 1850, and 30% of that in Switzerland.

What cause the glaciers to descend to permafrost levels in some areas?

High levels of precipitation

From 1876 to 1973, how much did the glaciers that covered the Alps shrink?

to 1,342 km2 (518 sq mi)

What resulted from the loss of the area the glaciers over the Alps?

decreased river run-off levels.

How much of the glaciation in Austria disappeared?

Forty percent

How much of the glaciation disappeared in Switzerland?


The Alps provide lowland Europe with drinking water, irrigation, and hydroelectric power. Although the area is only about 11 percent of the surface area of Europe, the Alps provide up to 90 percent of water to lowland Europe, particularly to arid areas and during the summer months. Cities such as Milan depend on 80 percent of water from Alpine runoff. Water from the rivers is used in over 500 hydroelectricity power plants, generating as much as 2900 kilowatts of electricity.

What provides Europe with drinking water, irrigation, and hydroelectric power?

The Alps

How much of Europe does the Alps cover?

11 percent of the surface area

How much water does the Alps provide to lowland Europe?

90 percent

How much water does Milan depend on from the Alpine runoff?

80 percent

Water from the rivers is used in over how many hydroelectric power plants?


Major European rivers flow from Switzerland, such as the Rhine, the Rhone, the Inn, the Ticino and the Po, all of which have headwaters in the Alps and flow into neighbouring countries, finally emptying into the North Sea, the Mediterranean Sea, the Adriatic Sea and the Black Sea. Other rivers such as the Danube have major tributaries flowing into them that originate in the Alps. The Rhone is second to the Nile as a freshwater source to the Mediterranean Sea; the river begins as glacial meltwater, flows into Lake Geneva, and from there to France where one of its uses is to cool nuclear power plants. The Rhine originates in a 30 square kilometre area in Switzerland and represents almost 60 percent of water exported from the country. Tributary valleys, some of which are complicated, channel water to the main valleys which can experience flooding during the snow melt season when rapid runoff causes debris torrents and swollen rivers.

The Rhine, the Rhone, the Inn, the Ticino and the Po rivers flow from what Country?

Switzerland

Where do the major tributaries that flow through the Danube originate from?

the Alps

Which river is second to the Nile as a freshwater source to the Mediterranean?

The Rhone

What does The Rhone begin as?

glacial meltwater

Where does the Rhine originate?

a 30 square kilometre area in Switzerland


The rivers form lakes, such as Lake Geneva, a crescent shaped lake crossing the Swiss border with Lausanne on the Swiss side and the town of Evian-les-Bains on the French side. In Germany, the medieval St. Bartholomew's chapel was built on the south side of the Königssee, accessible only by boat or by climbing over the abutting peaks.

Where is the medieval St. Bartholomew Chapel located?

Germany

What side of the Konigssee was St. Bartholomew's chapel built?

south side

What do the rivers form?

lakes


Scientists have been studying the impact of climate change and water use. For example, each year more water is diverted from rivers for snowmaking in the ski resorts, the effect of which is yet unknown. Furthermore, the decrease of glaciated areas combined with a succession of winters with lower-than-expected precipitation may have a future impact on the rivers in the Alps as well as an effect on the water availability to the lowlands.

Who have been studying the impact of climate change and water use?

Scientists

Water is diverted from rivers for what purpose?

snowmaking in the ski resorts

What are the effects of diverting the water from rivers?

unknown


The Alps are a classic example of what happens when a temperate area at lower altitude gives way to higher-elevation terrain. Elevations around the world that have cold climates similar to those of the polar regions have been called Alpine. A rise from sea level into the upper regions of the atmosphere causes the temperature to decrease (see adiabatic lapse rate). The effect of mountain chains on prevailing winds is to carry warm air belonging to the lower region into an upper zone, where it expands in volume at the cost of a proportionate loss of temperature, often accompanied by precipitation in the form of snow or rain. The height of the Alps is sufficient to divide the weather patterns in Europe into a wet north and a dry south because moisture is sucked from the air as it flows over the high peaks.

What are a classic example of what happens when a temperate area at lower altitude gives way to higher-elevation terrain?

The Alps

Elevations around the world that have a cold climate similar to that of the polar region have been called what?

Alpine

What causes the temperature to decrease?

A rise from sea level into the upper regions of the atmosphere

What is sufficient to divide the weather patterns in Europe into a wet north and dry south?

The height of the Alps


The severe weather in the Alps has been studied since the 18th century; particularly the weather patterns such as the seasonal foehn wind. Numerous weather stations were placed in the mountains early in the early 20th century, providing continuous data for climatologists. Some of the valleys are quite arid such as the Aosta valley in Italy, the Maurienne in France, the Valais in Switzerland, and northern Tyrol.

Since when has the severe weather in the Alps been studied?

the 18th century

Particularly what part of the weather has been studied?

the weather patterns

What was placed in the mountains early in the 20th century?

Numerous weather stations

Where is the Aosta valley located?

Italy

Where is the Valais located?

Switzerland


The areas that are not arid and receive high precipitation experience periodic flooding from rapid snowmelt and runoff. The mean precipitation in the Alps ranges from a low of 2,600 mm (100 in) per year to 3,600 mm (140 in) per year, with the higher levels occurring at high altitudes. At altitudes between 1,000 and 3,000 m (3,281 and 9,843 ft), snowfall begins in November and accumulates through to April or May when the melt begins. Snow lines vary from 2,400 to 3,000 m (7,874 to 9,843 ft), above which the snow is permanent and the temperatures hover around the freezing point even July and August. High-water levels in streams and rivers peak in June and July when the snow is still melting at the higher altitudes.

What areas experience periodic flooding from rapid snowmelt and runoff?

The areas that are not arid and receive high precipitation

What are the ranges of mean precipitation in the Alps?

2,600 mm (100 in) per year to 3,600 mm (140 in) per year

Where do the higher levels of precipitation occur?

high altitudes

At what altitude does snowfall begin in November?

At altitudes between 1,000 and 3,000 m


The Alps are split into five climatic zones, each with different vegetation. The climate, plant life and animal life vary among the different sections or zones of the mountains. The lowest zone is the colline zone, which exists between 500 and 1,000 m (1,640 and 3,281 ft), depending on the location. The montane zone extends from 800 to 1,700 m (2,625 to 5,577 ft), followed by the sub-Alpine zone from 1,600 to 2,400 m (5,249 to 7,874 ft). The Alpine zone, extending from tree line to snow line, is followed by the glacial zone, which covers the glaciated areas of the mountain. Climatic conditions show variances within the same zones; for example, weather conditions at the head of a mountain valley, extending directly from the peaks, are colder and more severe than those at the mouth of a valley which tend to be less severe and receive less snowfall.

How many zones are the Alps split into?

five climatic zones

What is the lowest zone of the Alps called?

colline zone

Where does the lowest zone of the Alps exist?

between 500 and 1,000 m

Where does the montane zone extend from?

from 800 to 1,700 m

Where does the sub-Alpine zone extend from?

from 1,600 to 2,400 m


Various models of climate change have been projected into the 22nd century for the Alps, with an expectation that a trend toward increased temperatures will have an effect on snowfall, snowpack, glaciation, and river runoff.

What has been projected into the 22nd century for the Alps?

Various models of climate change

What will have an effect on snowfall, snowpack, glaciation, and river runoff?

increased temperatures

What have the various models been of?

climate change


Thirteen thousand species of plants have been identified in the Alpine regions. Alpine plants are grouped by habitat and soil type which can be limestone or non-calcerous. The habitats range from meadows, bogs, woodland (deciduous and coniferous) areas to soilless scree and moraines, and rock faces and ridges. A natural vegetation limit with altitude is given by the presence of the chief deciduous trees—oak, beech, ash and sycamore maple. These do not reach exactly to the same elevation, nor are they often found growing together; but their upper limit corresponds accurately enough to the change from a temperate to a colder climate that is further proved by a change in the presence of wild herbaceous vegetation. This limit usually lies about 1,200 m (3,940 ft) above the sea on the north side of the Alps, but on the southern slopes it often rises to 1,500 m (4,920 ft), sometimes even to 1,700 m (5,580 ft).

How many species of plants have been identified in the Alpine regions?

Thirteen thousand

How are Alpine plants grouped?

by habitat and soil type

Oak, beech, ash, and sycamore maple make up what group of trees?

chief deciduous trees


Above the forestry, there is often a band of short pine trees (Pinus mugo), which is in turn superseded by Alpenrosen, dwarf shrubs, typically Rhododendron ferrugineum (on acid soils) or Rhododendron hirsutum (on alkaline soils). Although the Alpenrose prefers acidic soil, the plants are found throughout the region. Above the tree line is the area defined as "alpine" where in the alpine meadow plants are found that have adapted well to harsh conditions of cold temperatures, aridity, and high altitudes. The alpine area fluctuates greatly because of regional fluctuations in tree lines.

What is often above the forestry?

a band of short pine trees

What type of soil does Alpenrose prefer?

acidic soil

What is the area above the treeline defined as?

alpine

Why does the alpine area fluctuate greatly?

because of regional fluctuations in tree lines.


Alpine plants such the Alpine gentian grow in abundance in areas such as the meadows above the Lauterbrunnental. Gentians are named after the Illyrian king Gentius, and 40 species of the early-spring blooming flower grow in the Alps, in a range of 1,500 to 2,400 m (4,921 to 7,874 ft). Writing about the gentians in Switzerland D. H. Lawrence described them as "darkening the day-time, torch-like with the smoking blueness of Pluto's gloom." Gentians tend to "appear" repeatedly as the spring blooming takes place at progressively later dates, moving from the lower altitude to the higher altitude meadows where the snow melts much later than in the valleys. On the highest rocky ledges the spring flowers bloom in the summer.

What grows in abundance in areas such as the meadows above the Lauterbrunnental?

Alpine plants such the Alpine gentian

What are Gentians named after?

the Illyrian king Gentius

How many species of the early-spring blooming flower grow in the Alps?

40 species


At these higher altitudes, the plants tend to form isolated cushions. In the Alps, several species of flowering plants have been recorded above 4,000 m (13,120 ft), including Ranunculus glacialis, Androsace alpina and Saxifraga biflora. The Eritrichium nanum, commonly known as the King of the Alps, is the most elusive of the alpine flowers, growing on rocky ridges at 2,600 to 3,750 m (8,530 to 12,303 ft). Perhaps the best known of the alpine plants is the Edelweiss which grows in rocky areas and can be found at altitudes as low as 1,400 m (4,593 ft) and as high as 3,400 m (11,155 ft). The plants that grow at the highest altitudes have adapted to conditions by specialization such as growing in rock screes that give protection from winds.

What do the plants tend to form at higher altitudes?

isolated cushions

Ranunculus glacialis have been recorded to have been found how far in the alps?

above 4,000 m

What is Eritrichium nanum commonly known as?

the King of the Alps

What is the best known of the alpine plants?

Edelweiss


The extreme and stressful climatic conditions give way to the growth of plant species with secondary metabolites important for medicinal purposes. Origanum vulgare, Prunella vulgaris, Solanum nigrum and Urtica dioica are some of the more useful medicinal species found in the Alps.

What gives way to the growth of plant species with secondary metabolites important for medicinal purposes?

extreme and stressful climatic conditions

Origanum Vulgare has what useful properties?

medicinal

Where are Urtica dioica found?

the Alps


Human interference has nearly exterminated the trees in many areas, and, except for the beech forests of the Austrian Alps, forests of deciduous trees are rarely found after the extreme deforestation between the 17th and 19th centuries. The vegetation has changed since the second half of the 20th century, as the high alpine meadows cease to be harvested for hay or used for grazing which eventually might result in a regrowth of forest. In some areas the modern practice of building ski runs by mechanical means has destroyed the underlying tundra from which the plant life cannot recover during the non-skiing months, whereas areas that still practice a natural piste type of ski slope building preserve the fragile underlayers.

What has nearly exterminated the trees in many areas?

Human interference

What are rarely found after the extreme deforestation between the 17th and 19th centuries?

forests of deciduous trees

What has changed since the second half of the 20th century?

The vegetation

The practice of building ski runs by mechanical means has destroyed what?

the underlying tundra


The Alps are a habitat for 30,000 species of wildlife, ranging from the tiniest snow fleas to brown bears, many of which have made adaptations to the harsh cold conditions and high altitudes to the point that some only survive in specific micro-climates either directly above or below the snow line.

How many species of wildlife habitat the Alps?

30,000 species

What have the wildlife done to survive the harsh conditions of the Alps?

made adaptations

Some species of wildlife can only survive in what specific environment?

directly above or below the snow line


The largest mammal to live in the highest altitudes are the alpine ibex, which have been sighted as high as 3,000 m (9,843 ft). The ibex live in caves and descend to eat the succulent alpine grasses. Classified as antelopes, chamois are smaller than ibex and found throughout the Alps, living above the tree line and are common in the entire alpine range. Areas of the eastern Alps are still home to brown bears. In Switzerland the canton of Bern was named for the bears but the last bear is recorded as having been killed in 1792 above Kleine Scheidegg by three hunters from Grindelwald.

What is the largest mammal to live in the highest altitudes?

alpine ibex

How high have the Alpine Ibex been sighted?

as high as 3,000 m (9,843 ft)

Where do the ibex live?

in caves

What animal that live in the Alps are classified as antelopes?

chamois

What year was the last brown bear recorded to have been killed?


Many rodents such as voles live underground. Marmots live almost exclusively above the tree line as high as 2,700 m (8,858 ft). They hibernate in large groups to provide warmth, and can be found in all areas of the Alps, in large colonies they build beneath the alpine pastures. Golden eagles and bearded vultures are the largest birds to be found in the Alps; they nest high on rocky ledges and can be found at altitudes of 2,400 m (7,874 ft). The most common bird is the alpine chough which can be found scavenging at climber's huts or at the Jungfraujoch, a high altitude tourist destination.

Where do many rodents live?

underground

Where do Marmots live?

almost exclusively above the tree line as high as 2,700 m (8,858 ft)

Where do marmots build their colonies?

beneath the alpine pastures

What is the most common bird found in the Alps?

the alpine chough


Reptiles such as adders and vipers live up to the snow line; because they cannot bear the cold temperatures they hibernate underground and soak up the warmth on rocky ledges. The high-altitude Alpine salamanders have adapted to living above the snow line by giving birth to fully developed young rather than laying eggs. Brown trout can be found in the streams up to the snow line. Molluscs such as the wood snail live up the snow line. Popularly gathered as food, the snails are now protected.

Why do reptiles only live up to the snow line?

they cannot bear the cold temperatures

What do reptiles due since they cannot bear the cold temperatures?

they hibernate underground

How have the Alpine salamanders adapted to living above the snow line?

by giving birth to fully developed young rather than laying eggs

What can be found in the streams up to the snow line?

Brown trout


A number of species of moths live in the Alps, some of which are believed to have evolved in the same habitat up to 120 million years ago, long before the Alps were created. Blue moths can commonly be seen drinking from the snow melt; some species of blue moths fly as high as 1,800 m (5,906 ft). The butterflies tend to be large, such as those from the swallowtail Parnassius family, with a habitat that ranges to 1,800 m (5,906 ft). Twelve species of beetles have habitats up to the snow line; the most beautiful and formerly collected for its colours but now protected is the Rosalia alpina. Spiders, such as the large wolf spider, live above the snow line and can be seen as high as 400 m (1,312 ft). Scorpions can be found in the Italian Alps.

How long have some species of moths believed to have evolved from the same habitat?

120 million years

What can be commonly seen drinking from the snow melt?

Blue moths

The swallowtail Parnassius family of butterfly habitat ranges up to how much?

1,800 m (5,906 ft)

What species of beetles are were collected for their colors before being protected?

Rosalia alpina


Some of the species of moths and insects show evidence of having been indigenous to the area from as long ago as the Alpine orogeny. In Emosson in Valais, Switzerland, dinosaur tracks were found in the 1970s, dating probably from the Triassic Period.

Some species of moths and insects show evidence of what?

having been indigenous to the area

How long ago does the evidence show moths and insects to have been indigenous?

the Alpine orogeny

Where is Emosson located?

Valais, Switzerland

When were dinosaur tracks found in Emosson?

the 1970s


About 10,000 years ago, when the ice melted after the last glacial period, late Paleolithic communities were established along the lake shores and in cave systems. Evidence of human habitation has been found in caves near Vercors, close to Grenoble; in Austria the Mondsee culture shows evidence of houses built on piles to keep them dry. Standing stones have been found in Alpine areas of France and Italy. The rock drawings in Valcamonica are more than 5000 years old; more than 200,000 drawings and etchings have been identified at the site.

When were late Paleolithic communities established along the lake shores?

About 10,000 years ago

What has been found in caves near Vercors?

Evidence of human habitation

Why were houses built on piles?

to keep them dry

What have been found in Alpine areas of France and Italy?

Standing stones

How old are rock drawings in Valcamonica?

more than 5000 years old


In 1991 a mummy of a neolithic body, known as Ötzi the Iceman, was discovered by hikers on the Similaun glacier. His clothing and gear indicate that he lived in an alpine farming community, while the location and manner of his death - an arrowhead was discovered in his shoulder - suggests he was travelling from one place to another. Analysis of the mitochondrial DNA of Ötzi, has shown that he belongs to the K1 subclade which cannot be categorized into any of the three modern branches of that subclade. The new subclade has provisionally been named K1ö for Ötzi.

Who was Otzi the Iceman?

a mummy of a neolithic body

When was Otzi the Iceman found?

In 1991

Where was Otzi the Iceman discovered?

the Similaun glacier


Celtic tribes settled in Switzerland between 1000 to 1500 BC. The Raetians lived in the eastern regions, while the west was occupied by the Helvetii and the Allobrogi settled in the Rhone valley and in Savoy. Among the many substances Celtic tribes mined was salt in areas such as Salzburg in Austria where evidence of the Hallstatt culture was found by a mine manager in the 19th century. By the 6th century BC the La Tène culture was well established in the region, and became known for high quality decorated weapons and jewelry. The Celts were the most widespread of the mountain tribes—they had warriors that were strong, tall and fair skinned skilled with iron weapons, which gave them an advantage in warfare.

When did Celtic tribes settle in Switzerland?

between 1000 to 1500 BC

The Raetians lived in what region?

the eastern regions

The Helvetii occupied which region?

the west

What did the Celtic tribes mine?

salt

Which were the most widespread of the mountain tribes?

The Celts


During the Second Punic War in 218 BC, the Carthaginian general Hannibal probably crossed the Alps with an army numbering 38,000 infantry, 8,000 cavalry, and 37 war elephants. This was one of the most celebrated achievements of any military force in ancient warfare, although no evidence exists of the actual crossing or the place of crossing. The Romans, however, had built roads along the mountain passes, which continued to be used through the medieval period to cross the mountains and Roman road markers can still be found on the mountain passes.

When was the Second Punic War?

218 BC

Who was the Carthaginian general?

Hannibal

What did the Romans build along the mountain passes?

roads

What can still be found on the mountain passes?

Roman road markers


The Roman expansion brought the defeat of the Allobrogi in 121 BC and during the Gallic Wars in 58 BC Julius Caesar overcame the Helvetii. The Rhaetians continued to resist but were eventually conquered when the Romans turned northward to the Danube valley in Austria and defeated the Brigantes. The Romans built settlements in the Alps; towns such as Aosta (named for Augustus) in Italy, Martigny and Lausanne in Switzerland, and Partenkirchen in Bavaria show remains of Roman baths, villas, arenas and temples. Much of the Alpine region was gradually settled by Germanic tribes, (Lombards, Alemanni, Bavarii, and Franks) from the 6th to the 13th centuries mixing with the local Celtic tribes.

What brought the defeat of the Allobrogi?

The Roman expansion

When were the Allobrogi defeated?

in 121 BC

When did Julius Caesar overcome the Helvetii?

58 BC

What tribes settled much of the Alpine region?

Germanic tribes


Christianity was established in the region by the Romans, and saw the establishment of monasteries and churches in the high regions. The Frankish expansion of the Carolingian Empire and the Bavarian expansion in the eastern Alps introduced feudalism and the building of castles to support the growing number of dukedoms and kingdoms. Castello del Buonconsiglio in Trento, Italy, still has intricate frescoes, excellent examples of Gothic art, in a tower room. In Switzerland, Château de Chillon is preserved as an example of medieval architecture.

Who established Christianity in the region?

Romans

What did the Frankish expansion and the Bavarian expansion introduce?

feudalism

What area still has intricate frescoes?

Castello del Buonconsiglio in Trento, Italy

What is preserved as an example of medieval architecture?

Château de Chillon


Much of the medieval period was a time of power struggles between competing dynasties such as the House of Savoy, the Visconti in northern Italy and the House of Habsburg in Austria and Slovenia. In 1291 to protect themselves from incursions by the Habsburgs, four cantons in the middle of Switzerland drew up a charter that is considered to be a declaration of independence from neighboring kingdoms. After a series of battles fought in the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries, more cantons joined the confederacy and by the 16th century Switzerland was well-established as a separate state.

Much of the medieval period was a time of what?

power struggles

Where were the Visconti from?

northern Italy

What dynastie was from Austria and Slovenia?

the House of Habsburg

What Country was a well-established separate state by the 16th century?

Switzerland


During the Napoleonic Wars in the late 18th century and early 19th century, Napoleon annexed territory formerly controlled by the Habsburgs and Savoys. In 1798 he established the Helvetic Republic in Switzerland; two years later he led an army across the St. Bernard pass and conquered almost all of the Alpine regions.

What wars took place during the late 18th century and early 19th century?

the Napoleonic Wars

Who annexed territory formerly controlled by the Habsburgs and Savoys?

Napoleon

When was the Helvetic Republic established?

Where was the Helvetic Republic established?

Switzerland


After the fall of Napoléon, many alpine countries developed heavy protections to prevent any new invasion. Thus, Savoy built a series of fortifications in the Maurienne valley in order to protect the major alpine passes, such as the col du Mont-Cenis that was even crossed by, Charlemagne and his father to defeat the Lombarts. The later indeed became very popular after the construction of a paved road ordered by Napoléon Bonaparte. The Barrière de l'Esseillon is a serie of forts with heavy batteries, built on a cliff with a perfect view on the valley, a gorge on one side and steep mountains on the other side.

When did many alpine countries develop heavy protection to prevent new invasion?

After the fall of Napoléon

Who built a series of fortifications in the Maurienne valley?

Savoy

Why were a series of fortifications in the Maurienne valley built?

to protect the major alpine passes

Who ordered the construction of a paved road?

Napoléon Bonaparte


In the 19th century, the monasteries built in the high Alps during the medieval period to shelter travelers and as places of pilgrimage, became tourist destinations. The Benedictines had built monasteries in Lucerne, Switzerland, and Oberammergau; the Cistercians in the Tyrol and at Lake Constance; and the Augustinians had abbeys in the Savoy and one in the center of Interlaken, Switzerland. The Great St Bernard Hospice, built in the 9th or 10th centuries, at the summit of the Great Saint Bernard Pass was shelter for travelers and place for pilgrims since its inception; by the 19th century it became a tourist attraction with notable visitors such as author Charles Dickens and mountaineer Edward Whymper.

What became tourist destinations during the 19th century?

the monasteries built in the high Alps

Who built monasteries in Lucerne, Switzerland and Oberammergau?

The Benedictines

Who had abbeys in the Savor and one in the center of Interlaken?

the Augustinians

When was the Great St. Bernard Hospice built?

the 9th or 10th centuries


Radiocarbon dated charcoal placed around 50,000 years ago was found in the Drachloch (Dragon's Hole) cave above the village of Vattis in the canton of St. Gallen, proving that the high peaks were visited by prehistoric people. Seven bear skulls from the cave may have been buried by the same prehistoric people. The peaks, however, were mostly ignored except for a few notable examples, and long left to the exclusive attention of the people of the adjoining valleys. The mountain peaks were seen as terrifying, the abode of dragons and demons, to the point that people blindfolded themselves to cross the Alpine passes. The glaciers remained a mystery and many still believed the highest areas to be inhabited by dragons.

How old was the charcoal placed in the Drachloch cave?

50,000 years

What does the finding of charcoal in Dragon's Hole prove?

the high peaks were visited by prehistoric people

What may have been buried by the same prehistoric people?

Seven bear skulls

People blindfolded themselves to cross what?

Alpine passes


Charles VII of France ordered his chamberlain to climb Mont Aiguille in 1356. The knight reached the summit of Rocciamelone where he left a bronze triptych of three crosses, a feat which he conducted with the use of ladders to traverse the ice. In 1492 Antoine de Ville climbed Mont Aiguille, without reaching the summit, an experience he described as "horrifying and terrifying." Leonardo da Vinci was fascinated by variations of light in the higher altitudes, and climbed a mountain—scholars are uncertain which one; some believe it may have been Monte Rosa. From his description of a "blue like that of a gentian" sky it is thought that he reached a significantly high altitude. In the 18th century four Chamonix man almost made the summit of Mont Blanc but were overcome by altitude sickness and snowblindness.

Where was Charles VII from?

France

What was Charles VII chamberlain ordered to do?

climb Mont Aiguille

What did the knight leave at the summit of Rocciamelone?

a bronze triptych of three crosses

When did Antioine de Ville climb Mont Aiguille?

When did four Chamonix men almost reach the summit of Mont Blanc?

18th century


Conrad Gessner was the first naturalist to ascend the mountains in the 16th century, to study them, writing that in the mountains he found the "theatre of the Lord". By the 19th century more naturalists began to arrive to explore, study and conquer the high peaks; they were followed by artists, writers and painters. Two men who first explored the regions of ice and snow were Horace-Bénédict de Saussure (1740–1799) in the Pennine Alps, and the Benedictine monk of Disentis Placidus a Spescha (1752–1833). Born in Geneva, Saussure was enamored with the mountains from an early age; he left a law career to become a naturalist and spent many years trekking through the Bernese Oberland, the Savoy, the Piedmont and Valais, studying the glaciers and the geology, as he became an early proponent of the theory of rock upheaval. Saussure, in 1787, was a member of the third ascent of Mont Blanc—today the summits of all the peaks have been climbed.

Who was the first naturalist to ascend the mountains?

Conrad Gessner

Where was Horace-Benedict de Saussure born?

Geneva

Who was a member of the third ascent of Mont Blanc?

Saussure


Jean-Jacques Rousseau was the first of many to present the Alps as a place of allure and beauty, banishing the prevalent conception of the mountains as a hellish wasteland inhabited by demons. Rousseau's conception of alpine purity was later emphasized with the publication of Albrecht von Haller's poem Die Alpen that described the mountains as an area of mythical purity. Late in the 18th century the first wave of Romantics such as Goethe and Turner came to admire the scenery; Wordsworth visited the area in 1790, writing of his experiences in The Prelude. Schiller later wrote the play William Tell romanticising Swiss independence. After the end of the Napoleonic Wars, the Alpine countries began to see an influx of poets, artists, and musicians, as visitors came to experience the sublime effects of monumental nature.

Who was the first of many to present the Alps as a place of allure and beauty?

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Who wrote the poem Die Alpen?

Albrecht von Haller

When did the Alpine countries see an influx of poets, artists, and musicians?

After the end of the Napoleonic Wars

What did the visitors come to experience in the Alpine countries?

the sublime effects of monumental nature


In 1816 Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley and his wife Mary Shelley visited Geneva and all three were inspired by the scenery in their writings. During these visits Shelley wrote the poem "Mont Blanc", Byron wrote "The Prisoner of Chillon" and the dramatic poem Manfred, and Mary Shelley, who found the scenery overwhelming, conceived the idea for the novel Frankenstein in her villa on the shores of Lake Geneva in the midst of a thunderstorm. When Coleridge travelled to Chamonix, he declaimed, in defiance of Shelley, who had signed himself "Atheos" in the guestbook of the Hotel de Londres near Montenvers, "Who would be, who could be an atheist in this valley of wonders". By the mid-19th century scientists began to arrive en masse to study the geology and ecology of the region.

Percy and Mary Shelley were inspired by what region's scenery?

Geneva

What poem did Shelley write during the visits to Geneva?

Mont Blanc

When did scientists began to arrive en masse to study the geology and ecology of the Alpine region?

the mid-19th century


Austrian-born Adolf Hitler had a lifelong romantic fascination with the Alps and by the 1930s established a home in the Obersalzberg region outside of Berchtesgaden. His first visit to the area was in 1923 and he maintained a strong tie there until the end of his life. At the end of World War II the US Army occupied Obersalzberg, to prevent Hitler from retreating with the Wehrmacht into the mountains.

Where was Adolf Hitler born?

Austrian

What did Adolf Hitler have a lifelong romantic fascination with?

the Alps

Where did Adolf Hitler establish a home in the 1930s?

the Obersalzberg region

When was Adolf Hitlers first visit to the Alps?


By 1940 the Third Reich had occupied many of the Alpine countries. Austria underwent a political coup that made it part of the Third Reich; France had been invaded and Italy was a fascist regime. Switzerland was the only country to luckily avoid invasion. The Swiss Confederate mobilized its troops—the country follows the doctrine of "armed neutrality" with all males required to have military training—a number that General Eisenhower estimated to be about 850,000. The Swiss commanders wired the infrastructure leading into the country, and threatening to destroy bridges, railway tunnels and passes in the event of a Nazi invasion, and then they retreated to the heart of the mountain peaks where conditions were harsher and a military invasion would involve difficult and protracted battles.

By 1940 who occupied many of the Alpine countries?

the Third Reich

What country underwent a political coup that made it part of the Third Reich?

Austria

What was the only country that avoided invasion from the Third Reich?

Switzerland

Who wired the infrastructure leading into Switzerland?

The Swiss commanders


Ski troops were trained for the war, and battles were waged in mountainous areas such as the battle at Riva Ridge in Italy, where the American 10th Mountain Division encountered heavy resistance in February 1945. At the end of the war, a substantial amount of Nazi plunder was found stored in Austria, where Hitler had hoped to retreat as the war drew to a close. The salt mines surrounding the Altaussee area, where American troops found 75 kilos of gold coins stored in a single mine, were used to store looted art, jewels, and currency; vast quantities of looted art were found and returned to the owners.

Who were trained for the war?

Ski troops

Where was the battle at Riva Ridge?

Italy

Where was a substantial amount of Nazi plunder found at the end of the war?

Austria

Where did American troops find 75 kilos of gold coins?

The salt mines surrounding the Altaussee area


The population of the region is 14 million spread across eight countries. On the rim of the mountains, on the plateaus and the plains the economy consists of manufacturing and service jobs whereas in the higher altitudes and in the mountains farming is still essential to the economy. Farming and forestry continue to be mainstays of Alpine culture, industries that provide for export to the cities and maintain the mountain ecology.

What is the population of the Alpine region?

14 million

What does the economy consist of on the rim of the mountains?

manufacturing and service jobs

Farming and Forestry continue to be a mainstay of what?

Alpine culture


Much of the Alpine culture is unchanged since the medieval period when skills that guaranteed survival in the mountain valleys and in the highest villages became mainstays, leading to strong traditions of carpentry, woodcarving, baking and pastry-making, and cheesemaking.

Much of what has not changed since the medieval period?

Alpine culture

When were skills that guaranteed survival in the mountain valleys most important?

the medieval period

What is one of the strongest traditions in Alpine culture?

carpentry


Farming had been a traditional occupation for centuries, although it became less dominant in the 20th century with the advent of tourism. Grazing and pasture land are limited because of the steep and rocky topography of the Alps. In mid-June cows are moved to the highest pastures close to the snowline, where they are watched by herdsmen who stay in the high altitudes often living in stone huts or wooden barns during the summers. Villagers celebrate the day the cows are herded up to the pastures and again when they return in mid-September. The Alpanschluss or Désalpes ("coming down from the alps") is celebrated by decorating the cows with garlands and enormous cowbells while the farmers dress in traditional costumes.

What has been a traditional occupation for centuries?

Farming

What made farming less dominant in the 20th century?

tourism

Why is pasture land limited?

because of the steep and rocky topography of the Alps

When are cows moved to the highest pastures close to the snowline?

mid-June


Cheesemaking is an ancient tradition in most Alpine countries. A wheel of cheese from the Emmental in Switzerland can weigh up to 45 kg (100 lb), and the Beaufort in Savoy can weight up to 70 kilograms (150 lb). Owners of the cows traditionally receive from the cheesemakers a portion in relation to the proportion of the cows' milk from the summer months in the high alps. Haymaking is an important farming activity in mountain villages which has become somewhat mechanized in recent years, although the slopes are so steep that usually scythes are necessary to cut the grass. Hay is normally brought in twice a year, often also on festival days. Alpine festivals vary from country to country and often include the display of local costumes such as dirndl and trachten, the playing of Alpenhorns, wrestling matches, some pagan traditions such as Walpurgis Night and, in many areas, Carnival is celebrated before Lent.

What is an ancient tradition in most Alpine countries?

Cheesemaking

How much can a wheel of cheese from the Emmental weigh?

up to 45 kg (100 lb)

What is an important farming activity in mountain villages?

Haymaking

How many times is Hay normally brought each year?

twice

When is Carnival celebrated?

before Lent


In the high villages people live in homes built according to medieval designs that withstand cold winters. The kitchen is separated from the living area (called the stube, the area of the home heated by a stove), and second-floor bedrooms benefit from rising heat. The typical Swiss chalet originated in the Bernese Oberland. Chalets often face south or downhill, and are built of solid wood, with a steeply gabled roof to allow accumulated snow to slide off easily. Stairs leading to upper levels are sometimes built on the outside, and balconies are sometimes enclosed.

What do people in high villages build their homes according to?

medieval designs that withstand cold winters

What is the area of the home heated by a stove called?

the stube

The typic Swiss chalet originated from where?

the Bernese Oberland

Which direction do Chalets often face?

south or downhill

What are Chalets built of?

solid wood


Food is passed from the kitchen to the stube, where the dining room table is placed. Some meals are communal, such as fondue, where a pot is set in the middle of the table for each person to dip into. Other meals are still served in a traditional manner on carved wooden plates. Furniture has been traditionally elaborately carved and in many Alpine countries carpentry skills are passed from generation to generation.

The food is passed from the kitchen to where?

the stube

Where is the dining room table placed?

the stube

Traditionally, what are meals served on?

carved wooden plates

How is furniture traditionally carved?

elaborately


Roofs are traditionally constructed from Alpine rocks such as pieces of schist, gneiss or slate. Such chalets are typically found in the higher parts of the valleys, as in the Maurienne valley in Savoy, where the amount of snow during the cold months is important. The inclination of the roof cannot exceed 40%, allowing the snow to stay on top, thereby functioning as insulation from the cold. In the lower areas where the forests are widespread, wooden tiles are traditionally used. Commonly made of Norway spruce, they are called "tavaillon". The Alpine regions are multicultural and linguistically diverse. Dialects are common, and vary from valley to valley and region to region. In the Slavic Alps alone 19 dialects have been identified. Some of the French dialects spoken in the French, Swiss and Italian alps of Aosta Valley derive from Arpitan, while the southern part of the western range is related to Old Provençal; the German dialects derive from Germanic tribal languages. Romansh, spoken by two percent of the population in southeast Switzerland, is an ancient Rhaeto-Romanic language derived from Latin, remnants of ancient Celtic languages and perhaps Etruscan.

What are roofs traditionally constructed from?

Alpine rocks

Where are chalets typically used for roof construction found??

the higher parts of the valleys

The inclination of the roof cannot exceed how much?

How many dialects have been identified in the Slavic Alps?

What language is spoken by two percent of the population in southeast Switzerland?

Romansh


At present the Alps are one of the more popular tourist destinations in the world with many resorts such Oberstdorf, in Bavaria, Saalbach in Austria, Davos in Switzerland, Chamonix in France, and Cortina d'Ampezzo in Italy recording more than a million annual visitors. With over 120 million visitors a year tourism is integral to the Alpine economy with much it coming from winter sports although summer visitors are an important component of the tourism industry.

What's one of the most popular tourist destinations in the world?

the Alps

Where is Saalbach located?

Austria

How many people visit the Alps every year?

over 120 million

What is an integral part of the Alpine economy?

tourism


The tourism industry began in the early 19th century when foreigners visited the Alps, traveled to the bases of the mountains to enjoy the scenery, and stayed at the spa-resorts. Large hotels were built during the Belle Époque; cog-railways, built early in the 20th century, brought tourists to ever higher elevations, with the Jungfraubahn terminating at the Jungfraujoch, well above the eternal snow-line, after going through a tunnel in Eiger. During this period winter sports were slowly introduced: in 1882 the first figure skating championship was held in St. Moritz, and downhill skiing became a popular sport with English visitors early in the 20th century, as the first ski-lift was installed in 1908 above Grindelwald.

When did the tourism industry begin?

the early 19th century

When were large hotels built in the Alps?

during the Belle Époque

When were cog-railways built in the Alps?

early in the 20th century

When was the first figure skating championship held?

Where was the first figure skating championship held?

St. Moritz


In the first half of the 20th century the Olympic Winter Games were held three times in Alpine venues: the 1924 Winter Olympics in Chamonix, France; the 1928 Winter Olympics in St. Moritz, Switzerland; and the 1936 Winter Olympics in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany. During World War II the winter games were canceled but after that time the Winter Games have been held in St. Moritz (1948), Cortina d'Ampezzo (1956), Innsbruck, Austria (1964 and 1976), Grenoble, France, (1968), Albertville, France, (1992), and Torino (2006). In 1930 the Lauberhorn Rennen (Lauberhorn Race), was run for the first time on the Lauberhorn above Wengen; the equally demanding Hahnenkamm was first run in the same year in Kitzbühl, Austria. Both races continue to be held each January on successive weekends. The Lauberhorn is the more strenuous downhill race at 4.5 km (2.8 mi) and poses danger to racers who reach 130 km/h (81 mph) within seconds of leaving the start gate.

Where were the Winter Olympics held in 1924?

Chamonix, France

Where were the Winter Olympics held in 1928?

St. Moritz, Switzerland

Where were the Winter Olympics held in 1936?

Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany

When was the Lauberhorn Rennen ran for the first time on the Lauberhorn above Wengen?

When were the Winter Olympics held in Albertville, France?


During the post-World War I period ski-lifts were built in Swiss and Austrian towns to accommodate winter visitors, but summer tourism continued to be important; by the mid-20th century the popularity of downhill skiing increased greatly as it became more accessible and in the 1970s several new villages were built in France devoted almost exclusively to skiing, such as Les Menuires. Until this point Austria and Switzerland had been the traditional and more popular destinations for winter sports, but by the end of the 20th century and into the early 21st century, France, Italy and the Tyrol began to see increases in winter visitors. From 1980 to the present, ski-lifts have been modernized and snow-making machines installed at many resorts, leading to concerns regarding the loss of traditional Alpine culture and questions regarding sustainable development as the winter ski industry continues to develop quickly and the number of summer tourists decline.

When were ski-lifts built in Swiss and Austrian towns?

post-World War I

When were several new villages built in France almost exclusively for skiing?

the 1970s

Where is Les Menuires located?

France


The region is serviced by 4,200 km (2,600 mi) of roads used by 6 million vehicles. Train travel is well established in the Alps, with, for instance 120 km (75 mi) of track for every 1,000 km2 (390 sq mi) in a country such as Switzerland. Most of Europe's highest railways are located there. Moreover, plans are underway to build a 57 km (35 mi)-long sub-alpine tunnel connecting the older Lötschberg and Gotthard tunnels built in the 19th century.

How much area is devoted to roads in the Alpine region?

4,200 km (2,600 mi)

How many vehicles use the roads?

6 million

Where are most of Europe's highest railways located?

Switzerland

How long is the tunnel connecting Lotschberg and Gotthard planned to be?

57 km


Some high mountain villages, such as Avoriaz (in France), Wengen, and Zermatt (in Switzerland) are accessible only by cable car or cog-rail trains, and are car free. Other villages in the Alps are considering becoming car free zones or limiting the number of cars for reasons of sustainability of the fragile Alpine terrain.

Where is the village of Avoriaz located?

France

Where are the villages of Wengen and Zermatt located?

Switzerland

Why are villages considering becoming car free zones?

reasons of sustainability


The lower regions and larger towns of the Alps are well-served by motorways and main roads, but higher mountain passes and byroads, which are amongst the highest in Europe, can be treacherous even in summer due to steep slopes. Many passes are closed in winter. A multitude of airports around the Alps (and some within), as well as long-distance rail links from all neighbouring countries, afford large numbers of travellers easy access from abroad.

When are many passes in the Alps closed?

winter

The lower regions and larger towns of the Alps are well-served by what?

motorways

What can be treacherous even in summer due to steep slopes?

mountain passes


A gene is a locus (or region) of DNA that encodes a functional RNA or protein product, and is the molecular unit of heredity.:Glossary The transmission of genes to an organism's offspring is the basis of the inheritance of phenotypic traits. Most biological traits are under the influence of polygenes (many different genes) as well as the gene–environment interactions. Some genetic traits are instantly visible, such as eye colour or number of limbs, and some are not, such as blood type, risk for specific diseases, or the thousands of basic biochemical processes that comprise life.

What is a gene?

a locus (or region) of DNA that encodes a functional RNA or protein product

What is the basis of inheritance of phenotypic traits?

The transmission of genes to an organism's offspring

What influence are most biological traits under?

polygenes (many different genes)

What is one instantly visible genetic trait?

eye colour or number of limbs

What is one invisible genetic trait?

blood type, risk for specific diseases, or the thousands of basic biochemical processes that comprise life


Genes can acquire mutations in their sequence, leading to different variants, known as alleles, in the population. These alleles encode slightly different versions of a protein, which cause different phenotype traits. Colloquial usage of the term "having a gene" (e.g., "good genes," "hair colour gene") typically refers to having a different allele of the gene. Genes evolve due to natural selection or survival of the fittest of the alleles.

What do mutations in a gene sequence lead to?

different variants, known as alleles

What do alleles do?

encode slightly different versions of a protein

What do alleles cause?

different phenotype traits

What does "having a gene" or a "good gene" typically refer to?

having a different allele of the gene

What causes genes to evolve?

natural selection or survival of the fittest of the alleles


The concept of a gene continues to be refined as new phenomena are discovered. For example, regulatory regions of a gene can be far removed from its coding regions, and coding regions can be split into several exons. Some viruses store their genome in RNA instead of DNA and some gene products are functional non-coding RNAs. Therefore, a broad, modern working definition of a gene is any discrete locus of heritable, genomic sequence which affect an organism's traits by being expressed as a functional product or by regulation of gene expression.

What can regulatory regions of a gene be far removed from?

its coding regions

What can coding regions be split into?

several exons

What do some viruses store their genome in instead of DNA?

RNA

What are some gene products?

functional non-coding RNAs

What is a broad, modern working definition of a gene?

any discrete locus of heritable, genomic sequence which affect an organism's traits by being expressed as a functional product


The existence of discrete inheritable units was first suggested by Gregor Mendel (1822–1884). From 1857 to 1864, he studied inheritance patterns in 8000 common edible pea plants, tracking distinct traits from parent to offspring. He described these mathematically as 2n combinations where n is the number of differing characteristics in the original peas. Although he did not use the term gene, he explained his results in terms of discrete inherited units that give rise to observable physical characteristics. This description prefigured the distinction between genotype (the genetic material of an organism) and phenotype (the visible traits of that organism). Mendel was also the first to demonstrate independent assortment, the distinction between dominant and recessive traits, the distinction between a heterozygote and homozygote, and the phenomenon of discontinuous inheritance.

Who first suggested the existence of discrete inheritable units?

Gregor Mendel (1822–1884)

If a distinct trait in edible pea plants is mathematically described as a 2n combination, what does n represent?

n is the number of differing characteristics in the original peas

What is one thing that Gregor Mendel was the first to demonstrate?

independent assortment

What is another thing that Gregor Mendel was the first to demonstrate?

the distinction between dominant and recessive traits

What did Gregor Mendel explain his results in terms of?

discrete inherited units that give rise to observable physical characteristics


Prior to Mendel's work, the dominant theory of heredity was one of blending inheritance, which suggested that each parent contributed fluids to the fertilisation process and that the traits of the parents blended and mixed to produce the offspring. Charles Darwin developed a theory of inheritance he termed pangenesis, which used the term gemmule to describe hypothetical particles that would mix during reproduction. Although Mendel's work was largely unrecognized after its first publication in 1866, it was 'rediscovered' in 1900 by three European scientists, Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns, and Erich von Tschermak, who claimed to have reached similar conclusions in their own research.

What was the dominant theory of heredity prior to Mendel's work?

one of blending inheritance

Who developed the theory of inheritance known as pangenesis?

Charles Darwin

What does the term gemmule describe?

hypothetical particles that would mix during reproduction

What year was Mendel's work first published?

Who are the three scientists that claimed to have reached conclusions similar to Mendel's?

Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns, and Erich von Tschermak


The word gene is derived (via pangene) from the Ancient Greek word γένος (génos) meaning "race, offspring". Gene was coined in 1909 by Danish botanist Wilhelm Johannsen to describe the fundamental physical and functional unit of heredity, while the related word genetics was first used by William Bateson in 1905.

What ancient Greek word is the word 'gene' derived from?

γένος (génos)

What does the ancient Greek word 'génos' mean?

"race, offspring"

What Danish botanist coined the word 'gene'?

Wilhelm Johannsen

What was the word 'gene' used to describe in 1909?

the fundamental physical and functional unit of heredity

Who first used the word 'genetics' in 1905?

William Bateson


Advances in understanding genes and inheritance continued throughout the 20th century. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was shown to be the molecular repository of genetic information by experiments in the 1940s to 1950s. The structure of DNA was studied by Rosalind Franklin using X-ray crystallography, which led James D. Watson and Francis Crick to publish a model of the double-stranded DNA molecule whose paired nucleotide bases indicated a compelling hypothesis for the mechanism of genetic replication. Collectively, this body of research established the central dogma of molecular biology, which states that proteins are translated from RNA, which is transcribed from DNA. This dogma has since been shown to have exceptions, such as reverse transcription in retroviruses. The modern study of genetics at the level of DNA is known as molecular genetics.

What was shown to be the molecular repository of genetic information by experiments in the 1940s to 1950s?

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

Who studied the structure of DNA using x-ray crystallography?

Rosalind Franklin

What two scientists published a model of the double stranded DNA molecule?

James D. Watson and Francis Crick

What is one exception to the central dogma of molecular biology?

reverse transcription in retroviruses

What is the modern study of genetics at the level of DNA known as?

molecular genetics


In 1972, Walter Fiers and his team at the University of Ghent were the first to determine the sequence of a gene: the gene for Bacteriophage MS2 coat protein. The subsequent development of chain-termination DNA sequencing in 1977 by Frederick Sanger improved the efficiency of sequencing and turned it into a routine laboratory tool. An automated version of the Sanger method was used in early phases of the Human Genome Project.

When was the first sequence of a gene determined?

In 1972

What was the first gene to be sequenced?

the gene for Bacteriophage MS2 coat protein

Who developed chain termination DNA sequencing in 1977?

Frederick Sanger

What did the devlopment of the chain termination DNA sequencing method do for the sequencing process?

improved the efficiency of sequencing and turned it into a routine laboratory tool.

What project used an automated version of the Sanger method in its early stages?

the Human Genome Project


The theories developed in the 1930s and 1940s to integrate molecular genetics with Darwinian evolution are called the modern evolutionary synthesis, a term introduced by Julian Huxley. Evolutionary biologists subsequently refined this concept, such as George C. Williams' gene-centric view of evolution. He proposed an evolutionary concept of the gene as a unit of natural selection with the definition: "that which segregates and recombines with appreciable frequency.":24 In this view, the molecular gene transcribes as a unit, and the evolutionary gene inherits as a unit. Related ideas emphasizing the centrality of genes in evolution were popularized by Richard Dawkins.

In what time span were the theories to integrate molecular genetic with Darwinian evolution developed?

the 1930s and 1940s

What are the theories that integrate molecular genetics with Darwinian evolution called?

the modern evolutionary synthesis

Who proposed an evolutionary concept of the gene as a unit of natural selection?

George C. Williams

What is the definition of the concept of the gene as a unit of natural selection?

"that which segregates and recombines with appreciable frequency."

Who popularized ideas emphasizing the centrality of genes in evolution?

Richard Dawkins


The vast majority of living organisms encode their genes in long strands of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). DNA consists of a chain made from four types of nucleotide subunits, each composed of: a five-carbon sugar (2'-deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and one of the four bases adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine.:2.1

What do the vast majority of living organisms encode their genes in?

long strands of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

What does DNA consist of?

a chain made from four types of nucleotide subunits

What type of sugar composes part of the DNA molecule?

a five-carbon sugar (2'-deoxyribose)

What are the four bases used in nucleotide subunits?

adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine

Besides the sugar and the four bases, what else does DNA consist of?

a phosphate group


Two chains of DNA twist around each other to form a DNA double helix with the phosphate-sugar backbone spiralling around the outside, and the bases pointing inwards with adenine base pairing to thymine and guanine to cytosine. The specificity of base pairing occurs because adenine and thymine align form two hydrogen bonds, whereas cytosine and guanine form three hydrogen bonds. The two strands in a double helix must therefore be complementary, with their sequence of bases matching such that the adenines of one strand are paired with the thymines of the other strand, and so on.:4.1

What is the backbone of a DNA double helix made of?

phosphate-sugar

What base pairs with thymine?

adenine

What base does guanine pair with?

cytosine

What causes the specificity of base pairing?

adenine and thymine align form two hydrogen bonds, whereas cytosine and guanine form three hydrogen bonds

Due to the cause of the specificity of base pairing, what must be true of the two strands in a double helix?

The two strands in a double helix must therefore be complementary


Due to the chemical composition of the pentose residues of the bases, DNA strands have directionality. One end of a DNA polymer contains an exposed hydroxyl group on the deoxyribose; this is known as the 3' end of the molecule. The other end contains an exposed phosphate group; this is the 5' end. The two strands of a double-helix run in opposite directions. Nucleic acid synthesis, including DNA replication and transcription occurs in the 5'→3' direction, because new nucleotides are added via a dehydration reaction that uses the exposed 3' hydroxyl as a nucleophile.:27.2

What causes the directionality of DNA strands?

the chemical composition of the pentose residues of the bases

What is known as the 3' end?

an exposed hydroxyl group on the deoxyribose

What is known as the 5' end?

an exposed phosphate group

What type of synthesis occurs in the 5'→3' direction?

Nucleic acid synthesis

Why does DNA replication and transcription occur in the 5'→3' direction?

because new nucleotides are added via a dehydration reaction that uses the exposed 3' hydroxyl as a nucleophile


The expression of genes encoded in DNA begins by transcribing the gene into RNA, a second type of nucleic acid that is very similar to DNA, but whose monomers contain the sugar ribose rather than deoxyribose. RNA also contains the base uracil in place of thymine. RNA molecules are less stable than DNA and are typically single-stranded. Genes that encode proteins are composed of a series of three-nucleotide sequences called codons, which serve as the "words" in the genetic "language". The genetic code specifies the correspondence during protein translation between codons and amino acids. The genetic code is nearly the same for all known organisms.:4.1

How does the expression of genes encoded in DNA begin?

by transcribing the gene into RNA

What is RNA?

a second type of nucleic acid that is very similar to DNA

What base does RNA have in place of thymine?

the base uracil

What are codons?

a series of three-nucleotide sequences

What specifies the correspondence between codons and amino acids during protein translation?

The genetic code


The total complement of genes in an organism or cell is known as its genome, which may be stored on one or more chromosomes. A chromosome consists of a single, very long DNA helix on which thousands of genes are encoded.:4.2 The region of the chromosome at which a particular gene is located is called its locus. Each locus contains one allele of a gene; however, members of a population may have different alleles at the locus, each with a slightly different gene sequence.

What is the total complement of genes in an organism or cell known as?

its genome

What does a chromosome consist of?

a single, very long DNA helix

What is encoded on a chromosome?

thousands of genes

What is the region of the chromosome at which a particular gene is located called?

its locus

What does each locus contain?

one allele of a gene


The majority of eukaryotic genes are stored on a set of large, linear chromosomes. The chromosomes are packed within the nucleus in complex with storage proteins called histones to form a unit called a nucleosome. DNA packaged and condensed in this way is called chromatin.:4.2 The manner in which DNA is stored on the histones, as well as chemical modifications of the histone itself, regulate whether a particular region of DNA is accessible for gene expression. In addition to genes, eukaryotic chromosomes contain sequences involved in ensuring that the DNA is copied without degradation of end regions and sorted into daughter cells during cell division: replication origins, telomeres and the centromere.:4.2 Replication origins are the sequence regions where DNA replication is initiated to make two copies of the chromosome. Telomeres are long stretches of repetitive sequence that cap the ends of the linear chromosomes and prevent degradation of coding and regulatory regions during DNA replication. The length of the telomeres decreases each time the genome is replicated and has been implicated in the aging process. The centromere is required for binding spindle fibres to separate sister chromatids into daughter cells during cell division.:18.2

Where are the majority of eukaryotic genes stored?

on a set of large, linear chromosomes

Chromosomes that are packed within the nucleus in complex with histones are called what?

a nucleosome

What does the manner of DNA storage on the histone and the chemical modifications of the histone itself regulate?

whether a particular region of DNA is accessible for gene expression

What are replication origins?

regions where DNA replication is initiated to make two copies of the chromosome

Long stretches of repetitive sequence that cap the ends of the linear chromosomes are called what?

Telomeres


Prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) typically store their genomes on a single large, circular chromosome. Similarly, some eukaryotic organelles contain a remnant circular chromosome with a small number of genes.:14.4 Prokaryotes sometimes supplement their chromosome with additional small circles of DNA called plasmids, which usually encode only a few genes and are transferable between individuals. For example, the genes for antibiotic resistance are usually encoded on bacterial plasmids and can be passed between individual cells, even those of different species, via horizontal gene transfer.

What are prokaryotes?

bacteria and archaea

How do prokaryotes store their genomes?

on a single large, circular chromosome

What type of chromosome do some eukaryotic organelles contain?

a remnant circular chromosome with a small number of genes

Small circles of DNA that encode only a few genes and are transferable between individuals are called what?

plasmids

What allows genes for antibiotic resistance to be passed between individual cells?

horizontal gene transfer


Whereas the chromosomes of prokaryotes are relatively gene-dense, those of eukaryotes often contain regions of DNA that serve no obvious function. Simple single-celled eukaryotes have relatively small amounts of such DNA, whereas the genomes of complex multicellular organisms, including humans, contain an absolute majority of DNA without an identified function. This DNA has often been referred to as "junk DNA". However, more recent analyses suggest that, although protein-coding DNA makes up barely 2% of the human genome, about 80% of the bases in the genome may be expressed, so the term "junk DNA" may be a misnomer.

What type of organism has relatively gene dense chromosomes?

prokaryotes

Regions of DNA that serve no obvious function are often found in what type of organism?

eukaryotes

What is referred to as "junk DNA"?

DNA without an identified function

What percentage of the human genome is made of protein coding DNA?

barely 2%

What percentage of bases in the human genome are expressed by protein coding DNA

about 80%


The structure of a gene consists of many elements of which the actual protein coding sequence is often only a small part. These include DNA regions that are not transcribed as well as untranslated regions of the RNA.

Often, how large a part of the structure of a gene is the protein coding sequence?

often only a small part

What often plays only a small part in the structure of a gene?

the actual protein coding sequence

What is one of the many elements that the structure of a gene consists of?

DNA regions that are not transcribed

What is another element of the structure of a gene?

untranslated regions of the RNA

What elements does the structure of a gene consist of?

DNA regions that are not transcribed as well as untranslated regions of the RNA


Firstly, flanking the open reading frame, all genes contain a regulatory sequence that is required for their expression. In order to be expressed, genes require a promoter sequence. The promoter is recognized and bound by transcription factors and RNA polymerase to initiate transcription.:7.1 A gene can have more than one promoter, resulting in messenger RNAs (mRNA) that differ in how far they extend in the 5' end. Promoter regions have a consensus sequence, however highly transcribed genes have "strong" promoter sequences that bind the transcription machinery well, whereas others have "weak" promoters that bind poorly and initiate transcription less frequently.:7.2 Eukaryotic promoter regions are much more complex and difficult to identify than prokaryotic promoters.:7.3

What do all genes contain that is required for their expression?

a regulatory sequence

How is a promoter sequence recognized?

by transcription factors and RNA polymerase

What results when genes have more than one promoter?

messenger RNAs (mRNA) that differ in how far they extend in the 5' end

What does a "strong" promoter sequence do?

bind the transcription machinery well

What does a "weak" promoter sequence do?

bind poorly and initiate transcription less frequently


Additionally, genes can have regulatory regions many kilobases upstream or downstream of the open reading frame. These act by binding to transcription factors which then cause the DNA to loop so that the regulatory sequence (and bound transcription factor) become close to the RNA polymerase binding site. For example, enhancers increase transcription by binding an activator protein which then helps to recruit the RNA polymerase to the promoter; conversely silencers bind repressor proteins and make the DNA less available for RNA polymerase.

How do regulatory regions act?

by binding to transcription factors

What happens when a regulatory region binds to transcription factors?

the DNA to loop

How do enhancers increase transcription?

by binding an activator protein

What happens after an enhancer binds an activator protein?

helps to recruit the RNA polymerase to the promoter

What causes DNA to be less available for RNA polymerase?

silencers bind repressor proteins


The transcribed pre-mRNA contains untranslated regions at both ends which contain a ribosome binding site, terminator and start and stop codons. In addition, most eukaryotic open reading frames contain untranslated introns which are removed before the exons are translated. The sequences at the ends of the introns, dictate the splice sites to generate the final mature mRNA which encodes the protein or RNA product.

What is at both ends of the transcribed pre-mRNA?

untranslated regions

Where are the ribosome binding site, terminator and start and stop codons located on transcribed pre-mRNA?

untranslated regions

What do most eukaryotic open reading frames contain?

untranslated introns

What dictates the splice sites to generate the final mature mRNA?

The sequences at the ends of the introns

What encodes the protein or RNA product?

the splice sites to generate the final mature mRNA


Many prokaryotic genes are organized into operons, with multiple protein-coding sequences that are transcribed as a unit. The products of operon genes typically have related functions and are involved in the same regulatory network.:7.3

What are most prokaryotic genes organized into?

operons

What are multiple protein coding sequences transcribed as?

a unit

What sort of functions do the products of operon genes typically have?

related functions

What type of network are the products of operon genes typically involved with?

the same regulatory network

What type of coding sequences do prokaryotic genes typically have?

multiple protein-coding sequences


Defining exactly what section of a DNA sequence comprises a gene is difficult. Regulatory regions of a gene such as enhancers do not necessarily have to be close to the coding sequence on the linear molecule because the intervening DNA can be looped out to bring the gene and its regulatory region into proximity. Similarly, a gene's introns can be much larger than its exons. Regulatory regions can even be on entirely different chromosomes and operate in trans to allow regulatory regions on one chromosome to come in contact with target genes on another chromosome.

What is an example of a regulatory region of a gene that does not have to close to the coding sequence?

enhancers

Why do some regulatory regions of a gene not have to be close to the coding sequence?

because the intervening DNA can be looped out to bring the gene and its regulatory region into proximity

What part of a gene can be much larger than its exons?

a gene's introns

How do regulatory regions on different chromosomes operate in order to allow regions on different chromosomes to come into contact with one another?

in trans

Where can regulatory regions be found?

different chromosomes


Early work in molecular genetics suggested the model that one gene makes one protein. This model has been refined since the discovery of genes that can encode multiple proteins by alternative splicing and coding sequences split in short section across the genome whose mRNAs are concatenated by trans-splicing.

What model did early work in molecular genetics suggest?

the model that one gene makes one protein.

What discovery caused the model that one gene makes one protein to be refined?

the discovery of genes that can encode multiple proteins

How do genes encode multiple proteins?

by alternative splicing and coding sequences

How are alternative splicing and coding sequences distributed?

split in short section across the genome

In order for a gene to encode multiple proteins, how must its mRNAs be arranged?

concatenated by trans-splicing.


A broad operational definition is sometimes used to encompass the complexity of these diverse phenomena, where a gene is defined as a union of genomic sequences encoding a coherent set of potentially overlapping functional products. This definition categorizes genes by their functional products (proteins or RNA) rather than their specific DNA loci, with regulatory elements classified as gene-associated regions.

What sort of definition can be used to conveniently encompass the complexity of diverse phenomena?

A broad operational definition

What is the broad operational definition of a gene?

a union of genomic sequences encoding a coherent set of potentially overlapping functional products

What does the typical definition of a gene categorize genes by?

their specific DNA loci

What does the broad operational definition of gene categorize genes by?

their functional products (proteins or RNA)

What does the broad operational definition of a gene classify as gene-associated regions?

regulatory elements


In all organisms, two steps are required to read the information encoded in a gene's DNA and produce the protein it specifies. First, the gene's DNA is transcribed to messenger RNA (mRNA).:6.1 Second, that mRNA is translated to protein.:6.2 RNA-coding genes must still go through the first step, but are not translated into protein. The process of producing a biologically functional molecule of either RNA or protein is called gene expression, and the resulting molecule is called a gene product.

How many steps are required to read the information encoded in a gene's DNA and produce the specified protein?

two steps are required

What is the first step to read the information encoded in a gene's DNA and produce the protein it specifies?

the gene's DNA is transcribed to messenger RNA (mRNA)

What is the second step to read the information encoded in a gene's DNA and produce the protein it specifies?

mRNA is translated to protein

What step must RNA-coding genes still go through?

the first step

What is the process of producing a biologically functional molecule of either RNA or protein called?

gene expression


The nucleotide sequence of a gene's DNA specifies the amino acid sequence of a protein through the genetic code. Sets of three nucleotides, known as codons, each correspond to a specific amino acid.:6 Additionally, a "start codon", and three "stop codons" indicate the beginning and end of the protein coding region. There are 64 possible codons (four possible nucleotides at each of three positions, hence 43 possible codons) and only 20 standard amino acids; hence the code is redundant and multiple codons can specify the same amino acid. The correspondence between codons and amino acids is nearly universal among all known living organisms.

What specifies the amino acid sequence of a protein?

The nucleotide sequence of a gene's DNA

What are sets of three nucleotides known as?

codons

What does each codon correspond to?

a specific amino acid

What indicates the beginning and end of the protein coding region?

a "start codon", and three "stop codons"

How many possible codons are there?

There are 64 possible codons (four possible nucleotides at each of three positions, hence 43 possible codons)


Transcription produces a single-stranded RNA molecule known as messenger RNA, whose nucleotide sequence is complementary to the DNA from which it was transcribed.:6.1 The mRNA acts as an intermediate between the DNA gene and its final protein product. The gene's DNA is used as a template to generate a complementary mRNA. The mRNA matches the sequence of the gene's DNA coding strand because it is synthesised as the complement of the template strand. Transcription is performed by an enzyme called an RNA polymerase, which reads the template strand in the 3' to 5' direction and synthesizes the RNA from 5' to 3'. To initiate transcription, the polymerase first recognizes and binds a promoter region of the gene. Thus, a major mechanism of gene regulation is the blocking or sequestering the promoter region, either by tight binding by repressor molecules that physically block the polymerase, or by organizing the DNA so that the promoter region is not accessible.:7

What does transcription produce?

a single-stranded RNA molecule known as messenger RNA

How does the nucleotide sequence of mRNA compare to DNA?

complementary to the DNA from which it was transcribed

What is used as a template to generate a complementary mRNA?

The gene's DNA

Why does the mRNA match the sequence of the gene's DNA coding strand?

because it is synthesised as the complement of the template strand

What is the enzyme called that performs transcription?

an RNA polymerase


In prokaryotes, transcription occurs in the cytoplasm; for very long transcripts, translation may begin at the 5' end of the RNA while the 3' end is still being transcribed. In eukaryotes, transcription occurs in the nucleus, where the cell's DNA is stored. The RNA molecule produced by the polymerase is known as the primary transcript and undergoes post-transcriptional modifications before being exported to the cytoplasm for translation. One of the modifications performed is the splicing of introns which are sequences in the transcribed region that do not encode protein. Alternative splicing mechanisms can result in mature transcripts from the same gene having different sequences and thus coding for different proteins. This is a major form of regulation in eukaryotic cells and also occurs in some prokaryotes.:7.5

Where does transcription occur in prokaryotes?

in the cytoplasm

If the transcription is very long, where on the RNA may translation begin?

at the 5' end of the RNA

Where does transcription occur in eukaryotes?

transcription occurs in the nucleus

Where does a eukaryote store the cell's DNA?

in the nucleus

What is the RNA molecule produced by the polymerase known as?

the primary transcript


Translation is the process by which a mature mRNA molecule is used as a template for synthesizing a new protein.:6.2 Translation is carried out by ribosomes, large complexes of RNA and protein responsible for carrying out the chemical reactions to add new amino acids to a growing polypeptide chain by the formation of peptide bonds. The genetic code is read three nucleotides at a time, in units called codons, via interactions with specialized RNA molecules called transfer RNA (tRNA). Each tRNA has three unpaired bases known as the anticodon that are complementary to the codon it reads on the mRNA. The tRNA is also covalently attached to the amino acid specified by the complementary codon. When the tRNA binds to its complementary codon in an mRNA strand, the ribosome attaches its amino acid cargo to the new polypeptide chain, which is synthesized from amino terminus to carboxyl terminus. During and after synthesis, most new proteins must folds to their active three-dimensional structure before they can carry out their cellular functions.:3

What is the process by which a mature mRNA molecule is used as a template for synthesizing a new protein called?

Translation

What does a ribosome consist of?

large complexes of RNA and protein

What is a ribosome responsible for?

carrying out the chemical reactions to add new amino acids to a growing polypeptide chain

How is the genetic code read?

via interactions with specialized RNA molecules called transfer RNA (tRNA)

How many unpaired bases does each tRNA have?

three