In the extreme empiricism of the neopositivists—at least before the 1930s—any genuinely synthetic assertion must be reducible to an ultimate assertion (or set of ultimate assertions) that expresses direct observations or perceptions. In later years, Carnap and Neurath abandoned this sort of phenomenalism in favor of a rational reconstruction of knowledge into the language of an objective spatio-temporal physics. That is, instead of translating sentences about physical objects into sense-data, such sentences were to be translated into so-called protocol sentences, for example, "X at location Y and at time T observes such and such." The central theses of logical positivism (verificationism, the analytic-synthetic distinction, reductionism, etc.) came under sharp attack after World War II by thinkers such as Nelson Goodman, W.V. Quine, Hilary Putnam, Karl Popper, and Richard Rorty. By the late 1960s, it had become evident to most philosophers that the movement had pretty much run its course, though its influence is still significant among contemporary analytic philosophers such as Michael Dummett and other anti-realists.

Who were extreme empiricists?

neopositivists

Who attacked logical positivism?

Nelson Goodman, W.V. Quine, Hilary Putnam, Karl Popper, and Richard Rorty

What position does Dummett take?

anti-realists

Who abandoned phenomenalism?

Carnap and Neurath

When did Carnap and Neurath leave phenomenalism?

I'm not sure.

When did Michael Dummett begin championing neopositivism?

I'm not sure.

When was logical positivism at its most popular?

I'm not sure.

What war led to the abandonment of phenomenalism?

I'm not sure.

What position did Hilary Putnam favour?

I'm not sure.


In the late 19th and early 20th century several forms of pragmatic philosophy arose. The ideas of pragmatism, in its various forms, developed mainly from discussions between Charles Sanders Peirce and William James when both men were at Harvard in the 1870s. James popularized the term "pragmatism", giving Peirce full credit for its patrimony, but Peirce later demurred from the tangents that the movement was taking, and redubbed what he regarded as the original idea with the name of "pragmaticism". Along with its pragmatic theory of truth, this perspective integrates the basic insights of empirical (experience-based) and rational (concept-based) thinking.

When did pragmatism arise?

In the late 19th and early 20th century

Who developed pragmatism?

Charles Sanders Peirce and William James

Where did Peirce and James meet?

Harvard

When did Peirce and James meet?

in the 1870s

What did Peirce later call his ideas instead of pragmatism?

pragmaticism

What year did Charles Sanders Peirce graduate from harvard?

I'm not sure.

What did James rename pragmaticism as?

I'm not sure.

When did James and Pierce split ways?

I'm not sure.

When did pragmatic philosophy die out?

I'm not sure.

What was the tangent of pragmatism that Peirce didn't like?

I'm not sure.


Charles Peirce (1839–1914) was highly influential in laying the groundwork for today's empirical scientific method.[citation needed] Although Peirce severely criticized many elements of Descartes' peculiar brand of rationalism, he did not reject rationalism outright. Indeed, he concurred with the main ideas of rationalism, most importantly the idea that rational concepts can be meaningful and the idea that rational concepts necessarily go beyond the data given by empirical observation. In later years he even emphasized the concept-driven side of the then ongoing debate between strict empiricism and strict rationalism, in part to counterbalance the excesses to which some of his cohorts had taken pragmatism under the "data-driven" strict-empiricist view.

When was Peirce born?

When did Peirce die?

What view did Peirce think had been driven to excess?

the "data-driven" strict-empiricist view

Who formed the basis for modern scientific method?

Charles Peirce

Whose rationalism did Peirce criticize?

Descartes

When did Pierce begin to take excesses with data-driven empiricism?

I'm not sure.

Why did Pierce reject rationalism?

I'm not sure.

Which philosopher did Pierce agree with the most?

I'm not sure.

When was the strict-empiricist view started?

I'm not sure.

Why did Pierce prefer the data-driven empiricist view?

I'm not sure.


Among Peirce's major contributions was to place inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning in a complementary rather than competitive mode, the latter of which had been the primary trend among the educated since David Hume wrote a century before. To this, Peirce added the concept of abductive reasoning. The combined three forms of reasoning serve as a primary conceptual foundation for the empirically based scientific method today. Peirce's approach "presupposes that (1) the objects of knowledge are real things, (2) the characters (properties) of real things do not depend on our perceptions of them, and (3) everyone who has sufficient experience of real things will agree on the truth about them. According to Peirce's doctrine of fallibilism, the conclusions of science are always tentative. The rationality of the scientific method does not depend on the certainty of its conclusions, but on its self-corrective character: by continued application of the method science can detect and correct its own mistakes, and thus eventually lead to the discovery of truth".

How long before Peirce did Hume write?

a century

How did Peirce view inductive vs deductive reasoning?

complementary

How did Hume view inductive vs deductive reasoning?

competitive

What did fallibilism say?

the conclusions of science are always tentative

What does the scientific method's rationality depend on?

its self-corrective character

When was abductive reasoning added?

I'm not sure.

When was the doctrine of fallibilism published?

I'm not sure.

Who said the doctrines of science are always definitive?

I'm not sure.

Why does the scientific method rely on its certainty?

I'm not sure.


In his Harvard "Lectures on Pragmatism" (1903), Peirce enumerated what he called the "three cotary propositions of pragmatism" (L: cos, cotis whetstone), saying that they "put the edge on the maxim of pragmatism". First among these he listed the peripatetic-thomist observation mentioned above, but he further observed that this link between sensory perception and intellectual conception is a two-way street. That is, it can be taken to say that whatever we find in the intellect is also incipiently in the senses. Hence, if theories are theory-laden then so are the senses, and perception itself can be seen as a species of abductive inference, its difference being that it is beyond control and hence beyond critique – in a word, incorrigible. This in no way conflicts with the fallibility and revisability of scientific concepts, since it is only the immediate percept in its unique individuality or "thisness" – what the Scholastics called its haecceity – that stands beyond control and correction. Scientific concepts, on the other hand, are general in nature, and transient sensations do in another sense find correction within them. This notion of perception as abduction has received periodic revivals in artificial intelligence and cognitive science research, most recently for instance with the work of Irvin Rock on indirect perception.

Who wrote 'Lectures on Pragmatism'?

Peirce

When was 'Lectures on Pragmatism' published?

What is 'haecceity'?

unique individuality or "thisness"

What did Irvin Rock write about?

indirect perception

Where has 'perception as abduction' come up repeatedly?

in artificial intelligence and cognitive science research

In what essay was haecceity defined?

I'm not sure.

When did Irvin Rock publish his essay?

I'm not sure.

What school did Irvin Rock attend?

I'm not sure.

What is the inverse relation between theories and senses?

I'm not sure.

Who subverted the peripatetic-thomist observation?

I'm not sure.


Around the beginning of the 20th century, William James (1842–1910) coined the term "radical empiricism" to describe an offshoot of his form of pragmatism, which he argued could be dealt with separately from his pragmatism – though in fact the two concepts are intertwined in James's published lectures. James maintained that the empirically observed "directly apprehended universe needs ... no extraneous trans-empirical connective support", by which he meant to rule out the perception that there can be any value added by seeking supernatural explanations for natural phenomena. James's "radical empiricism" is thus not radical in the context of the term "empiricism", but is instead fairly consistent with the modern use of the term "empirical". (His method of argument in arriving at this view, however, still readily encounters debate within philosophy even today.)

Who came up with 'radical empiricism'?

William James

Where were James's pragmatism and radical empiricism intertwined?

in James's published lectures

When was William James born?

When did William James die?

When did James come up with 'radical empiricism'?

Around the beginning of the 20th century

Why is James' method considered radical?

I'm not sure.

What methodology by James is roundly accepted today?

I'm not sure.

Where did James prove pragmatism and radical empiricism could be dealt with separately?

I'm not sure.

How did James argue for the importance of the supernatural?

I'm not sure.


John Dewey (1859–1952) modified James' pragmatism to form a theory known as instrumentalism. The role of sense experience in Dewey's theory is crucial, in that he saw experience as unified totality of things through which everything else is interrelated. Dewey's basic thought, in accordance with empiricism was that reality is determined by past experience. Therefore, humans adapt their past experiences of things to perform experiments upon and test the pragmatic values of such experience. The value of such experience is measured experientially and scientifically, and the results of such tests generate ideas that serve as instruments for future experimentation, in physical sciences as in ethics. Thus, ideas in Dewey's system retain their empiricist flavour in that they are only known a posteriori.

Who came up with 'instrumentalism'?

John Dewey

What did Dewey think about reality?

reality is determined by past experience

When was Dewey born?

When did Dewey die?

What was instrumentalism a modification of?

James' pragmatism

How did James define reality?

I'm not sure.

Why is Dewey's system considered a priori?

I'm not sure.

Who changed Dewey's solution?

I'm not sure.

Why is basic thought crucial to Dewey's theory?

I'm not sure.

Who claimed that humans create experiments based on the perceived future?

I'm not sure.


In philosophy, idealism is the group of philosophies which assert that reality, or reality as we can know it, is fundamentally mental, mentally constructed, or otherwise immaterial. Epistemologically, idealism manifests as a skepticism about the possibility of knowing any mind-independent thing. In a sociological sense, idealism emphasizes how human ideas—especially beliefs and values—shape society. As an ontological doctrine, idealism goes further, asserting that all entities are composed of mind or spirit. Idealism thus rejects physicalist and dualist theories that fail to ascribe priority to the mind.

What do idealist philosophies say is constructed in our minds?

reality

What types of things are idealist philosophies skeptical about?

mind-independent

Along with physicalist theories, what theories is idealism in conflict with?

dualist

In sociology, what sorts of ideas does idealism focus on?

beliefs and values

What processes do idealists say are constructed by reality?

I'm not sure.

Mind-independent things are taken for granted in what philosophy?

I'm not sure.

What theories does idealism crossover with?

I'm not sure.

What is dualism skeptical about?

I'm not sure.

Which type of human ideas is idealism uninterested in?

I'm not sure.


The earliest extant arguments that the world of experience is grounded in the mental derive from India and Greece. The Hindu idealists in India and the Greek Neoplatonists gave panentheistic arguments for an all-pervading consciousness as the ground or true nature of reality. In contrast, the Yogācāra school, which arose within Mahayana Buddhism in India in the 4th century CE, based its "mind-only" idealism to a greater extent on phenomenological analyses of personal experience. This turn toward the subjective anticipated empiricists such as George Berkeley, who revived idealism in 18th-century Europe by employing skeptical arguments against materialism.

What Indian thinkers were early idealists?

Hindu

What Greek philosophers had idealistic views?

Neoplatonists

With what sect of Buddhism was the Yogācāra school affiliated?

Mahayana

In what century did the Yogācāra school arise?

What century did George Berkeley live in?

When did Neoplatonists arise?

I'm not sure.

Who started the Yogacara school?

I'm not sure.

When did the Yogacara school end?

I'm not sure.

What type of Buddhism was common in Greece?

I'm not sure.

What practice where Neoplatonists arguing against?

I'm not sure.


Beginning with Immanuel Kant, German idealists such as G. W. F. Hegel, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, and Arthur Schopenhauer dominated 19th-century philosophy. This tradition, which emphasized the mental or "ideal" character of all phenomena, gave birth to idealistic and subjectivist schools ranging from British idealism to phenomenalism to existentialism. The historical influence of this branch of idealism remains central even to the schools that rejected its metaphysical assumptions, such as Marxism, pragmatism and positivism.

What was the ethnicity of Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling?

German

In what century did Hegel write?

Along with British idealism and existentialism, what philosophy was influenced by the German idealistic tradition?

phenomenalism

Along with positivism and pragmatism, what philosophy rejected idealism's metaphysical views but what nevertheless influenced by it?

Marxism

Whose philosophy did Immanuel Kant write against?

I'm not sure.

What schools of thought were contrary to British idealism?

I'm not sure.

What was the name of the first British idealist?

I'm not sure.

Hegel wrote about what philosophy that rejected metaphysical assumptions?

I'm not sure.

When did Marxism dominate philosophy?

I'm not sure.


Idealism is a term with several related meanings. It comes via idea from the Greek idein (ἰδεῖν), meaning "to see". The term entered the English language by 1743. In ordinary use, as when speaking of Woodrow Wilson's political idealism, it generally suggests the priority of ideals, principles, values, and goals over concrete realities. Idealists are understood to represent the world as it might or should be, unlike pragmatists, who focus on the world as it presently is. In the arts, similarly, idealism affirms imagination and attempts to realize a mental conception of beauty, a standard of perfection, juxtaposed to aesthetic naturalism and realism.

What does ἰδεῖν mean in English?

to see

By what year was "idealism" a word in English?

Whose worldview contrasts with that of idealists in the ordinary sense of the word?

pragmatists

What language is ἰδεῖν?

Greek

When did the Greek word idein mean to see?

I'm not sure.

Who was president in 1793?

I'm not sure.

What does the English word idein mean?

I'm not sure.

Idealists see the world the same way as what other philosophers?

I'm not sure.

How do pragmatists view the arts?

I'm not sure.


Any philosophy that assigns crucial importance to the ideal or spiritual realm in its account of human existence may be termed "idealist". Metaphysical idealism is an ontological doctrine that holds that reality itself is incorporeal or experiential at its core. Beyond this, idealists disagree on which aspects of the mental are more basic. Platonic idealism affirms that abstractions are more basic to reality than the things we perceive, while subjective idealists and phenomenalists tend to privilege sensory experience over abstract reasoning. Epistemological idealism is the view that reality can only be known through ideas, that only psychological experience can be apprehended by the mind.

What is the term used for philosophies that consider the spiritual to be of paramount importance?

idealist

What branch of idealism believes that reality is fundamentally nonphysical?

Metaphysical

What branch of idealism sees abstracts as more real than perceived objects?

Platonic

Along with phenomenalists, what idealists believe the senses are more important than reason?

subjective

What branch of idealism believes that we can only know the real world via ideas?

Epistemological

Philosophies that regard the spiritual realm highly cannot be called what?

I'm not sure.

What type of doctrine says reality is corporeal?

I'm not sure.

What aspects of the mental do idealists agree on?

I'm not sure.

Platonic idealism's understanding of abstractions is similar to what view?

I'm not sure.

What view believes ideas are irrelevant to the real world?

I'm not sure.


Subjective idealists like George Berkeley are anti-realists in terms of a mind-independent world, whereas transcendental idealists like Immanuel Kant are strong skeptics of such a world, affirming epistemological and not metaphysical idealism. Thus Kant defines idealism as "the assertion that we can never be certain whether all of our putative outer experience is not mere imagining". He claimed that, according to idealism, "the reality of external objects does not admit of strict proof. On the contrary, however, the reality of the object of our internal sense (of myself and state) is clear immediately through consciousness."  However, not all idealists restrict the real or the knowable to our immediate subjective experience. Objective idealists make claims about a transempirical world, but simply deny that this world is essentially divorced from or ontologically prior to the mental. Thus Plato and Gottfried Leibniz affirm an objective and knowable reality transcending our subjective awareness—a rejection of epistemological idealism—but propose that this reality is grounded in ideal entities, a form of metaphysical idealism. Nor do all metaphysical idealists agree on the nature of the ideal; for Plato, the fundamental entities were non-mental abstract forms, while for Leibniz they were proto-mental and concrete monads.

Who is a notable subjective idealist?

George Berkeley

What famous philosopher was a transcendental idealist?

Immanuel Kant

Who are subjective idealists opposed to?

realists

Along with Plato, what notable philosopher rejected epistemological idealism?

Gottfried Leibniz

Who believed the essence of reality to be composed of monads?

Leibniz

What idealist is George Berkeley most similar to?

I'm not sure.

Berkeley defines idealism by saying we can never be sure of what?

I'm not sure.

What did Kant say reality needed to admit?

I'm not sure.

Who are subjective idealists in agreement with?

I'm not sure.

Who disagreed with Plato's rejection of epistemological idealism?

I'm not sure.


Christian theologians have held idealist views, often based on Neoplatonism, despite the influence of Aristotelian scholasticism from the 12th century onward. Later western theistic idealism such as that of Hermann Lotze offers a theory of the "world ground" in which all things find their unity: it has been widely accepted by Protestant theologians. Several modern religious movements, for example the organizations within the New Thought Movement and the Unity Church, may be said to have a particularly idealist orientation. The theology of Christian Science includes a form of idealism: it teaches that all that truly exists is God and God's ideas; that the world as it appears to the senses is a distortion of the underlying spiritual reality, a distortion that may be corrected (both conceptually and in terms of human experience) through a reorientation (spiritualization) of thought.

In what philosophy was Christian idealism often rooted?

Neoplatonism

What philosophy influential in the medieval church was opposed to Christian idealism?

Aristotelian scholasticism

In what century did Christian thought begin to be influenced by the scholasticism of Aristotle?

Along with the Unity Church, what contemporary religious movement may be regarded as idealist?

New Thought

What notable idealist was responsible for a "world ground" theory?

Hermann Lotze

When did Hermann Lotz offer his theories?

I'm not sure.

Aristotelian scholasticism often formed the basis of what kind of theologian?

I'm not sure.

Who founded New Thought Movement?

I'm not sure.

What form of idealism does the Unity church teach about reality?

I'm not sure.

What theory was rejected by Protestants?

I'm not sure.


Plato's theory of forms or "ideas" describes ideal forms (for example the platonic solids in geometry or abstracts like Goodness and Justice), as universals existing independently of any particular instance. Arne Grøn calls this doctrine "the classic example of a metaphysical idealism as a transcendent idealism", while Simone Klein calls Plato "the earliest representative of metaphysical objective idealism". Nevertheless, Plato holds that matter is real, though transitory and imperfect, and is perceived by our body and its senses and given existence by the eternal ideas that are perceived directly by our rational soul. Plato was therefore a metaphysical and epistemological dualist, an outlook that modern idealism has striven to avoid: Plato's thought cannot therefore be counted as idealist in the modern sense, although quantum physics' assertion that man's consciousness is an immutable and primary requisite for not merely perceiving but shaping matter, and thus his reality, would give more credence to Plato's dualist position.[citation needed]

What was another term for forms in Plato's theory of forms?

ideas

Who regarded Plato as the oldest exponent of metaphysical objective idealism?

Simone Klein

What sort of dualist is Plato regarded as?

metaphysical and epistemological

What branch of physics might support a worldview similar to Platonic dualism?

quantum

What does Plato say are dependent?

I'm not sure.

How does Arne Gron's theory of forms say ideal forms exist?

I'm not sure.

Modern idealism believes in what two kinds of dualism?

I'm not sure.

What type of physics did Simone Klein study?

I'm not sure.

Quantum physics disagrees with what philosopher?

I'm not sure.


With the neoplatonist Plotinus, wrote Nathaniel Alfred Boll; "there even appears, probably for the first time in Western philosophy, idealism that had long been current in the East even at that time, for it taught... that the soul has made the world by stepping from eternity into time...". Similarly, in regard to passages from the Enneads, "The only space or place of the world is the soul" and "Time must not be assumed to exist outside the soul", Ludwig Noiré wrote: "For the first time in Western philosophy we find idealism proper in Plotinus, However, Plotinus does not address whether we know external objects, unlike Schopenhauer and other modern philosophers.

What sort of philosopher was Plotinus?

neoplatonist

According to Noiré, who was the first true Western idealist?

Plotinus

What issue did Schopenhauer discuss that Plotinus did not?

whether we know external objects

What did the Enneads believe might not have existence outside of the soul?

Time

What type of philosopher was Nathaniel Alfred Boll?

I'm not sure.

Who was one of the Enneads?

I'm not sure.

What modern philosopher as Plotinus similar to?

I'm not sure.

Who said time existed outside of the soul?

I'm not sure.

Boll taught that the soul made the world by doing what?

I'm not sure.


Subjective Idealism (immaterialism or phenomenalism) describes a relationship between experience and the world in which objects are no more than collections or "bundles" of sense data in the perceiver. Proponents include Berkeley, Bishop of Cloyne, an Anglo-Irish philosopher who advanced a theory he called immaterialism, later referred to as "subjective idealism", contending that individuals can only know sensations and ideas of objects directly, not abstractions such as "matter", and that ideas also depend upon being perceived for their very existence - esse est percipi; "to be is to be perceived".

Along with phenomenalism, what is another term for subjective idealism?

immaterialism

Of what see was Berkeley bishop?

Cloyne

What was Berkeley's ethnicity?

Anglo-Irish

What does esse est percipi mean?

to be is to be perceived

What did Berkeley consider things like matter to be?

abstractions

Who coined the term subjective idealism?

I'm not sure.

What philosophies run counter to subjective idealism?

I'm not sure.

What is another word for sense data?

I'm not sure.

What is the Latin phrase meaning subjective idealism?

I'm not sure.

What do not need to be perceived to exist?

I'm not sure.


Arthur Collier published similar assertions though there seems to have been no influence between the two contemporary writers. The only knowable reality is the represented image of an external object. Matter as a cause of that image, is unthinkable and therefore nothing to us. An external world as absolute matter unrelated to an observer does not exist as far as we are concerned. The universe cannot exist as it appears if there is no perceiving mind. Collier was influenced by An Essay Towards the Theory of the Ideal or Intelligible World by "Cambridge Platonist" John Norris (1701).

Who was known as the "Cambridge Platonist"?

John Norris

Who was notably influenced by John Norris?

Arthur Collier

When was An Essay Towards the Theory of the Ideal or Intelligible World written?

What sort of reality did Collier believe was knowable?

represented image of an external object

What did Collier write?

I'm not sure.

When did Collier publish his ideas?

I'm not sure.

What was Collier's nickname?

I'm not sure.

Who did Collier influence?

I'm not sure.

How many contemporary writers did Collier have?

I'm not sure.


and proliferation of hyphenated entities such as "thing-in-itself" (Immanuel Kant), "things-as-interacted-by-us" (Arthur Fine), "table-of-commonsense" and "table-of-physics" (Sir Arthur Eddington) which are "warning signs" for conceptual idealism according to Musgrave because they allegedly do not exist but only highlight the numerous ways in which people come to know the world. This argument does not take into account the issues pertaining to hermeneutics, especially at the backdrop of analytic philosophy. Musgrave criticized Richard Rorty and Postmodernist philosophy in general for confusion of use and mention.

Who coined the term "thing-in-itself"?

Immanuel Kant

Who invented the idea of a "table-of-commonsense"?

Sir Arthur Eddington

Who came up with the idea of "things-as-interacted-by-us"?

Arthur Fine

Who spoke of the "warning signs" of idealism?

Musgrave

What sort of philosopher was Richard Rorty?

Postmodernist

Who did Richard Rorty criticize?

I'm not sure.

What hyphenated term did Musgrave coin?

I'm not sure.

What did Immanuel Kant call warning signs?

I'm not sure.

Who argued against issues of hermeneutics?

I'm not sure.

What kind of philosopher was Musgrave?

I'm not sure.


A. A. Luce and John Foster are other subjectivists. Luce, in Sense without Matter (1954), attempts to bring Berkeley up to date by modernizing his vocabulary and putting the issues he faced in modern terms, and treats the Biblical account of matter and the psychology of perception and nature. Foster's The Case for Idealism argues that the physical world is the logical creation of natural, non-logical constraints on human sense-experience. Foster's latest defense of his views is in his book A World for Us: The Case for Phenomenalistic Idealism.

What sort of thinkers were Foster and Luce?

subjectivists

What book was written by A.A. Luce?

Sense without Matter

What year saw the publication of Sense without Matter?

Who wrote A World for Us: The Case for Phenomenalistic Idealism?

Foster

Whose work is Sense without Matter regarded as updating?

Berkeley

When was The Case for Idealism published?

I'm not sure.

What did Berkeley write in 1954?

I'm not sure.

What aspect of Berkeley's writing did Foster modernize?

I'm not sure.

What did Foster publish after A World For Us?

I'm not sure.

Whose work does Foster update?

I'm not sure.


The 2nd edition (1787) contained a Refutation of Idealism to distinguish his transcendental idealism from Descartes's Sceptical Idealism and Berkeley's anti-realist strain of Subjective Idealism. The section Paralogisms of Pure Reason is an implicit critique of Descartes' idealism. Kant says that it is not possible to infer the 'I' as an object (Descartes' cogito ergo sum) purely from "the spontaneity of thought". Kant focused on ideas drawn from British philosophers such as Locke, Berkeley and Hume but distinguished his transcendental or critical idealism from previous varieties;

What school of thought did Berkeley belong to?

Subjective Idealism

What sort of idealist was Descartes?

Sceptical

In what section was Descartes criticized?

Paralogisms of Pure Reason

In what edition was there a Refutation of Idealism?

When was the second edition published?

What does Descartes say is impossible?

I'm not sure.

What Latin phrase did Kant coin?

I'm not sure.

When did Locke publish his ideas?

I'm not sure.

The 2nd edition merged its ideas with which two forms of thought?

I'm not sure.

What was Descartes' nationality?

I'm not sure.


In the first volume of his Parerga and Paralipomena, Schopenhauer wrote his "Sketch of a History of the Doctrine of the Ideal and the Real". He defined the ideal as being mental pictures that constitute subjective knowledge. The ideal, for him, is what can be attributed to our own minds. The images in our head are what comprise the ideal. Schopenhauer emphasized that we are restricted to our own consciousness. The world that appears is only a representation or mental picture of objects. We directly and immediately know only representations. All objects that are external to the mind are known indirectly through the mediation of our mind. He offered a history of the concept of the "ideal" as "ideational" or "existing in the mind as an image".

Who wrote Parerga and Paralipomena?

Schopenhauer

According to Schopenhauer, to what can the ideal be attributed?

our own minds

What did Schopenhauer believe we were restricted to?

our own consciousness

What did Schopenhauer believe were the only things we could know?

representations

What type of knowledge did Schopenhauer believe the ideal to be?

subjective

What essay is in Schopenhauer's second volume?

I'm not sure.

What are we unrestricted by?

I'm not sure.

How are external objects known directly?

I'm not sure.

What constitutes mental pictures?

I'm not sure.

Schopenhauer said the ideal was not what type of knowledge?

I'm not sure.


Friedrich Nietzsche argued that Kant commits an agnostic tautology and does not offer a satisfactory answer as to the source of a philosophical right to such-or-other metaphysical claims; he ridicules his pride in tackling "the most difficult thing that could ever be undertaken on behalf of metaphysics." The famous "thing-in-itself" was called a product of philosophical habit, which seeks to introduce a grammatical subject: because wherever there is cognition, there must be a thing that is cognized and allegedly it must be added to ontology as a being (whereas, to Nietzsche, only the world as ever changing appearances can be assumed). Yet he attacks the idealism of Schopenhauer and Descartes with an argument similar to Kant's critique of the latter (see above).

Who censured Kant for his agnostic tautology?

Friedrich Nietzsche

Along with Schopenhauer, whose idealism did Nietzsche attack?

Descartes

Nietzsche's attack on Schopenhauer used an argument similar to Kant's attack on who?

Descartes

What kind of error did Kant say Nietzsche's argument had?

I'm not sure.

Which two philosophers did Nietzsche agree with?

I'm not sure.

Who argued that Nietzsche's theory of the world was wrong?

I'm not sure.

What did Kant ridicule Nietzsche for?

I'm not sure.

Who did Kant agree with?

I'm not sure.


Absolute idealism is G. W. F. Hegel's account of how existence is comprehensible as an all-inclusive whole. Hegel called his philosophy "absolute" idealism in contrast to the "subjective idealism" of Berkeley and the "transcendental idealism" of Kant and Fichte, which were not based on a critique of the finite and a dialectical philosophy of history as Hegel's idealism was. The exercise of reason and intellect enables the philosopher to know ultimate historical reality, the phenomenological constitution of self-determination, the dialectical development of self-awareness and personality in the realm of History.

According to Hegel, what sort of idealist was Fichte?

transcendental

Who did Hegel see as a subjective idealist?

Berkeley

What sort of idealist did Hegel define himself as?

Absolute

How did Hegel believe historical reality to be knowable to a philosopher?

exercise of reason and intellect

Which two philosophers held to subjective idealism?

I'm not sure.

Kant and Fichte critiqued what?

I'm not sure.

How did Berkeley comprehend existence?

I'm not sure.

What prevents a philosopher from knowing reality?

I'm not sure.

How did Berkeley label his own idealism?

I'm not sure.


In his Science of Logic (1812–1814) Hegel argues that finite qualities are not fully "real" because they depend on other finite qualities to determine them. Qualitative infinity, on the other hand, would be more self-determining and hence more fully real. Similarly finite natural things are less "real"—because they are less self-determining—than spiritual things like morally responsible people, ethical communities and God. So any doctrine, such as materialism, that asserts that finite qualities or natural objects are fully real is mistaken.

When was Science of Logic written?

Who was the author of Science of Logic?

Hegel

Why did Hegel believe natural things are less real than spiritual things?

less self-determining

Along with God and morally responsible people, what is an example of a spiritual thing to Hegel?

ethical communities

What is an example of a school of thought Hegel believed to be wrong?

materialism

Why did Hegel argue that finite qualities were real?

I'm not sure.

When was Hegel born?

I'm not sure.

When did Hegel die?

I'm not sure.

Which doctrine did Hegel support?

I'm not sure.

What are examples of natural things?

I'm not sure.


Hegel certainly intends to preserve what he takes to be true of German idealism, in particular Kant's insistence that ethical reason can and does go beyond finite inclinations. For Hegel there must be some identity of thought and being for the "subject" (any human observer)) to be able to know any observed "object" (any external entity, possibly even another human) at all. Under Hegel's concept of "subject-object identity," subject and object both have Spirit (Hegel's ersatz, redefined, nonsupernatural "God") as their conceptual (not metaphysical) inner reality—and in that sense are identical. But until Spirit's "self-realization" occurs and Spirit graduates from Spirit to Absolute Spirit status, subject (a human mind) mistakenly thinks every "object" it observes is something "alien," meaning something separate or apart from "subject." In Hegel's words, "The object is revealed to it [to "subject"] by [as] something alien, and it does not recognize itself." Self-realization occurs when Hegel (part of Spirit's nonsupernatural Mind, which is the collective mind of all humans) arrives on the scene and realizes that every "object" is himself, because both subject and object are essentially Spirit. When self-realization occurs and Spirit becomes Absolute Spirit, the "finite" (man, human) becomes the "infinite" ("God," divine), replacing the imaginary or "picture-thinking" supernatural God of theism: man becomes God. Tucker puts it this way: "Hegelianism . . . is a religion of self-worship whose fundamental theme is given in Hegel's image of the man who aspires to be God himself, who demands 'something more, namely infinity.'" The picture Hegel presents is "a picture of a self-glorifying humanity striving compulsively, and at the end successfully, to rise to divinity."

In Hegel's thought, what inner reality is possessed by both subject and object?

Spirit

What is another term for Hegel's "subject"?

any human observer

What does Hegel mean by "object"?

any external entity

What does Spirit turn into when a person arrives at self-realization?

Absolute Spirit

Who did Tucker argue that Hegel's philosophy involved the worship of?

self

Which of Kant's ideas did Hegel reject?

I'm not sure.

What did Kant believe was necessary to know an object?

I'm not sure.

Who believed a metaphysical inner reality was necessary?

I'm not sure.

An Absolute Spirit graduates to what status?

I'm not sure.

What did Tucker try to preserve?

I'm not sure.


Kierkegaard criticised Hegel's idealist philosophy in several of his works, particularly his claim to a comprehensive system that could explain the whole of reality. Where Hegel argues that an ultimate understanding of the logical structure of the world is an understanding of the logical structure of God's mind, Kierkegaard asserting that for God reality can be a system but it cannot be so for any human individual because both reality and humans are incomplete and all philosophical systems imply completeness. A logical system is possible but an existential system is not. "What is rational is actual; and what is actual is rational". Hegel's absolute idealism blurs the distinction between existence and thought: our mortal nature places limits on our understanding of reality;

Who was a notable critic of Hegel?

Kierkegaard

For whom did Kierkegaard argue reality cannot be a system?

human

According to Kierkegaard, why can't reality be a system for human beings?

humans are incomplete

Even though Kierkegaard does not believe in the possibility of an existential system of reality, what sort of system can exist?

logical

Whose work did Hegel criticize?

I'm not sure.

What does Kierkegaard blur the lines between?

I'm not sure.

Why did Kierkegaard believe humans could have a system for reality?

I'm not sure.

Kierkegaard said a logical system and what other system was possible?

I'm not sure.

What did Kierkegaard say could explain all of reality?

I'm not sure.


A major concern of Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit (1807) and of the philosophy of Spirit that he lays out in his Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences (1817–1830) is the interrelation between individual humans, which he conceives in terms of "mutual recognition." However, what Climacus means by the aforementioned statement, is that Hegel, in the Philosophy of Right, believed the best solution was to surrender one's individuality to the customs of the State, identifying right and wrong in view of the prevailing bourgeois morality. Individual human will ought, at the State's highest level of development, to properly coincide with the will of the State. Climacus rejects Hegel's suppression of individuality by pointing out it is impossible to create a valid set of rules or system in any society which can adequately describe existence for any one individual. Submitting one's will to the State denies personal freedom, choice, and responsibility.

Who wrote Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences?

Hegel

When was Phenomenology of Spirit published?

What trait did Climacus believe that Hegel suppressed?

individuality

Whose will did Hegel believe should prevail over that of the individual?

State

What conception of right and wrong did Climacus believe Hegel endorsed?

bourgeois

When was Philosophy of Right published?

I'm not sure.

What did Climacus write?

I'm not sure.

What term did Hegel coin?

I'm not sure.

Which of Hegel's ideas did Climacus accept?

I'm not sure.

When was Climacus's criticism of Hegel published?

I'm not sure.


In addition, Hegel does believe we can know the structure of God's mind, or ultimate reality. Hegel agrees with Kierkegaard that both reality and humans are incomplete, inasmuch as we are in time, and reality develops through time. But the relation between time and eternity is outside time and this is the "logical structure" that Hegel thinks we can know. Kierkegaard disputes this assertion, because it eliminates the clear distinction between ontology and epistemology. Existence and thought are not identical and one cannot possibly think existence. Thought is always a form of abstraction, and thus not only is pure existence impossible to think, but all forms in existence are unthinkable; thought depends on language, which merely abstracts from experience, thus separating us from lived experience and the living essence of all beings. In addition, because we are finite beings, we cannot possibly know or understand anything that is universal or infinite such as God, so we cannot know God exists, since that which transcends time simultaneously transcends human understanding.

What sort of reality did Hegel perceive God's mind to be?

ultimate

Along with Hegel, who also argued for human incompleteness?

Kierkegaard

According to Hegel, what form does thought necessarily take?

abstraction

Why does Hegel believe we cannot know God?

we are finite beings

If something transcends time, what does it, according to Hegel, also transcend?

human understanding

Hegel believes we cannot know what structure?

I'm not sure.

Who argued against Hegel's assertion for human incompleteness?

I'm not sure.

Kierkegaard eliminated the distinction between what two studies?

I'm not sure.

What is always a form of thought?

I'm not sure.

What does not transcend human understanding according to Hegel?

I'm not sure.


Bradley was the apparent target of G. E. Moore's radical rejection of idealism. Moore claimed that Bradley did not understand the statement that something is real. We know for certain, through common sense and prephilosophical beliefs, that some things are real, whether they are objects of thought or not, according to Moore. The 1903 article The Refutation of Idealism is one of the first demonstrations of Moore's commitment to analysis. He examines each of the three terms in the Berkeleian aphorism esse est percipi, "to be is to be perceived", finding that it must mean that the object and the subject are necessarily connected so that "yellow" and "the sensation of yellow" are identical - "to be yellow" is "to be experienced as yellow". But it also seems there is a difference between "yellow" and "the sensation of yellow" and "that esse is held to be percipi, solely because what is experienced is held to be identical with the experience of it". Though far from a complete refutation, this was the first strong statement by analytic philosophy against its idealist predecessors, or at any rate against the type of idealism represented by Berkeley. This argument did not show that the GEM (in post–Stove vernacular, see below) is logically invalid.

Who wrote The Refutation of Idealism?

Moore

In his rejection of idealism, whose thought did Moore attack?

Bradley

Who originated the saying 'esse est percipi'?

Berkeley

What did Bradley write?

I'm not sure.

What did Bradley say Moore did not understand?

I'm not sure.

What Latin phrase did Moore coin?

I'm not sure.

What argument did Moore validate?

I'm not sure.

Who did Bradley target?

I'm not sure.


Pluralistic idealism such as that of Gottfried Leibniz takes the view that there are many individual minds that together underlie the existence of the observed world and make possible the existence of the physical universe. Unlike absolute idealism, pluralistic idealism does not assume the existence of a single ultimate mental reality or "Absolute". Leibniz' form of idealism, known as Panpsychism, views "monads" as the true atoms of the universe and as entities having perception. The monads are "substantial forms of being",elemental, individual, subject to their own laws, non-interacting, each reflecting the entire universe. Monads are centers of force, which is substance while space, matter and motion are phenomenal and their form and existence is dependent on the simple and immaterial monads. There is a pre-established harmony established by God, the central monad, between the world in the minds of the monads and the external world of objects. Leibniz's cosmology embraced traditional Christian Theism. The English psychologist and philosopher James Ward inspired by Leibniz had also defended a form of pluralistic idealism. According to Ward the universe is composed of "psychic monads" of different levels, interacting for mutual self- betterment.

Who is a notable exponent of pluralistic idealism?

Gottfried Leibniz

What is the term for the type of idealism preached by Leibniz?

Panpsychism

What did Leibniz believe the universe is fundamentally composed of?

monads

Who was a notable disciple of Leibniz?

James Ward

What does Ward see as the purpose of interaction between monads?

self- betterment

What form of thought rejected Leibniz's cosmology?

I'm not sure.

What was Leibniz's nationality?

I'm not sure.

Who did James Ward inspire?

I'm not sure.

What form of idealism did Ward create?

I'm not sure.

Pluralistic idealism assumes the absolute in the same way what other form of idealism does?

I'm not sure.


Howison's personal idealism  was also called "California Personalism" by others to distinguish it from the "Boston Personalism" which was of Bowne. Howison maintained that both impersonal, monistic idealism and materialism run contrary to the experience of moral freedom. To deny freedom to pursue truth, beauty, and "benignant love" is to undermine every profound human venture, including science, morality, and philosophy. Personalistic idealists Borden Parker Bowne and Edgar S. Brightman and realistic personal theist Saint Thomas Aquinas address a core issue, namely that of dependence upon an infinite personal God.

Who was an exponent of so-called "Boston Personalism"?

Bowne

What was the term given to the personal idealism of Howison?

California Personalism

Who is a notable realistic personal theist?

Saint Thomas Aquinas

What issue do both Aquinas and Brightman discuss?

dependence upon an infinite personal God

What sort of freedom did Howison believe was incompatible with materialism?

moral

California Personalism is the same as what personalism by Bowne?

I'm not sure.

What two idealists took a realistic perspective?

I'm not sure.

What theist did Howison agree with?

I'm not sure.

What did Bowne believe was contrary to moral freedom?

I'm not sure.

Howison said materialism was compatible with moral what?

I'm not sure.


J. M. E. McTaggart of Cambridge University, argued that minds alone exist and only relate to each other through love. Space, time and material objects are unreal. In The Unreality of Time he argued that time is an illusion because it is impossible to produce a coherent account of a sequence of events. The Nature of Existence (1927) contained his arguments that space, time, and matter cannot possibly be real. In his Studies in Hegelian Cosmology (Cambridge, 1901, p196) he declared that metaphysics are not relevant to social and political action. McTaggart "thought that Hegel was wrong in supposing that metaphysics could show that the state is more than a means to the good of the individuals who compose it". For McTaggart "philosophy can give us very little, if any, guidance in action... Why should a Hegelian citizen be surprised that his belief as to the organic nature of the Absolute does not help him in deciding how to vote? Would a Hegelian engineer be reasonable in expecting that his belief that all matter is spirit should help him in planning a bridge?

With what university is J.M.E. McTaggart affiliated?

Cambridge

In what year was The Nature of Existence published?

According to McTaggart, what are the only things that have real existence?

minds

How does McTaggart believe minds relate to one another?

love

What does McTaggart believe space and time to be?

unreal

When was The Unreality of Time published?

I'm not sure.

In what publication did McTaggart argue space, time, and matter were real?

I'm not sure.

Who said minds can only relate through time?

I'm not sure.

What did McTaggart say metaphysics was relevant for?

I'm not sure.

Who did McTaggart say was best prepared to use their philosophy to decide how to vote?

I'm not sure.


Thomas Davidson taught a philosophy called "apeirotheism", a "form of pluralistic idealism...coupled with a stern ethical rigorism" which he defined as "a theory of Gods infinite in number." The theory was indebted to Aristotle's pluralism and his concepts of Soul, the rational, living aspect of a living substance which cannot exist apart from the body because it is not a substance but an essence, and nous, rational thought, reflection and understanding. Although a perennial source of controversy, Aristotle arguably views the latter as both eternal and immaterial in nature, as exemplified in his theology of unmoved movers. Identifying Aristotle's God with rational thought, Davidson argued, contrary to Aristotle, that just as the soul cannot exist apart from the body, God cannot exist apart from the world.

What was the name of the philosophy preached by Thomas Davidson?

apeirotheism

What type of idealism was Thomas Davidson's philosophy?

pluralistic

According to Davidson, how many gods are there?

infinite

By whose philosophy was Davidson influenced?

Aristotle

What did Davidson believe the God of Aristotle is synonymous with?

rational thought

What was Aristotle's pluralism based on?

I'm not sure.

How many Souls did Aristotle say there were?

I'm not sure.

Davidson's argument that God cannot exist apart from the world matched whose argument?

I'm not sure.

Apeirotheism was pluralistic idealism without what?

I'm not sure.

What did Davidson say God was antonymous to in Aristotle's works?

I'm not sure.


Idealist notions took a strong hold among physicists of the early 20th century confronted with the paradoxes of quantum physics and the theory of relativity. In The Grammar of Science, Preface to the 2nd Edition, 1900, Karl Pearson wrote, "There are many signs that a sound idealism is surely replacing, as a basis for natural philosophy, the crude materialism of the older physicists." This book influenced Einstein's regard for the importance of the observer in scientific measurements[citation needed]. In § 5 of that book, Pearson asserted that "...science is in reality a classification and analysis of the contents of the mind...." Also, "...the field of science is much more consciousness than an external world."

Among what twentieth century scientists was idealism popular?

physicists

Along with quantum physics generally, what scientific doctrine caused some physicists to embrace idealism?

relativity

In what year was the second edition of The Grammar of Science published?

What did Pearson claim that science classifies?

contents of the mind

Who is claimed to have been influenced by The Grammar of Science?

Einstein

When did idealism fall out of practice?

I'm not sure.

What did the theory of relativity first appear in?

I'm not sure.

When did Einstein publish The Grammar of Science?

I'm not sure.

Who was influenced by Einstein?

I'm not sure.

What did Einstein say science is?

I'm not sure.


"The mind-stuff of the world is, of course, something more general than our individual conscious minds.... The mind-stuff is not spread in space and time; these are part of the cyclic scheme ultimately derived out of it.... It is necessary to keep reminding ourselves that all knowledge of our environment from which the world of physics is constructed, has entered in the form of messages transmitted along the nerves to the seat of consciousness.... Consciousness is not sharply defined, but fades into subconsciousness; and beyond that we must postulate something indefinite but yet continuous with our mental nature.... It is difficult for the matter-of-fact physicist to accept the view that the substratum of everything is of mental character. But no one can deny that mind is the first and most direct thing in our experience, and all else is remote inference."

How do receive information from the physical world?

messages transmitted along the nerves to the seat of consciousness

What type of consciousness is similar but not identical to consciousness itself?

subconsciousness

What is the nature of the fundamental character of reality?

mental

According to the author, who would have particular trouble in accepting that reality is fundamentally mental?

physicist

What is the main thing that we experience?

mind

What is more general that mind-stuff of the world?

I'm not sure.

How is mind-stuff spread?

I'm not sure.

What is sharply defined?

I'm not sure.

What does the matter-of-fact physicist easily accept?

I'm not sure.

What is the cyclic scheme transmitted by?

I'm not sure.


Czech (/ˈtʃɛk/; čeština Czech pronunciation: [ˈt͡ʃɛʃcɪna]), formerly known as Bohemian (/boʊˈhiːmiən, bə-/; lingua Bohemica in Latin), is a West Slavic language strongly influenced by Latin and German language, spoken by over 10 million people and it is the official language of the Czech Republic. Czech's closest relative is Slovak, with which it is mutually intelligible. It is closely related to other West Slavic languages, such as Silesian and Polish. Although most Czech vocabulary is based on shared roots with Slavic, Romance, and Germanic languages, many loanwords (most associated with high culture) have been adopted in recent years.

What was Czech formerly known as?

Bohemian

What languages strongly influenced Czech?

Latin and German

Over how many million people speak Czech?

What vocabulary associated with higher classed culture have been adopted over the years?

loanwords

What is Polish formerly known as?

I'm not sure.

How many people speak Polish?

I'm not sure.

What language is closest to Latin?

I'm not sure.

What has Latin adopted in recent years?

I'm not sure.

What are two other languages that are closely related to Latin?

I'm not sure.


The languages have not undergone the deliberate highlighting of minor linguistic differences in the name of nationalism as has occurred in the Bosnian, Serbian and Croatian standards of Serbo-Croatian. However, most Slavic languages (including Czech) have been distanced in this way from Russian influences because of widespread public resentment against the former Soviet Union (which occupied Czechoslovakia in 1968). Czech and Slovak form a dialect continuum, with great similarity between neighboring Czech and Slovak dialects. (See "Dialects" below.)

What deliberate action has been done to some languages in the name of nationalism?

highlighting of minor linguistic differences

What language family is Czech?

Slavic

Why did many Slavic languages distance themselves from Russian influences?

resentment against the former Soviet Union

When did the Soviet Union occupy Czechoslovakia?

What language does Czech form a dialect continuum with?

Slovak

In what year did Croatia occupy Bosnia?

I'm not sure.

Why has the Bosnian language wanted to separate itself from Croatia?

I'm not sure.

What do most Russian dialects have in common?

I'm not sure.

What has happened to languages in Russia?

I'm not sure.

What kind of continuum is formed between Russian dialects?

I'm not sure.


One study showed that Czech and Slovak lexicons differed by 80 percent, but this high percentage was found to stem primarily from differing orthographies and slight inconsistencies in morphological formation; Slovak morphology is more regular (when changing from the nominative to the locative case, Praha becomes Praze in Czech and Prahe in Slovak). The two lexicons are generally considered similar, with most differences in colloquial vocabulary and some scientific terminology. Slovak has slightly more borrowed words than Czech.

How much do the lexicons of Czech and Slovak differ, according to on study?

by 80 percent

What was the high percentage of differing lexicons found to derive from?

differing orthographies and slight inconsistencies in morphological formation

When is Slovak morphology more regular than Czech?

when changing from the nominative to the locative case

The most differences between Czech and Slovak can be found in colloquial vocabulary as well as what?

some scientific terminology

What does Slovak have slightly more of than Czech?

borrowed words

What  does Praha have more of than Prahe?

I'm not sure.

How many people speak Czech in Russia?

I'm not sure.

Why do 80% of people in Russia speak Czech?

I'm not sure.

Where can the most differences in Praha be found besides vocabulary?

I'm not sure.

When is Praha morphology more regular than scientific terminology?

I'm not sure.


The similarities between Czech and Slovak led to the languages being considered a single language by a group of 19th-century scholars who called themselves "Czechoslavs" (Čechoslováci), believing that the peoples were connected in a way which excluded German Bohemians and (to a lesser extent) Hungarians and other Slavs. During the First Czechoslovak Republic (1918–1938), although "Czechoslovak" was designated as the republic's official language both Czech and Slovak written standards were used. Standard written Slovak was partially modeled on literary Czech, and Czech was preferred for some official functions in the Slovak half of the republic. Czech influence on Slovak was protested by Slovak scholars, and when Slovakia broke off from Czechoslovakia in 1938 as the Slovak State (which then aligned with Nazi Germany in World War II) literary Slovak was deliberately distanced from Czech. When the Axis powers lost the war and Czechoslovakia reformed, Slovak developed somewhat on its own (with Czech influence); during the Prague Spring of 1968, Slovak gained independence from (and equality with) Czech. Since then, "Czechoslovak" refers to improvised pidgins of the languages which have arisen from the decrease in mutual intelligibility.

Who called themselves "Czechoslavs"?

a group of 19th-century scholars

Why did the Czechoslavs consider Czech and Slovak to be a single language?

The similarities

When was the first Czechoslovak Republic?

What was standard written Slovak partially modeled on?

literary Czech

When was the Prague Spring?

What did 19th century German Bohemians call themselves?

I'm not sure.

What languages were only used by Hungarians from 1918-1938?

I'm not sure.

What did Hungarians consider Czech and Slovak to be?

I'm not sure.

When did Prague align itself with Nazi Germany?

I'm not sure.

In what year did Hungary gain independence?

I'm not sure.


Around the sixth century AD, a tribe of Slavs arrived in a portion of Central Europe. According to legend they were led by a hero named Čech, from whom the word "Czech" derives. The ninth century brought the state of Great Moravia, whose first ruler (Rastislav of Moravia) invited Byzantine ruler Michael III to send missionaries in an attempt to reduce the influence of East Francia on religious and political life in his country. These missionaries, Constantine and Methodius, helped to convert the Czechs from traditional Slavic paganism to Christianity and established a church system. They also brought the Glagolitic alphabet to the West Slavs, whose language was previously unwritten. This language, later known as Proto-Czech, was beginning to separate from its fellow West Slavic hatchlings Proto-Slovak, Proto-Polish and Proto-Sorbian. Among other features, Proto-Czech was marked by its ephemeral use of the voiced velar fricative consonant (/ɣ/) and consistent stress on the first syllable.

When did a tribe of Slavs arrive in Central Europe?

sixth century AD

Who was the hero who led the Slavs to their new home, according to legend?

Čech

What did the ninth century bring?

state of Great Moravia

Whose influence was Rastislav eager to reduce, when he invited  Michael III to send missionaries?

East Francia

What alphabet did the missionaries bring to the West Slavs?

Glagolitic

When did Rastislav of Moravia arrive in Glagolitic?

I'm not sure.

Who did Constantine and Methodius lead to Central Europe?

I'm not sure.

Why did Cech send out missionaries?

I'm not sure.

What area did Cech think East Francia had too much influence on?

I'm not sure.

What kind of system was established by Cech?

I'm not sure.


The Czechs' language separated from other Slavic tongues into what would later be called Old Czech by the thirteenth century, a classification extending through the sixteenth century. Its use of cases differed from the modern language; although Old Czech did not yet have a vocative case or an animacy distinction, declension for its six cases and three genders rapidly became complicated (partially to differentiate homophones) and its declension patterns resembled those of Lithuanian (its Balto-Slavic cousin).

By the thirteenth century, what had the Czech language separated from?

other Slavic tongues

How long was the precursor to Czech classified as Old Czech?

through the sixteenth century

How did Old Czech's use of cases differ from modern usage?

did not yet have a vocative case or an animacy distinction

How many cases did Old Czech have?

six

What other language did Old Czech's declension patterns resemble?

Lithuanian

What other languages did Lithuanian separate from?

I'm not sure.

What was Lithuanian called by the thirteenth century?

I'm not sure.

How many cases did Lithuanian have?

I'm not sure.

How many genders were used in Lithuanian in the past?

I'm not sure.

How long was Lithuanian considered Old Czech?

I'm not sure.


While Old Czech had a basic alphabet from which a general set of orthographical correspondences was drawn, it did not have a standard orthography. It also contained a number of sound clusters which no longer exist; allowing ě (/jɛ/) after soft consonants, which has since shifted to e (/ɛ/), and allowing complex consonant clusters to be pronounced all at once rather than syllabically. A phonological phenomenon, Havlik's law (which began in Proto-Slavic and took various forms in other Slavic languages), appeared in Old Czech; counting backwards from the end of a clause, every odd-numbered yer was vocalized as a vowel, while the other yers disappeared.

What type of orthography did Old Czech lack?

standard

Why aren't some sound clusters used in modern Czech?

no longer exist

How did old Czech allow some complex consonant clusters to be pronounced?

all at once

What type of phenomenon is Havlik's law?

phonological

Which "yer"s were vocalized as vowels?

every odd-numbered

What law began in Old Czech?

I'm not sure.

What kind of alphabet was in Proto-Slavic?

I'm not sure.

What did Proto-Slavic have that no longer exists?

I'm not sure.

How did Proto-Slavic let complex consonant clusters to be pronounced?

I'm not sure.

What kind of orthography was missing from Proto-Slavic?

I'm not sure.


Bohemia (as Czech civilization was known by then) increased in power over the centuries, as its language did in regional importance. This growth was expedited during the fourteenth century by Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV, who founded Charles University in Prague in 1348. Here, early Czech literature (a biblical translation, hymns and hagiography) flourished. Old Czech texts, including poetry and cookbooks, were produced outside the university as well. Later in the century Jan Hus contributed significantly to the standardization of Czech orthography, advocated for widespread literacy among Czech commoners (particularly in religion) and made early efforts to model written Czech after the spoken language.

What was Czech civilization called back in the day?

Bohemia

What Holy Roman Emperor expedited the growth of Bohemia in the 14th century?

Charles IV

When was Charles University founded in Prague?

Who contributed heavily to the effort to standardize Czech orthography?

Jan Hus

What did Jan Hus advocate for among the Czech commoners?

widespread literacy

What university was founded by Jan Hus?

I'm not sure.

In what city did Jan Hus found Charles University?

I'm not sure.

In what year did Jan Hus found Charles University?

I'm not sure.

What works were written by Jan Hus?

I'm not sure.

What type of literature was written by Czech commoners in 1348?

I'm not sure.


Czech continued to evolve and gain in regional importance for hundreds of years, and has been a literary language in the Slovak lands since the early fifteenth century. A biblical translation, the Kralice Bible, was published during the late sixteenth century (around the time of the King James and Luther versions) which was more linguistically conservative than either. The publication of the Kralice Bible spawned widespread nationalism, and in 1615 the government of Bohemia ruled that only Czech-speaking residents would be allowed to become full citizens or inherit goods or land. This, and the conversion of the Czech upper classes from the Habsburg Empire's Catholicism to Protestantism, angered the Habsburgs and helped trigger the Thirty Years' War (where the Czechs were defeated at the Battle of White Mountain). The Czechs became serfs; Bohemia's printing industry (and its linguistic and political rights) were dismembered, removing official regulation and support from its language. German quickly became the dominant language in Bohemia.

How many years as Czech continued to evolve and gain in regional importance?

hundreds

When was the Kralice Bible published?

late sixteenth century

What did the publication of the Kralice Bible spawn?

widespread nationalism

In what war were the Czechs defeated at the Battle of White Mountain?

Thirty Years' War

What language became dominant in Bohemia after the Czech's defeat?

German

At what battle were the Germans defeated?

I'm not sure.

What war was Germany involved in the longest?

I'm not sure.

What change did the publishing of the King James Bible cause?

I'm not sure.

In what year did Germans become serfs?

I'm not sure.

What did the government of Bohemia only allow Germans do do?

I'm not sure.


The consensus among linguists is that modern, standard Czech originated during the eighteenth century. By then the language had developed a literary tradition, and since then it has changed little; journals from that period have no substantial differences from modern standard Czech, and contemporary Czechs can understand them with little difficulty. Changes include the morphological shift of í to ej and é to í (although é survives for some uses) and the merging of í and the former ejí. Sometime before the eighteenth century, the Czech language abandoned a distinction between phonemic /l/ and /ʎ/ which survives in Slovak.

When do linguists agree modern Czech originated?

the eighteenth century

What had Czech developed by the 18th century?

literary tradition

Journals from the 18th century have no substantial differences from what?

modern standard Czech

How much difficulty do contemporary Czechs have in understanding material from the 18th century?

little

What did the Czech language abandon which survives in Slovak?

a distinction between phonemic /l/ and /ʎ/

At what time did modern Slovak originate?

I'm not sure.

What had Slovak developed?

I'm not sure.

How much has Slovak changed from the past until now?

I'm not sure.

What kind of differences do writings from the past have from modern Slovak?

I'm not sure.

What group believes modern Slovak originated during the eighteenth century?

I'm not sure.


The Czech people gained widespread national pride during the mid-eighteenth century, inspired by the Age of Enlightenment a half-century earlier. Czech historians began to emphasize their people's accomplishments from the fifteenth through the seventeenth centuries, rebelling against the Counter-Reformation (which had denigrated Czech and other non-Latin languages). Czech philologists studied sixteenth-century texts, advocating the return of the language to high culture. This period is known as the Czech National Revival (or Renascence).

What did the Czechs as a people gain during the mid-18th century?

widespread national pride

What inspired the Czech's national pride?

Age of Enlightenment a half-century earlier

What did Czech historians emphasize about their countrymen?

accomplishments

What did Czech philologists advocate?

the return of the language to high culture

What is the period during the mid-eighteenth century also remembered as?

Czech National Revival

What emotion did the Counter-Reformation support during the mid-eighteenth century?

I'm not sure.

What time period inspired the Counter-Reformation?

I'm not sure.

When did the Counter-Reformation emphasize people's accomplishments?

I'm not sure.

What had been denigrated by the Age of Enlightenment?

I'm not sure.

What did the Counter-Reformation advocate for the language to return to?

I'm not sure.


During the revival, in 1809 linguist and historian Josef Dobrovský released a German-language grammar of Old Czech entitled Ausführliches Lehrgebäude der böhmischen Sprache (Comprehensive Doctrine of the Bohemian Language). Dobrovský had intended his book to be descriptive, and did not think Czech had a realistic chance of returning as a major language. However, Josef Jungmann and other revivalists used Dobrovský's book to advocate for a Czech linguistic revival. Changes during this time included spelling reform (notably, í in place of the former j and j in place of g), the use of t (rather than ti) to end infinitive verbs and the non-capitalization of nouns (which had been a late borrowing from German). These changes differentiated Czech from Slovak. Modern scholars disagree about whether the conservative revivalists were motivated by nationalism or considered contemporary spoken Czech unsuitable for formal, widespread use.

What was the professions of Joseph Dobrovský?

linguist and historian

What year did Joseph Dobrovský release a German-language grammar of Old Czech?

What didn't Dobrovský think Czech had a chance of returning as?

a major language

What did Josef Jungmann advocate for?

a Czech linguistic revival

Who disagree about whether the revivalists were motivated by nationalism or if they considered contemporary spoken Czech unsuitable for formal use?

Modern scholars

What was the title of the book released by Josef Jungmann?

I'm not sure.

In what year did Josef Jungmann write his book?

I'm not sure.

What had Josef Jungmann intended his book to be?

I'm not sure.

Did Josef Jungmann think German would return as a major language?

I'm not sure.

What kind of revival was called for by Josef Dobrovsky?

I'm not sure.


Czech, the official language of the Czech Republic (a member of the European Union since 2004), is one of the EU's official languages and the 2012 Eurobarometer survey found that Czech was the foreign language most often used in Slovakia. Economist Jonathan van Parys collected data on language knowledge in Europe for the 2012 European Day of Languages. The five countries with the greatest use of Czech were the Czech Republic (98.77 percent), Slovakia (24.86 percent), Portugal (1.93 percent), Poland (0.98 percent) and Germany (0.47 percent).

What is the official language of the Czech republic?

Czech

How long has the Czech Republic been a member of the European Union?

since 2004

What distinction does Czech have in Slovakia?

foreign language most often used

Who collected data on language knowledge in Europe for the 2012 European Day of Languages?

Jonathan van Parys

Of the five countries with the greatest use of Czech, which country had the lowest percent of use?

Germany

How long has Slovakia been a member of the EU?

I'm not sure.

What group is German an official language of?

I'm not sure.

What survey showed German as the foreign language used most often in Poland?

I'm not sure.

What did the EU collect for the European Day of Languages in 2004?

I'm not sure.

What percentage of people in Portugal speak German?

I'm not sure.


Immigration of Czechs from Europe to the United States occurred primarily from 1848 to 1914. Czech is a Less Commonly Taught Language in U.S. schools, and is taught at Czech heritage centers. Large communities of Czech Americans live in the states of Texas, Nebraska and Wisconsin. In the 2000 United States Census, Czech was reported as the most-common language spoken at home (besides English) in Valley, Butler and Saunders Counties, Nebraska and Republic County, Kansas. With the exception of Spanish (the non-English language most commonly spoken at home nationwide), Czech was the most-common home language in over a dozen additional counties in Nebraska, Kansas, Texas, North Dakota and Minnesota. As of 2009, 70,500 Americans spoke Czech as their first language (49th place nationwide, behind Turkish and ahead of Swedish).

Czechs immigrated from Europe to the U.S. primary from 1848 to when?

What kind of language is Czech in U.S. schools?

a Less Commonly Taught Language

What states have large communities of Czech Americans?

Texas, Nebraska and Wisconsin

What is the most commonly spoken non-English language at homes nationwide in the U.S.?

Spanish

How many Americans spoke Czech as their first language as of 2009?

What kind of language is Swedish in US schools?

I'm not sure.

What states have large communities of Swedish Americans?

I'm not sure.

What was reported about Swedish in the 2009 US Census?

I'm not sure.

How many Americans spoke Swedish in 2009?

I'm not sure.

What place is Spanish as the language being spoken as a first language nationwide?

I'm not sure.


In addition to a spoken standard and a closely related written standard, Czech has several regional dialects primarily used in rural areas by speakers less proficient in other dialects or standard Czech. During the second half of the twentieth century, Czech dialect use began to weaken. By the early 1990s dialect use was stigmatized, associated with the shrinking lower class and used in literature or other media for comedic effect. Increased travel and media availability to dialect-speaking populations has encouraged them to shift to (or add to their own dialect) standard Czech. Although Czech has received considerable scholarly interest for a Slavic language, this interest has focused primarily on modern standard Czech and ancient texts rather than dialects. Standard Czech is still the norm for politicians, businesspeople and other Czechs in formal situations, but Common Czech is gaining ground in journalism and the mass media.

How many regional dialects does Czech have?

several

Where are dialects of Czech commonly found?

rural areas

What is dialect use associated with and thus stigmatized because of?

lower class

What kind of scholarly interest has Czech received?

considerable

What Czech dialect is gaining ground in journalism and the mass media?

Common

What class was being a journalist associated with?

I'm not sure.

What were parodies of journalists used for?

I'm not sure.

What has increased among politicians and business people since 1990 so they are more well known locally?

I'm not sure.

When did interest in studying ancient texts start to weaken?

I'm not sure.

What group became more prominent in the 1990's when people wanted to hear the news of the day?

I'm not sure.


The Czech dialects spoken in Moravia and Silesia are known as Moravian (moravština). In the Austro-Hungarian Empire, "Bohemian-Moravian-Slovak" was a language citizens could register as speaking (with German, Polish and several others). Of the Czech dialects, only Moravian is distinguished in nationwide surveys by the Czech Statistical Office. As of 2011, 62,908 Czech citizens spoke Moravian as their first language and 45,561 were diglossal (speaking Moravian and standard Czech as first languages).

What are the dialects spoken in Moravia and Silesia known as?

Moravian

Where could citizens register "Bohemian-Moravian-Slovak' as being their spoken language?

the Austro-Hungarian Empire

Which of the Czech dialects is the only one distinguished in the nationwide surveys by the Czech Statistical Office?

Moravian

How many Czechs spoke Moravian as their first language as of 2011?

How many Czechs spoke both Moravian and standard Czech as first languages in 2011?

How many Czech citizens spoke German as their first language in 2011?

I'm not sure.

How many people spoke German and Hungarian as first languages in 2011?

I'm not sure.

What is it called when you speak both German and Hungarian as your first language?

I'm not sure.

What are the Czech dialects spoken in Germany known as?

I'm not sure.

In the German Empire, what language could you register as speaking?

I'm not sure.


Czech contains ten basic vowel phonemes, and three more found only in loanwords. They are /a/, /ɛ/, /ɪ/, /o/, and /u/, their long counterparts /aː/, /ɛː/, /iː/, /oː/ and /uː/, and three diphthongs, /ou̯/, /au̯/ and /ɛu̯/. The latter two diphthongs and the long /oː/ are exclusive to loanwords. Vowels are never reduced to schwa sounds when unstressed. Each word usually has primary stress on its first syllable, except for enclitics (minor, monosyllabic, unstressed syllables). In all words of more than two syllables, every odd-numbered syllable receives secondary stress. Stress is unrelated to vowel length, and the possibility of stressed short vowels and unstressed long vowels can be confusing to students whose native language combines the features (such as English).

How many basic vowel phonemes does Czech contain?

ten

Where are three additional vowel phonemes found in Czech?

loanwords

What are vowel sounds never reduced to when unstressed?

schwa sounds

What a few exceptions where is the primary word stress in Czech?

first syllable

What is stress unrelated to in Czech?

vowel length

How many basic vowel phonemes are in English?

I'm not sure.

In English, where are three more phonemes found?

I'm not sure.

What are exclusive to loanwords in English?

I'm not sure.

What are vowel sounds not reduced to when unstressed in English?

I'm not sure.

Where does each word usually have primary stress in English?

I'm not sure.


Although older German loanwords were colloquial, recent borrowings from other languages are associated with high culture. During the nineteenth century, words with Greek and Latin roots were rejected in favor of those based on older Czech words and common Slavic roots; "music" is muzyka in Polish and музыка (muzyka) in Russian, but in Czech it is hudba. Some Czech words have been borrowed as loanwords into English and other languages—for example, robot (from robota, "labor") and polka (from polka, "Polish woman" or from "půlka" "half").

In Czech, what are loanwords from other languages associated with?

high culture

What word roots in the 19th century were rejected in favor of words with more common Slavic roots?

Greek and Latin

How does one say the word "music" in Czech?

hudba

What Czech word did the English "robot" derive from?

robota

What is the meaning of the Czech word "robota"?

labor

What were older Latin loanwords considered?

I'm not sure.

What kind of culture are words borrowed from Russia associated with?

I'm not sure.

What were words with Russian roots rejected for in the nineteenth century?

I'm not sure.

What Russian word has the English robot been borrowed from?

I'm not sure.

What language has used borrowed words from Russian?

I'm not sure.


Because Czech uses grammatical case to convey word function in a sentence (instead of relying on word order, as English does), its word order is flexible. As a pro-drop language, in Czech an intransitive sentence can consist of only a verb; information about its subject is encoded in the verb. Enclitics (primarily auxiliary verbs and pronouns) must appear in the second syntactic slot of a sentence, after the first stressed unit. The first slot must contain a subject and object, a main form of a verb, an adverb or a conjunction (except for the light conjunctions a, "and", i, "and even" or ale, "but").

Czech's word order is flexible because it uses what to convey word function in a sentence?

grammatical case

In Czech an intransitive sentence may consist of only what?

a verb

What is encoded about a subject in verbs in Czech?

information

What is a hard to pronounce and remember term meaning primarily auxiliary verbs and pronouns?

Enclitics

Where must enclitics appear in a sentence?

second syntactic slot

What can an intransitive sentence consist only of in English?

I'm not sure.

Where is information about a sentence subject in English?

I'm not sure.

What is another word for word order?

I'm not sure.

Where must enclitics appear in an English sentence?

I'm not sure.

What appears before the enclitics in an English sentence?

I'm not sure.


Czech syntax has a subject–verb–object sentence structure. In practice, however, word order is flexible and used for topicalization and focus. Although Czech has a periphrastic passive construction (like English), colloquial word-order changes frequently produce the passive voice. For example, to change "Peter killed Paul" to "Paul was killed by Peter" the order of subject and object is inverted: Petr zabil Pavla ("Peter killed Paul") becomes "Paul, Peter killed" (Pavla zabil Petr). Pavla is in the accusative case, the grammatical object (in this case, the victim) of the verb.

What is the sentence structure of Czech syntax?

subject–verb–object

Because word order is flexible in Czech, what does it tend to actually be used for?

topicalization and focus

What kind of passive construction does Czech have?

periphrastic

What happens to the subject and object to produce a passive voice in Czech?

inverted

What case is the grammatical object of a verb?

accusative

What sentence structure is used in Pavla?

I'm not sure.

Is word order fixed or flexible in Pavla?

I'm not sure.

What is word order used for in Pavla?

I'm not sure.

What do colloquial word-order changes produce in Pavla sentences?

I'm not sure.

What case is the grammatical verb object in Pavla?

I'm not sure.


In Czech, nouns and adjectives are declined into one of seven grammatical cases. Nouns are inflected to indicate their use in a sentence. A nominative–accusative language, Czech marks subject nouns with nominative case and object nouns with accusative case. The genitive case marks possessive nouns and some types of movement. The remaining cases (instrumental, locative, vocative and dative) indicate semantic relationships, such as secondary objects, movement or position (dative case) and accompaniment (instrumental case). An adjective's case agrees with that of the noun it describes. When Czech children learn their language's declension patterns, the cases are referred to by number:

How many grammatical cases can nouns and adjectives be declined into in Czech?

seven

When are nouns in Czech inflected?

to indicate their use in a sentence

How does Czech mark subject nouns?

with nominative case

What nouns does Czech use the accusative case to mark?

object

What must an adjective's case agree with in Czech?

the noun it describes

What age do children usually begin understanding grammatical cases?

I'm not sure.

What happens to case numbers to indicate them in a sentence?

I'm not sure.

What type of instrumental music do Czech children learn in school?

I'm not sure.

What are three types of instrumental cases?

I'm not sure.

What does a secondary object agree with?

I'm not sure.


Czech distinguishes three genders—masculine, feminine, and neuter—and the masculine gender is subdivided into animate and inanimate. With few exceptions, feminine nouns in the nominative case end in -a, -e, or -ost; neuter nouns in -o, -e, or -í, and masculine nouns in a consonant. Adjectives agree in gender and animacy (for masculine nouns in the accusative or genitive singular and the nominative plural) with the nouns they modify. The main effect of gender in Czech is the difference in noun and adjective declension, but other effects include past-tense verb endings: for example, dělal (he did, or made); dělala (she did, or made) and dělalo (it did, or made).

How many genders does Czech distinguish?

three

What categories is the masculine gender in Czech divided into?

animate and inanimate

What do Czech adjectives agree with in the nouns they modify?

gender and animacy

What is the main effect of gender in Czech?

difference in noun and adjective declension

What does gender also affect in Czech?

past-tense verb endings

What are the three adjective types in Czech?

I'm not sure.

How is the feminine gender divided?

I'm not sure.

What do Czech consonants usually describe?

I'm not sure.

What is the main effect of consonants in Czech?

I'm not sure.

What do consonants also affect in Czech?

I'm not sure.


Nouns are also inflected for number, distinguishing between singular and plural. Typical of a Slavic language, Czech cardinal numbers one through four allow the nouns and adjectives they modify to take any case, but numbers over five place these nouns and adjectives in the genitive case when the entire expression is in nominative or accusative case. The Czech koruna is an example of this feature; it is shown here as the subject of a hypothetical sentence, and declined as genitive for numbers five and up.

What are inflected for number in Czech?

Nouns

What are the cardinal numbers one through four in Czech allowed to take?

any case

What case are numbers over five in?

genitive

When is the genitive case used?

when the entire expression is in nominative or accusative case

What is Czech's handling of cardinal numbers typical of?

a Slavic language

What is the way hypothetical sentences handle adjectives typical of?

I'm not sure.

In what case do hypothetical sentences place numbers?

I'm not sure.

What are adjectives inflected for in Czech?

I'm not sure.

What two terms distinguish between hypothetical sentences in Czech?

I'm not sure.

When is the hypothetical sentence used?

I'm not sure.


Typical of Slavic languages, Czech marks its verbs for one of two grammatical aspects: perfective and imperfective. Most verbs are part of inflected aspect pairs—for example, koupit (perfective) and kupovat (imperfective). Although the verbs' meaning is similar, in perfective verbs the action is completed and in imperfective verbs it is ongoing. This is distinct from past and present tense, and any Czech verb of either aspect can be conjugated into any of its three tenses. Aspect describes the state of the action at the time specified by the tense.

What do Slavic languages tend to do to their verbs?

marks

What two grammatical aspects can verbs in Czech have?

perfective and imperfective

In perfective verbs, what state is the action the verb describes in?

completed

In which verbs in Czech is the action the verb describes still ongoing?

imperfective

What describes the state of the action of the verb at the time specified by its tense?

Aspect

What two types of time measurement are there?

I'm not sure.

What are time measurements part of?

I'm not sure.

When tense is specified what happens to the action?

I'm not sure.

How many main Slavic Languages are there?

I'm not sure.

What is similar about three tenses in Czech?

I'm not sure.


The verbs of most aspect pairs differ in one of two ways: by prefix or by suffix. In prefix pairs, the perfective verb has an added prefix—for example, the imperfective psát (to write, to be writing) compared with the perfective napsat (to write down, to finish writing). The most common prefixes are na-, o-, po-, s-, u-, vy-, z- and za-. In suffix pairs, a different infinitive ending is added to the perfective stem; for example, the perfective verbs koupit (to buy) and prodat (to sell) have the imperfective forms kupovat and prodávat. Imperfective verbs may undergo further morphology to make other imperfective verbs (iterative and frequentative forms), denoting repeated or regular action. The verb jít (to go) has the iterative form chodit (to go repeatedly) and the frequentative form chodívat (to go regularly).

How many ways can a verb in an aspect pair differ?

two ways

What does a perfective verb have added in prefix pairs?

an added prefix

What is added to the ending in suffix pairs?

different infinitive ending

What can imperfective verb undergo to make other imperfective verbs?

further morphology

What type of action can second level morphed imperfective verbs denote?

repeated or regular action

What are the most common suffixes?

I'm not sure.

What is added to the perfective stem in a prefix pair?

I'm not sure.

What might prefixes have happen to make other imperfective verbs?

I'm not sure.

What kind of action can morphed prefixes be a sign of?

I'm not sure.

In what two ways are perfective stems different?

I'm not sure.


The infinitive form ends in t (archaically, ti). It is the form found in dictionaries and the form that follows auxiliary verbs (for example, můžu tě slyšet—"I can hear you"). Czech verbs have three grammatical moods: indicative, imperative and conditional. The imperative mood adds specific endings for each of three person (or number) categories: -Ø/-i/-ej for second-person singular, -te/-ete/-ejte for second-person plural and -me/-eme/-ejme for first-person plural. The conditional mood is formed with a particle after the past-tense verb. This mood indicates possible events, expressed in English as "I would" or "I wish".

What verb form is found in Czech dictionaries?

infinitive

How many grammatical moods do Czech verbs have?

three

What are the grammatical moods of Czech verbs?

indicative, imperative and conditional

What mood adds specific endings for each of three person or number categories?

imperative

Which Czech verb mood indicates possible events?

conditional

What three grammatical moods are there in English?

I'm not sure.

What verb form is found in English dictionaries?

I'm not sure.

How many grammatical moods do English verbs have?

I'm not sure.

What kind of endings does the conditional mood add for each category in English?

I'm not sure.

The imperative mood is formed with a particle after what in English?

I'm not sure.


Czech has one of the most phonemic orthographies of all European languages. Its thirty-one graphemes represent thirty sounds (in most dialects, i and y have the same sound), and it contains only one digraph: ch, which follows h in the alphabet. As a result, some of its characters have been used by phonologists to denote corresponding sounds in other languages. The characters q, w and x appear only in foreign words. The háček (ˇ) is used with certain letters to form new characters: š, ž, and č, as well as ň, ě, ř, ť, and ď (the latter five uncommon outside Czech). The last two letters are sometimes written with a comma above (ʼ, an abbreviated háček) because of their height. The character ó exists only in loanwords and onomatopoeia.

What language has one of the most phonemic orthographies of all European languages?

Czech

How many graphemes does Czech have?

thirty-one

What have some of Czech's characters been used for by phonologists to denote?

corresponding sounds in other languages

What character in Czech only exists in loanwords?

ó

In Czech, what type of words do the characters "q", "w" and "x" exclusively appear in?

foreign

What character is only used in other European languages?

I'm not sure.

What do loanwords have more than other European languages?

I'm not sure.

What letters are common in loanwords?

I'm not sure.

How many graphemes are there in loanwords?

I'm not sure.

How many sounds are there in foreign words?

I'm not sure.


Czech typographical features not associated with phonetics generally resemble those of most Latin European languages, including English. Proper nouns, honorifics, and the first letters of quotations are capitalized, and punctuation is typical of other Latin European languages. Writing of ordinal numerals is similar to most European languages. The Czech language uses a decimal comma instead of a decimal point. When writing a long number, spaces between every three numbers (e.g. between hundreds and thousands) may be used for better orientation in handwritten texts, but not in decimal places, like in English. The number 1,234,567.8910 may be written as 1234567,8910 or 1 234 567,8910. Ordinal numbers (1st) use a point as in German (1.). In proper noun phrases (except personal names), only the first word is capitalized (Pražský hrad, Prague Castle).

What do Czech typographical features not associated with phonetics tend to resemble?

those of most Latin European languages

In Czech, what is done to proper nouns, honorifics, and the first letters of quotations?

capitalized

What is typical in Czech as other Latin European languages?

punctuation

What language does Czech share its handling of ordinal format with?

German

What word is capitalized in proper noun phrases in Czech?

only the first

What does English use instead of a decimal point?

I'm not sure.

What can be used in Latin when writing noun phrases?

I'm not sure.

What word is capitalized in phonetics in Latin?

I'm not sure.

What can always be used in decimal places in Latin?

I'm not sure.

Latin uses a decimal comma instead of what?

I'm not sure.


Education is the process of facilitating learning, or the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values, beliefs, and habits. Educational methods include storytelling, discussion, teaching, training, and directed research. Education frequently takes place under the guidance of educators, but learners may also educate themselves. Education can take place in formal or informal settings and any experience that has a formative effect on the way one thinks, feels, or acts may be considered educational. The methodology of teaching is called pedagogy.

What makes up Education?

knowledge, skills, values, beliefs, and habits

What methods make up Education?

storytelling, discussion, teaching, training, and directed research

Where does education usually take place under?

the guidance of educators

What does not make up education?

I'm not sure.

What methods do not make up Education?

I'm not sure.

Where does education never take place under?

I'm not sure.

What only happens in a formal setting?

I'm not sure.

What only happens in an informal setting?

I'm not sure.


After the Fall of Rome, the Catholic Church became the sole preserver of literate scholarship in Western Europe. The church established cathedral schools in the Early Middle Ages as centers of advanced education. Some of these establishments ultimately evolved into medieval universities and forebears of many of Europe's modern universities. During the High Middle Ages, Chartres Cathedral operated the famous and influential Chartres Cathedral School. The medieval universities of Western Christendom were well-integrated across all of Western Europe, encouraged freedom of inquiry, and produced a great variety of fine scholars and natural philosophers, including Thomas Aquinas of the University of Naples, Robert Grosseteste of the University of Oxford, an early expositor of a systematic method of scientific experimentation, and Saint Albert the Great, a pioneer of biological field research. Founded in 1088, the University of Bologne is considered the first, and the oldest continually operating university.

What occurred after the Fall of Rome with literature?

Catholic Church became the sole preserver

What happened with education  during the Early Middle Ages?

church established cathedral schools

What did these early schools during the Middle Ages evolve into?

medieval universities

What was the name of the famous school during the high middle ages?

Chartres Cathedral School

What occurred before the Fall of Rome with literature?

I'm not sure.

What happened with education during the Late Middle Ages?

I'm not sure.

What did these early schools during the Middle Ages evolve from?

I'm not sure.

What was the name of the famous school during the low middle ages?

I'm not sure.

What was founded in 1089?

I'm not sure.


Formal education occurs in a structured environment whose explicit purpose is teaching students. Usually, formal education takes place in a school environment with classrooms of multiple students learning together with a trained, certified teacher of the subject. Most school systems are designed around a set of values or ideals that govern all educational choices in that system. Such choices include curriculum, organizational models, design of the physical learning spaces (e.g. classrooms), student-teacher interactions, methods of assessment, class size, educational activities, and more.

Where does formal education take place?

school environment

What are some of the sets or ideals most school systems follow?

student-teacher interactions, methods of assessment, class size,

Who guides the students in a formal environment?

certified teacher

Where does informal education take place?

I'm not sure.

What is the implicit purpose of a structured environment?

I'm not sure.

What system is not designed around values and ideals?

I'm not sure.

What doesn't guide students in formal environments?

I'm not sure.

Who guides the students in an informal environment?

I'm not sure.


Preschools provide education from ages approximately three to seven, depending on the country, when children enter primary education. These are also known as nursery schools and as kindergarten, except in the US, where kindergarten is a term used for primary education.[citation needed] Kindergarten "provide[s] a child-centered, preschool curriculum for three- to seven-year-old children that aim[s] at unfolding the child's physical, intellectual, and moral nature with balanced emphasis on each of them."

Whats the typical age range for pre-school?

three to seven

What are pre-schools also known as?

nursery schools and as kindergarten,

In what country is Kindergarten a term used for primary education?

US

Whats the atypical age range for pre-school?

I'm not sure.

What are pre-schools not known as?

I'm not sure.

In what country is kindergarten not a term used for primary education?

I'm not sure.

What ages are not included in Kindergarten?

I'm not sure.

What facets are not included in education?

I'm not sure.