A period of division for the Liberals followed, with former Treasurer John Howard competing with former Foreign Minister Andrew Peacock for supremacy. The Australian economy was facing the early 1990s recession. Unemployment reached 11.4% in 1992. Under Dr John Hewson, in November 1991, the opposition launched the 650-page Fightback! policy document − a radical collection of "dry", economic liberal measures including the introduction of a Goods and Services Tax (GST), various changes to Medicare including the abolition of bulk billing for non-concession holders, the introduction of a nine-month limit on unemployment benefits, various changes to industrial relations including the abolition of awards, a $13 billion personal income tax cut directed at middle and upper income earners, $10 billion in government spending cuts, the abolition of state payroll taxes and the privatisation of a large number of government owned enterprises − representing the start of a very different future direction to the keynesian economic conservatism practiced by previous Liberal/National Coalition governments. The 15 percent GST was the centerpiece of the policy document. Through 1992, Labor Prime Minister Paul Keating mounted a campaign against the Fightback package, and particularly against the GST, which he described as an attack on the working class in that it shifted the tax burden from direct taxation of the wealthy to indirect taxation as a broad-based consumption tax. Pressure group activity and public opinion was relentless, which led Hewson to exempt food from the proposed GST − leading to questions surrounding the complexity of what food was and wasn't to be exempt from the GST. Hewson's difficulty in explaining this to the electorate was exemplified in the infamous birthday cake interview, considered by some as a turning point in the election campaign. Keating won a record fifth consecutive Labor term at the 1993 election. A number of the proposals were later adopted in to law in some form, to a small extent during the Keating Labor government, and to a larger extent during the Howard Liberal government (most famously the GST), while unemployment benefits and bulk billing were re-targeted for a time by the Abbott Liberal government.

Which two title holders fought for political power in the early 1990s?

former Treasurer John Howard competing with former Foreign Minister Andrew Peacock

What was the Australian unemployment rate in 1992?

What discussion proved an example of the difficulty of explaining what foods were and were not included in the Goods and Services Tax?

the infamous birthday cake interview

Which two title holders fought for political power in the GST?

I'm not sure.

What was the Australian unemployment rate in 1993?

I'm not sure.

What discussion proved an example of the difficulty of explaining what governments were and were not included in the Goods and Services Tax

I'm not sure.

When did John Hewson mount a campaign against the Fightback package?

I'm not sure.

When did Paul Keating launch the Fightback! policy document?

I'm not sure.


In South Australia, initially a Liberal and Country Party affiliated party, the Liberal and Country League (LCL), mostly led by Premier of South Australia Tom Playford, was in power from the 1933 election to the 1965 election, though with assistance from an electoral malapportionment, or gerrymander, known as the Playmander. The LCL's Steele Hall governed for one term from the 1968 election to the 1970 election and during this time began the process of dismantling the Playmander. David Tonkin, as leader of the South Australian Division of the Liberal Party of Australia, became Premier at the 1979 election for one term, losing office at the 1982 election. The Liberals returned to power at the 1993 election, led by Premiers Dean Brown, John Olsen and Rob Kerin through two terms, until their defeat at the 2002 election. They have since remained in opposition under a record five Opposition Leaders.

How long was Tom Playford in political power?

from the 1933 election to the 1965 election

How many consecutive losses has the Liberal party faced since the 2002 election?

a record five

During what years did the dismantling of the Playmander begin?

1968 election to the 1970 election

How long was Dean Brown in power?

I'm not sure.

How many consecutive losses has David Tonkin faced since the 2002 election?

I'm not sure.

During what years did the dismantling of the LCL begin?

I'm not sure.

What Premiers led The Liberals after the 1970 election?

I'm not sure.

Who was led by Opposition Leaders?

I'm not sure.


In Japanese, they are usually referred to as bushi (武士?, [bu.ɕi]) or buke (武家?). According to translator William Scott Wilson: "In Chinese, the character 侍 was originally a verb meaning "to wait upon" or "accompany persons" in the upper ranks of society, and this is also true of the original term in Japanese, saburau. In both countries the terms were nominalized to mean "those who serve in close attendance to the nobility", the pronunciation in Japanese changing to saburai. According to Wilson, an early reference to the word "samurai" appears in the Kokin Wakashū (905–914), the first imperial anthology of poems, completed in the first part of the 10th century.

What was William Scott Wilson's occupation?

translator

What are samurai usually called in Japanse?

bushi (武士?, [bu.ɕi]) or buke (武家?)

Where is the first known use of 'samurai'?

Kokin Wakashū

When is the first known use of 'samurai'?


By the end of the 12th century, samurai became almost entirely synonymous with bushi, and the word was closely associated with the middle and upper echelons of the warrior class. The samurai were usually associated with a clan and their lord, were trained as officers in military tactics and grand strategy, and they followed a set of rules that later came to be known as the bushidō. While the samurai numbered less than 10% of then Japan's population, their teachings can still be found today in both everyday life and in modern Japanese martial arts.

What did samurai mean nearly the same thing as?

bushi

What were samurai affiliated with?

a clan

How much of Japan were samurais?

less than 10%

Where do samurais' teachings live on?

everyday life and in modern Japanese martial arts

What class were samurais?

middle and upper echelons of the warrior class


Following the Battle of Hakusukinoe against Tang China and Silla in 663 AD that led to a Japanese retreat from Korean affairs, Japan underwent widespread reform. One of the most important was that of the Taika Reform, issued by Prince Naka no Ōe (Emperor Tenji) in 646 AD. This edict allowed the Japanese aristocracy to adopt the Tang dynasty political structure, bureaucracy, culture, religion, and philosophy. As part of the Taihō Code, of 702 AD, and the later Yōrō Code, the population was required to report regularly for census, a precursor for national conscription. With an understanding of how the population was distributed, Emperor Mommu introduced a law whereby 1 in 3–4 adult males was drafted into the national military. These soldiers were required to supply their own weapons, and in return were exempted from duties and taxes. This was one of the first attempts by the Imperial government to form an organized army modeled after the Chinese system. It was called "Gundan-Sei" (軍団制) by later historians and is believed to have been short-lived.[citation needed]

When was the Battle of Hakusukinoe?

663 AD

Who was the Battle of Hakusukinoe against?

Tang China and Silla

What was the effect of the Battle of Hakusukinoe?

a Japanese retreat from Korean affairs

Who led the Taika Reform?

Prince Naka no Ōe (Emperor Tenji)

When was the Taika Reform?

646 AD


In the early Heian period, the late 8th and early 9th centuries, Emperor Kammu sought to consolidate and expand his rule in northern Honshū, but the armies he sent to conquer the rebellious Emishi people lacked motivation and discipline, and failed in their task.[citation needed] Emperor Kammu introduced the title of sei'i-taishōgun (征夷大将軍) or Shogun, and began to rely on the powerful regional clans to conquer the Emishi. Skilled in mounted combat and archery (kyūdō), these clan warriors became the Emperor's preferred tool for putting down rebellions.[citation needed] Though this is the first known use of the "Shogun" title, it was a temporary title, and was not imbued with political power until the 13th century. At this time (the 7th to 9th century) the Imperial Court officials considered them merely a military section under the control of the Imperial Court.

In what period did Emperor Kammu rule?

early Heian period

When was the early Heian?

the late 8th and early 9th centuries

Who did Kammu fail to conquer?

Emishi

What was the full title for Shogun?

sei'i-taishōgun

Who introduced the Shogun concept?

Emperor Kammu


After the Genpei war of the late 12th century, a clan leader Minamoto no Yoritomo obtained the right to appoint shugo and jito, and was allowed to organize soldiers and police, and to collect a certain amount of tax. Initially, their responsibility was restricted to arresting rebels and collecting needed army provisions, and they were forbidden from interfering with Kokushi Governors, but their responsibility gradually expanded and thus the samurai-class appeared as the political ruling power in Japan. Minamoto no Yoritomo opened the Kamakura Bakufu Shogunate in 1192.

When was the Genpei war?

late 12th century

Who was given the right to appoint shugo?

Minamoto no Yoritomo

What was Minamoto's position?

clan leader

Who opened the Kamakura Bakufu Shogunate?

Minamoto no Yoritomo

When did the Kamakura Bakufu Shogunate open?


Originally the Emperor and non-warrior nobility employed these warrior nobles. In time, they amassed enough manpower, resources and political backing in the form of alliances with one another, to establish the first samurai-dominated government. As the power of these regional clans grew, their chief was typically a distant relative of the Emperor and a lesser member of either the Fujiwara, Minamoto, or Taira clans. Though originally sent to provincial areas for a fixed four-year term as a magistrate, the toryo declined to return to the capital when their terms ended, and their sons inherited their positions and continued to lead the clans in putting down rebellions throughout Japan during the middle- and later-Heian period. Because of their rising military and economic power, the warriors ultimately became a new force in the politics of the court. Their involvement in the Hōgen in the late Heian period consolidated their power, and finally pitted the rival Minamoto and Taira clans against each other in the Heiji Rebellion of 1160.

What rebellion happened in 1160?

Heiji Rebellion

Who fought in the Heiji Rebellion?

the rival Minamoto and Taira clans

How long were the toryos' terms supposed to be?

four-year

What clans were most regional clans' chiefs also a member of?

Fujiwara, Minamoto, or Taira clans


The winner, Taira no Kiyomori, became an imperial advisor, and was the first warrior to attain such a position. He eventually seized control of the central government, establishing the first samurai-dominated government and relegating the Emperor to figurehead status. However, the Taira clan was still very conservative when compared to its eventual successor, the Minamoto, and instead of expanding or strengthening its military might, the clan had its women marry Emperors and exercise control through the Emperor.

Who was the first warrior to become imperial advisor?

Taira no Kiyomori

Who established the first samurai-led administration?

Taira no Kiyomori

What role did the Emperor have in the samurai-controlled government?

figurehead

Who succeeded the Taira clan?

the Minamoto

How did the Taira clan expand power?

had its women marry Emperors


The Taira and the Minamoto clashed again in 1180, beginning the Gempei War, which ended in 1185. Samurai fought at the naval battle of Dan-no-ura, at the Shimonoseki Strait which separates Honshu and Kyushu in 1185. The victorious Minamoto no Yoritomo established the superiority of the samurai over the aristocracy. In 1190 he visited Kyoto and in 1192 became Sei'i-taishōgun, establishing the Kamakura Shogunate, or Kamakura Bakufu. Instead of ruling from Kyoto, he set up the Shogunate in Kamakura, near his base of power. "Bakufu" means "tent government", taken from the encampments the soldiers would live in, in accordance with the Bakufu's status as a military government.

When did the Gempei War begin?

When did the Gempei War end?

Which clans fought in the Gempei War?

The Taira and the Minamoto

What does the Shimonoseki Strait divide?

Honshu and Kyushu

When was the Kamakura Shogunate established?


In 1274, the Mongol-founded Yuan dynasty in China sent a force of some 40,000 men and 900 ships to invade Japan in northern Kyūshū. Japan mustered a mere 10,000 samurai to meet this threat. The invading army was harassed by major thunderstorms throughout the invasion, which aided the defenders by inflicting heavy casualties. The Yuan army was eventually recalled and the invasion was called off. The Mongol invaders used small bombs, which was likely the first appearance of bombs and gunpowder in Japan.

Which Chinese dynasty was founded by Mongols?

Yuan

How many troops did the Yuan send to invade Japan?

How many ships did the Yuan send to invade Japan?

Where did the Yuan invade Japan?

northern Kyūshū

How many samurai did Japan defeat the Yuan invasion with?


The Japanese defenders recognized the possibility of a renewed invasion, and began construction of a great stone barrier around Hakata Bay in 1276. Completed in 1277, this wall stretched for 20 kilometers around the border of the bay. This would later serve as a strong defensive point against the Mongols. The Mongols attempted to settle matters in a diplomatic way from 1275 to 1279, but every envoy sent to Japan was executed. This set the stage for one of the most famous engagements in Japanese history.

What was built around Hakata Bay?

a great stone barrier

When did Japan begin building the Hakata Bay barrier?

When did Japan finish building the Hakata Bay barrier?

How long was the Hakata Bay barrier?

20 kilometers

What happened to diplomatic envoys the Mongols sent to Japan?

executed


In 1592, and again in 1597, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, aiming to invade China (唐入り) through Korea, mobilized an army of 160,000 peasants and samurai and deployed them to Korea. (See Hideyoshi's invasions of Korea, Chōsen-seibatsu (朝鮮征伐?). Taking advantage of arquebus mastery and extensive wartime experience from the Sengoku period, Japanese samurai armies made major gains in most of Korea. Kato Kiyomasa advanced to Orangkai territory (present-day Manchuria) bordering Korea to the northeast and crossed the border into Manchuria, but withdrew after retaliatory attacks from the Jurchens there, as it was clear he had outpaced the rest of the Japanese invasion force. A few of the more famous samurai generals of this war were Katō Kiyomasa, Konishi Yukinaga, and Shimazu Yoshihiro. Shimazu Yoshihiro led some 7,000 samurai and, despite being heavily outnumbered, defeated a host of allied Ming and Korean forces at the Battle of Sacheon in 1598, near the conclusion of the campaigns. Yoshihiro was feared as Oni-Shimazu ("Shimazu ogre") and his nickname spread across not only Korea but to Ming Dynasty China. In spite of the superiority of Japanese land forces, ultimately the two expeditions failed (though they did devastate the Korean landmass) from factors such as Korean naval superiority (which, led by Admiral Yi Sun-shin, harassed Japanese supply lines continuously throughout the wars, resulting in supply shortages on land), the commitment of sizeable Ming forces to Korea, Korean guerrilla actions, the underestimation of resistance by Japanese commanders (in the first campaign of 1592, Korean defenses on land were caught unprepared, under-trained, and under-armed; they were rapidly overrun, with only a limited number of successfully resistant engagements against the more-experienced and battle-hardened Japanese forces - in the second campaign of 1597, Korean and Ming forces proved to be a far more difficult challenge and, with the support of continued Korean naval superiority, limited Japanese gains to parts southeastern Korea), and wavering Japanese commitment to the campaigns as the wars dragged on. The final death blow to the Japanese campaigns in Korea came with Hideyoshi's death in late 1598 and the recall of all Japanese forces in Korea by the Council of Five Elders (established by Hideyoshi to oversee the transition from his regency to that of his son Hideyori).

When did Toyotomi Hideyoshi first send an army to Korea?

When did Toyotomi Hideyoshi send an army to Korea a second time?

How many troops did Toyotomi Hideyoshi send to Korea?

When was the Battle of Sacheon?

When did Toyotomi Hideyoshi die?


It should be noted that many samurai forces that were active throughout this period were not deployed to Korea; most importantly, the daimyo Tokugawa Ieyasu carefully kept forces under his command out of the Korean campaigns, and other samurai commanders who were opposed to Hideyoshi's domination of Japan either mulled Hideyoshi's call to invade Korea or contributed a small token force. Most commanders who did opposed or otherwise resisted/resented Hideyoshi ended up as part of the so-called Eastern Army, while commanders loyal to Hideyoshi and his son (a notable exception to this trend was Katō Kiyomasa, who deployed with Tokugawa and the Eastern Army) were largely committed to the Western Army; the two opposing sides (so named for the relative geographical locations of their respective commanders' domains) would later clash, most notably at the Battle of Sekigahara, which was won by Tokugawa Ieyasu and the Eastern Forces, paving the way for the establishment of the Tokugawa Shogunate.

Which military leader avoided sending his soldiers to Korea?

Tokugawa Ieyasu

What force were most commanders opposed to the Korea invasion part of?

Eastern Army

Which commander loyal to Hideyoshi was in the Eastern Army?

Katō Kiyomasa

Where did the Eastern and Western armies battle?

Battle of Sekigahara

Which army won the Battle of Sekigahara?

Eastern Forces


Oda Nobunaga made innovations in the fields of organization and war tactics, heavily used arquebuses, developed commerce and industry and treasured innovation. Consecutive victories enabled him to realize the termination of the Ashikaga Bakufu and the disarmament of the military powers of the Buddhist monks, which had inflamed futile struggles among the populace for centuries. Attacking from the "sanctuary" of Buddhist temples, they were constant headaches to any warlord and even the Emperor who tried to control their actions. He died in 1582 when one of his generals, Akechi Mitsuhide, turned upon him with his army.

Who used arquebuses a lot?

Oda Nobunaga

What did Oda Nobunaga value?

innovation

Who disarmed Japan's Buddhist monks?

Oda Nobunaga

When did Oda Nobunaga die?

Who caused Oda Nobunaga's death?

Akechi Mitsuhide


During the Tokugawa shogunate, samurai increasingly became courtiers, bureaucrats, and administrators rather than warriors. With no warfare since the early 17th century, samurai gradually lost their military function during the Tokugawa era (also called the Edo period). By the end of the Tokugawa era, samurai were aristocratic bureaucrats for the daimyo, with their daisho, the paired long and short swords of the samurai (cf. katana and wakizashi) becoming more of a symbolic emblem of power rather than a weapon used in daily life. They still had the legal right to cut down any commoner who did not show proper respect kiri-sute gomen (斬り捨て御免?), but to what extent this right was used is unknown. When the central government forced daimyos to cut the size of their armies, unemployed rōnin became a social problem.

When were samurai becoming less warrior-like?

During the Tokugawa shogunate

When had samurai last been used in battle?

the early 17th century

What was another name for the Tokugawa era?

the Edo period

What was the samurai's long sword called?

katana

What was the samurai's short sword called?

wakizashi


Theoretical obligations between a samurai and his lord (usually a daimyo) increased from the Genpei era to the Edo era. They were strongly emphasized by the teachings of Confucius and Mencius (ca 550 BC), which were required reading for the educated samurai class. Bushido was formalized by several influential leaders and families before the Edo Period. Bushido was an ideal, and it remained fairly uniform from the 13th century to the 19th century — the ideals of Bushido transcended social class, time and geographic location of the warrior class.

Who were most samurais' lords?

daimyo

Whose teachings did all samurai read?

Confucius and Mencius

What did Bushido transcend?

social class, time and geographic location

When was Bushido formalized?

before the Edo Period

Who formalized Bushido?

several influential leaders and families


The relative peace of the Tokugawa era was shattered with the arrival of Commodore Matthew Perry's massive U.S. Navy steamships in 1853. Perry used his superior firepower to force Japan to open its borders to trade. Prior to that only a few harbor towns, under strict control from the Shogunate, were allowed to participate in Western trade, and even then, it was based largely on the idea of playing the Franciscans and Dominicans off against one another (in exchange for the crucial arquebus technology, which in turn was a major contributor to the downfall of the classical samurai).

Which force invaded Japan in 1853?

U.S. Navy

Who lead the US Navy's invasion of Japan?

Commodore Matthew Perry

What was Perry's goal in Japan?

force Japan to open its borders to trade

What technology helped the downfall of samurai?

arquebus


From 1854, the samurai army and the navy were modernized. A Naval training school was established in Nagasaki in 1855. Naval students were sent to study in Western naval schools for several years, starting a tradition of foreign-educated future leaders, such as Admiral Enomoto. French naval engineers were hired to build naval arsenals, such as Yokosuka and Nagasaki. By the end of the Tokugawa shogunate in 1867, the Japanese navy of the shogun already possessed eight western-style steam warships around the flagship Kaiyō Maru, which were used against pro-imperial forces during the Boshin war, under the command of Admiral Enomoto. A French Military Mission to Japan (1867) was established to help modernize the armies of the Bakufu.

When was the samurai military modernized?

Where did Japan open a military school in 1855?

Nagasaki

What kind of military school did Japan open in 1855?

Naval

What nationality of engineers did Japan hire to build naval arsenals?

tradition

How many steam warships did Japan have in 1867?

eight


Emperor Meiji abolished the samurai's right to be the only armed force in favor of a more modern, western-style, conscripted army in 1873. Samurai became Shizoku (士族) who retained some of their salaries, but the right to wear a katana in public was eventually abolished along with the right to execute commoners who paid them disrespect. The samurai finally came to an end after hundreds of years of enjoyment of their status, their powers, and their ability to shape the government of Japan. However, the rule of the state by the military class was not yet over. In defining how a modern Japan should be, members of the Meiji government decided to follow the footsteps of the United Kingdom and Germany, basing the country on the concept of noblesse oblige. Samurai were not a political force under the new order. With the Meiji reforms in the late 19th century, the samurai class was abolished, and a western-style national army was established. The Imperial Japanese Armies were conscripted, but many samurai volunteered as soldiers, and many advanced to be trained as officers. Much of the Imperial Army officer class was of samurai origin, and were highly motivated, disciplined, and exceptionally trained.

Who established a western-style army in Japan?

Emperor Meiji

When was a western-style army established in Japan?

What did samurai become in 1873?

Shizoku

Who had samurai been allowed to kill?

commoners who paid them disrespect

In what century were the Meiji reforms?


Samurai were many of the early exchange students, not directly because they were samurai, but because many samurai were literate and well-educated scholars. Some of these exchange students started private schools for higher educations, while many samurai took pens instead of guns and became reporters and writers, setting up newspaper companies, and others entered governmental service. Some samurai became businessmen. For example, Iwasaki Yatarō, who was the great-grandson of a samurai, established Mitsubishi.

What group made up most of Japan's first exchange students?

Samurai

Who started Mitsubishi?

Iwasaki Yatarō

What was Iwasaki's relationship to samurai?

great-grandson of a samurai

What kind of schools did samurai start?

private schools for higher educations

Who did samurai write for?

newspaper companies


The philosophies of Buddhism and Zen, and to a lesser extent Confucianism and Shinto, influenced the samurai culture. Zen meditation became an important teaching due to it offering a process to calm one's mind. The Buddhist concept of reincarnation and rebirth led samurai to abandon torture and needless killing, while some samurai even gave up violence altogether and became Buddhist monks after realizing how fruitless their killings were. Some were killed as they came to terms with these realizations in the battlefield. The most defining role that Confucianism played in samurai philosophy was to stress the importance of the lord-retainer relationship—the loyalty that a samurai was required to show his lord.

What philosophies were the samurai influenced by?

Buddhism and Zen, and to a lesser extent Confucianism and Shinto

What type of meditation did samurai do?

Zen

What caused some samurai to stop fighting?

The Buddhist concept of reincarnation and rebirth

What was the contribution of Confucianism to samurai?

to stress the importance of the lord-retainer relationship


In the 13th century, Hōjō Shigetoki (1198–1261 AD) wrote: "When one is serving officially or in the master's court, he should not think of a hundred or a thousand people, but should consider only the importance of the master." Carl Steenstrup noted that 13th and 14th century warrior writings (gunki) "portrayed the bushi in their natural element, war, eulogizing such virtues as reckless bravery, fierce family pride, and selfless, at times senseless devotion of master and man". Feudal lords such as Shiba Yoshimasa (1350–1410 AD) stated that a warrior looked forward to a glorious death in the service of a military leader or the Emperor: "It is a matter of regret to let the moment when one should die pass by....First, a man whose profession is the use of arms should think and then act upon not only his own fame, but also that of his descendants. He should not scandalize his name forever by holding his one and only life too dear....One's main purpose in throwing away his life is to do so either for the sake of the Emperor or in some great undertaking of a military general. It is that exactly that will be the great fame of one's descendants."

When was Hojo Shigetoki born?

When did Hojo Shigetoki die?

What were gunki?

13th and 14th century warrior writings

When was Shiba Yoshimasa born?

When did Shiba Yoshimasa die?


"First of all, a samurai who dislikes battle and has not put his heart in the right place even though he has been born in the house of the warrior, should not be reckoned among one's retainers....It is forbidden to forget the great debt of kindness one owes to his master and ancestors and thereby make light of the virtues of loyalty and filial piety....It is forbidden that one should...attach little importance to his duties to his master...There is a primary need to distinguish loyalty from disloyalty and to establish rewards and punishments."

What does a samurai has his heart in the wrong place dislike?

battle

What debt should samurai not forget?

the great debt of kindness one owes to his master and ancestors

What virtues should samurai not be dismissive of?

loyalty and filial piety


Katō Kiyomasa was one of the most powerful and well-known lords of the Sengoku Era. He commanded most of Japan's major clans during the invasion of Korea (1592–1598). In a handbook he addressed to "all samurai, regardless of rank" he told his followers that a warrior's only duty in life was to "...grasp the long and the short swords and to die". He also ordered his followers to put forth great effort in studying the military classics, especially those related to loyalty and filial piety. He is best known for his quote: "If a man does not investigate into the matter of Bushido daily, it will be difficult for him to die a brave and manly death. Thus it is essential to engrave this business of the warrior into one's mind well."

When was Kato Kiyomasa in power?

the Sengoku Era

When did Japan begin invading Korea?

When did Japan finish invading Korea?

What did Kato Kiyomasa think samurais' duty was?

to "...grasp the long and the short swords and to die"

What concept did Kato Kiyomasa think should be studied every day?

Bushido


Torii Mototada (1539–1600) was a feudal lord in the service of Tokugawa Ieyasu. On the eve of the battle of Sekigahara, he volunteered to remain behind in the doomed Fushimi Castle while his lord advanced to the east. Torii and Tokugawa both agreed that the castle was indefensible. In an act of loyalty to his lord, Torii chose to remain behind, pledging that he and his men would fight to the finish. As was custom, Torii vowed that he would not be taken alive. In a dramatic last stand, the garrison of 2,000 men held out against overwhelming odds for ten days against the massive army of Ishida Mitsunari's 40,000 warriors. In a moving last statement to his son Tadamasa, he wrote:

Who did Torii Mototada serve?

Tokugawa Ieyasu

When was Torii Mototada born?

When did Torii Mototada die?

How many people were in Ishida Mitsunari's army?

How many soldiers defended Torii's last stand?


The rival of Takeda Shingen (1521–1573) was Uesugi Kenshin (1530–1578), a legendary Sengoku warlord well-versed in the Chinese military classics and who advocated the "way of the warrior as death". Japanese historian Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki describes Uesugi's beliefs as: "Those who are reluctant to give up their lives and embrace death are not true warriors.... Go to the battlefield firmly confident of victory, and you will come home with no wounds whatever. Engage in combat fully determined to die and you will be alive; wish to survive in the battle and you will surely meet death. When you leave the house determined not to see it again you will come home safely; when you have any thought of returning you will not return. You may not be in the wrong to think that the world is always subject to change, but the warrior must not entertain this way of thinking, for his fate is always determined."

Who was Takeda's rival?

Uesugi Kenshin

What did Uesugi encourage?

the "way of the warrior as death"

What was Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki's occupation?

Japanese historian

When was Takeda born?

When was Uesugi born?


Historian H. Paul Varley notes the description of Japan given by Jesuit leader St. Francis Xavier (1506–1552): "There is no nation in the world which fears death less." Xavier further describes the honour and manners of the people: "I fancy that there are no people in the world more punctilious about their honour than the Japanese, for they will not put up with a single insult or even a word spoken in anger." Xavier spent the years 1549–1551 converting Japanese to Christianity. He also observed: "The Japanese are much braver and more warlike than the people of China, Korea, Ternate and all of the other nations around the Philippines."

What religious order was St. Francis Xavier in?

Jesuit

When was St. Francis Xavier born?

When did St. Francis Xavier die?

When did Xavier try to convert Japan to Christianity?

Who were the Japanese regarded as braver than?

the people of China, Korea, Ternate and all of the other nations around the Philippines


In December 1547, Francis was in Malacca (Malaysia) waiting to return to Goa (India) when he met a low-ranked samurai named Anjiro (possibly spelled "Yajiro"). Anjiro was not an intellectual, but he impressed Xavier because he took careful notes of everything he said in church. Xavier made the decision to go to Japan in part because this low-ranking samurai convinced him in Portuguese that the Japanese people were highly educated and eager to learn. They were hard workers and respectful of authority. In their laws and customs they were led by reason, and, should the Christian faith convince them of its truth, they would accept it en masse.

Where was Malacca?

Malaysia

Where was Goa?

India

Who impressed Xavier by taking notes in church?

Anjiro

In what language did Anjiro speak to Xavier?

Portuguese

How did Anjiro think the Japanese would accept Christianity?

en masse


In his book "Ideals of the Samurai" translator William Scott Wilson states: "The warriors in the Heike Monogatari served as models for the educated warriors of later generations, and the ideals depicted by them were not assumed to be beyond reach. Rather, these ideals were vigorously pursued in the upper echelons of warrior society and recommended as the proper form of the Japanese man of arms. With the Heike Monogatari, the image of the Japanese warrior in literature came to its full maturity." Wilson then translates the writings of several warriors who mention the Heike Monogatari as an example for their men to follow.

Who wrote 'Ideals of the Samurai'?

William Scott Wilson

Who were the models for future generations of samurai?

The warriors in the Heike Monogatari

Where did Japanese warriors come to literary maturity?

the Heike Monogatari


As aristocrats for centuries, samurai developed their own cultures that influenced Japanese culture as a whole. The culture associated with the samurai such as the tea ceremony, monochrome ink painting, rock gardens and poetry were adopted by warrior patrons throughout the centuries 1200–1600. These practices were adapted from the Chinese arts. Zen monks introduced them to Japan and they were allowed to flourish due to the interest of powerful warrior elites. Musō Soseki (1275–1351) was a Zen monk who was advisor to both Emperor Go-Daigo and General Ashikaga Takauji (1304–58). Musō, as well as other monks, acted as political and cultural diplomat between Japan and China. Musō was particularly well known for his garden design. Another Ashikaga patron of the arts was Yoshimasa. His cultural advisor, the Zen monk Zeami, introduced tea ceremony to him. Previously, tea had been used primarily for Buddhist monks to stay awake during meditation.

Whose culture included tea ceremonies?

samurai

What kind of painting did samurai do?

monochrome ink

What was Japanese culture influenced by?

Chinese arts

Who brought Chinese arts to Japan?

Zen monks

When was Muso Soseki born?


For example, the full name of Oda Nobunaga would be "Oda Kazusanosuke Saburo Nobunaga" (織田上総介三郎信長), in which "Oda" is a clan or family name, "Kazusanosuke" is a title of vice-governor of Kazusa province, "Saburo" is a formal nickname (yobina), and "Nobunaga" is an adult name (nanori) given at genpuku, the coming of age ceremony. A man was addressed by his family name and his title, or by his yobina if he did not have a title. However, the nanori was a private name that could be used by only a very few, including the Emperor.

What was Oda Nobunaga's full name?

Oda Kazusanosuke Saburo Nobunaga

What did Oda mean?

a clan or family name

What did Kazusanosuke mean?

a title of vice-governor of Kazusa province

What did Saburo mean?

a formal nickname (yobina)

What did Nobunaga mean?

an adult name (nanori) given at genpuku, the coming of age ceremony


A samurai could take concubines but their backgrounds were checked by higher-ranked samurai. In many cases, taking a concubine was akin to a marriage. Kidnapping a concubine, although common in fiction, would have been shameful, if not criminal. If the concubine was a commoner, a messenger was sent with betrothal money or a note for exemption of tax to ask for her parents' acceptance. Even though the woman would not be a legal wife, a situation normally considered a demotion, many wealthy merchants believed that being the concubine of a samurai was superior to being the legal wife of a commoner. When a merchant's daughter married a samurai, her family's money erased the samurai's debts, and the samurai's social status improved the standing of the merchant family. If a samurai's commoner concubine gave birth to a son, the son could inherit his father's social status.

How did the samurai treat concubines?

akin to a marriage

How did the samurai view kidnapping concubines?

shameful, if not criminal

Who thought being a concubine was better than being a wife?

many wealthy merchants

Why did merchants prefer that their daughters not marry samurai?

her family's money erased the samurai's debts

What happened if a commoner concubine had a son?

the son could inherit his father's social status


A samurai could divorce his wife for a variety of reasons with approval from a superior, but divorce was, while not entirely nonexistent, a rare event. A wife's failure to produce a son was cause for divorce, but adoption of a male heir was considered an acceptable alternative to divorce. A samurai could divorce for personal reasons, even if he simply did not like his wife, but this was generally avoided as it would embarrass the person who had arranged the marriage. A woman could also arrange a divorce, although it would generally take the form of the samurai divorcing her. After a divorce samurai had to return the betrothal money, which often prevented divorces.

How common was divorce for samurai?

rare

What could samurai do instead of divorce if their wife couldn't produce a son?

adoption of a male heir

Why did samurai avoid divorcing for reasons of dislike?

it would embarrass the person who had arranged the marriage

What financial concern prevented divorce?

After a divorce samurai had to return the betrothal money


Maintaining the household was the main duty of samurai women. This was especially crucial during early feudal Japan, when warrior husbands were often traveling abroad or engaged in clan battles. The wife, or okugatasama (meaning: one who remains in the home), was left to manage all household affairs, care for the children, and perhaps even defend the home forcibly. For this reason, many women of the samurai class were trained in wielding a polearm called a naginata or a special knife called the kaiken in an art called tantojutsu (lit. the skill of the knife), which they could use to protect their household, family, and honor if the need arose.

What did samurai wives spend most of their time on?

Maintaining the household

What did okugatasama mean?

one who remains in the home

What did samurai wives' duties include when their husbands were away?

manage all household affairs, care for the children, and perhaps even defend the home forcibly

What was a naginata?

a polearm

What was tantojutsu?

the skill of the knife


Traits valued in women of the samurai class were humility, obedience, self-control, strength, and loyalty. Ideally, a samurai wife would be skilled at managing property, keeping records, dealing with financial matters, educating the children (and perhaps servants, too), and caring for elderly parents or in-laws that may be living under her roof. Confucian law, which helped define personal relationships and the code of ethics of the warrior class required that a woman show subservience to her husband, filial piety to her parents, and care to the children. Too much love and affection was also said to indulge and spoil the youngsters. Thus, a woman was also to exercise discipline.

What characteristics did samurais want their wives to have?

humility, obedience, self-control, strength, and loyalty

Who did samurai wives have to teach?

the children (and perhaps servants, too)

Who did samurai wives have to take care of?

elderly parents or in-laws that may be living under her roof

Who was a woman supposed to be subservient to?

her husband

What defined the samurais' code?

Confucian law


This does not mean that samurai women were always powerless. Powerful women both wisely and unwisely wielded power at various occasions. After Ashikaga Yoshimasa, 8th shogun of the Muromachi shogunate, lost interest in politics, his wife Hino Tomiko largely ruled in his place. Nene, wife of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, was known to overrule her husband's decisions at times and Yodo-dono, his concubine, became the de facto master of Osaka castle and the Toyotomi clan after Hideyoshi's death. Tachibana Ginchiyo was chosen to lead the Tachibana clan after her father's death. Chiyo, wife of Yamauchi Kazutoyo, has long been considered the ideal samurai wife. According to legend, she made her kimono out of a quilted patchwork of bits of old cloth and saved pennies to buy her husband a magnificent horse, on which he rode to many victories. The fact that Chiyo (though she is better known as "Wife of Yamauchi Kazutoyo") is held in such high esteem for her economic sense is illuminating in the light of the fact that she never produced an heir and the Yamauchi clan was succeeded by Kazutoyo's younger brother. The source of power for women may have been that samurai left their finances to their wives.

Who was Ashikaga Yoshimasa?

8th shogun of the Muromachi shogunate

Who was Ashikaga Yoshimasa's wife?

Hino Tomiko

Why did Ashikaga let his wife take over?

lost interest in politics

Who was Nene?

wife of Toyotomi Hideyoshi

Who was Yodo-dono the concubine of?

Toyotomi Hideyoshi


As the Tokugawa period progressed more value became placed on education, and the education of females beginning at a young age became important to families and society as a whole. Marriage criteria began to weigh intelligence and education as desirable attributes in a wife, right along with physical attractiveness. Though many of the texts written for women during the Tokugawa period only pertained to how a woman could become a successful wife and household manager, there were those that undertook the challenge of learning to read, and also tackled philosophical and literary classics. Nearly all women of the samurai class were literate by the end of the Tokugawa period.

In what period did Japanese women begin being more educated?

Tokugawa

What were added to marriage criteria in the Tokugawa period?

intelligence and education as desirable attributes

What types of advanced books did some Japanese women read?

philosophical and literary classics

When had most samurai wives learned to read?

the end of the Tokugawa period


The English sailor and adventurer William Adams (1564–1620) was the first Westerner to receive the dignity of samurai. The Shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu presented him with two swords representing the authority of a samurai, and decreed that William Adams the sailor was dead and that Anjin Miura (三浦按針), a samurai, was born. Adams also received the title of hatamoto (bannerman), a high-prestige position as a direct retainer in the Shogun's court. He was provided with generous revenues: "For the services that I have done and do daily, being employed in the Emperor's service, the Emperor has given me a living" (Letters). He was granted a fief in Hemi (逸見) within the boundaries of present-day Yokosuka City, "with eighty or ninety husbandmen, that be my slaves or servants" (Letters). His estate was valued at 250 koku. He finally wrote "God hath provided for me after my great misery", (Letters) by which he meant the disaster-ridden voyage that initially brought him to Japan.

Who was the first Western samurai?

William Adams

Who made William Adams a samurai?

Shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu

What was William Adams's Japanese name?

Anjin Miura

What did hatamoto mean?

bannerman

How many servants did William Adams have?

eighty or ninety


Jan Joosten van Lodensteijn (1556?–1623?), a Dutch colleague of Adams' on their ill-fated voyage to Japan in the ship De Liefde, was also given similar privileges by Tokugawa Ieyasu. It appears Joosten became a samurai[citation needed] and was given a residence within Ieyasu's castle at Edo. Today, this area at the east exit of Tokyo Station is known as Yaesu (八重洲). Yaesu is a corruption of the Dutchman's Japanese name, Yayousu (耶楊子). Also in common with Adam's, Joostens was given a Red Seal Ship (朱印船) allowing him to trade between Japan and Indo-China. On a return journey from Batavia Joosten drowned after his ship ran aground.

What nationality was Jan Joosten van Lodensteijn?

Dutch

Around when was Jan Joosten van Lodensteijn born?

What was Jan Joosten van Lodensteijn's Japanese name?

Yayousu

What permission allowed trade between Japan and Indo-China?

a Red Seal Ship

How did Jan Joosten van Lodensteijn die?

drowned after his ship ran aground


In the same war, the Prussian Edward Schnell served the Aizu domain as a military instructor and procurer of weapons. He was granted the Japanese name Hiramatsu Buhei (平松武兵衛), which inverted the characters of the daimyo's name Matsudaira. Hiramatsu (Schnell) was given the right to wear swords, as well as a residence in the castle town of Wakamatsu, a Japanese wife, and retainers. In many contemporary references, he is portrayed wearing a Japanese kimono, overcoat, and swords, with Western riding trousers and boots.

What nationality was Edward Schnell?

Prussian

What duties did Edward Schnell have?

military instructor and procurer of weapons

Who did Edward Schnell work for?

the Aizu domain

What was Edward Schnell's Japanese name?

Hiramatsu Buhei

Where did Edward Schnell live?

Wakamatsu


As far back as the seventh century Japanese warriors wore a form of lamellar armor, this armor eventually evolved into the armor worn by the samurai. The first types of Japanese armors identified as samurai armor were known as yoroi. These early samurai armors were made from small individual scales known as kozane. The kozane were made from either iron or leather and were bound together into small strips, the strips were coated with lacquer to protect the kozane from water. A series of strips of kozane were then laced together with silk or leather lace and formed into a complete chest armor (dou or dō).

What type of armor did Japanese wear in the 7th century?

a form of lamellar armor

What was the first samurai armor called?

yoroi

What were the small scales in yoroi called?

kozane

What were kozane made of?

iron or leather

What was a full chest armor called?

dou


In the 1500s a new type of armor started to become popular due to the advent of firearms, new fighting tactics and the need for additional protection. The kozane dou made from individual scales was replaced by plate armor. This new armor, which used iron plated dou (dō), was referred to as Tosei-gusoku, or modern armor. Various other components of armor protected the samurai's body. The helmet kabuto was an important part of the samurai's armor. Samurai armor changed and developed as the methods of samurai warfare changed over the centuries. The known last use of samurai armor occurring in 1877 during the satsuma rebellion. As the last samurai rebellion was crushed, Japan modernized its defenses and turned to a national conscription army that used uniforms.

Why were there armor changes in the 1500s?

the advent of firearms, new fighting tactics and the need for additional protection

What type of armor was replaced?

kozane dou

What new type of armor replaced the old?

plate armor

What was the new armor called?

Tosei-gusoku

When was samurai armor last used?


The term samurai originally meant "those who serve in close attendance to nobility", and was written with a Chinese character (or kanji) that had the same meaning. In Japanese, it was originally recorded in the Nara Period as a verb *samorapu ("to watch, to keep watch, to observe, to be on the lookout for something; to serve, to attend"), which is believed to be derived from the frequentative form (*morapu 守らふ) of the verb moru (守る, "to watch, to guard, to be on the lookout; to keep, to protect, to take care of, to be in charge of, to have as one's ward"). By the Heian period, this word had developed into the verb saburahu (さぶらふ, "to serve, to attend"), from which a deverbal noun saburahi (さぶらひ, "servant, attendant") was later derived, and this noun then yielded samurahi (さむらひ) in the Edo period. In Japanese literature, there is an early reference to samurai in the Kokinshū (古今集, early 10th century):

What did 'samurai' mean at first?

those who serve in close attendance to nobility

What did 'samorapu' mean?

to watch, to keep watch, to observe, to be on the lookout for something; to serve, to attend

What did 'saburahu' mean?

to serve, to attend

What did 'saburahi' mean?

servant, attendant

When was the word 'samurahi' used?

the Edo period


Bushi was the name given to the ancient Japanese soldiers from traditional warrior families. The bushi class was developed mainly in the north of Japan. They formed powerful clans, which in the 12th century were against the noble families who were grouping themselves to support the imperial family who lived in Kyoto. Samurai was a word used by the Kuge aristocratic class with warriors themselves preferring the word bushi. The term Bushidō, the "way of the warrior", is derived from this term and the mansion of a warrior was called bukeyashiki.

Who were the bushi class?

ancient Japanese soldiers from traditional warrior families

Where did the bushi live?

mainly in the north of Japan

Where did the imperial family live?

Kyoto

What does Bushido mean?

the "way of the warrior"

What was a bukeyashiki?

the mansion of a warrior


Most samurai were bound by a code of honor and were expected to set an example for those below them. A notable part of their code is seppuku (切腹, seppuku?) or hara kiri, which allowed a disgraced samurai to regain his honor by passing into death, where samurai were still beholden to social rules. Whilst there are many romanticized characterizations of samurai behavior such as the writing of Bushido (武士道, Bushidō?) in 1905, studies of Kobudo and traditional Budō indicate that the samurai were as practical on the battlefield as were any other warrior.

What was a synonym for seppuku?

hara kiri

What was the reason for seppuku?

allowed a disgraced samurai to regain his honor by passing into death

How idealistic were samurai?

as practical on the battlefield as were any other warrior

How were samurai unrealistically portrayed?

romanticized


Despite the rampant romanticism of the 20th century, samurai could be disloyal and treacherous (e.g., Akechi Mitsuhide), cowardly, brave, or overly loyal (e.g., Kusunoki Masashige). Samurai were usually loyal to their immediate superiors, who in turn allied themselves with higher lords. These loyalties to the higher lords often shifted; for example, the high lords allied under Toyotomi Hideyoshi (豊臣秀吉) were served by loyal samurai, but the feudal lords under them could shift their support to Tokugawa, taking their samurai with them. There were, however, also notable instances where samurai would be disloyal to their lord or daimyo, when loyalty to the Emperor was seen to have supremacy.

Who was an example of a disloyal samurai?

Akechi Mitsuhide

Who was an example of an excessively loyal samurai?

Kusunoki Masashige)

Some feudal lords shifted loyalties from Toyotomi to whom?

Tokugawa

What sometimes overrode samurais' loyalty to the daimyo?

loyalty to the Emperor was seen to have supremacy


Jidaigeki (literally historical drama) has always been a staple program on Japanese movies and television. The programs typically feature a samurai. Samurai films and westerns share a number of similarities and the two have influenced each other over the years. One of Japan’s most renowned directors, Akira Kurosawa, greatly influenced the samurai aspect in western film-making.[citation needed] George Lucas’ Star Wars series incorporated many aspects from the Seven Samurai film. One example is that in the Japanese film, seven samurai warriors are hired by local farmers to protect their land from being overrun by bandits; In George Lucas’ Star Wars: A New Hope, a similar situation arises. Kurosawa was inspired by the works of director John Ford and in turn Kurosawa's works have been remade into westerns such as The Seven Samurai into The Magnificent Seven and Yojimbo into A Fistful of Dollars. There is also a 26 episode anime adaptation (Samurai 7) of The Seven Samurai. Along with film, literature containing samurai influences are seen as well.

What is Jidaigeki?

historical drama

Who is Akira Kurosawa?

One of Japan’s most renowned directors

Who directed 'Seven Samurai'?

Akira Kurosawa

What Japanese movie is 'Star Wars: A New Hope' said to be similar to?

Seven Samurai

What western was inspired by 'Seven Samurai'?

The Magnificent Seven


Most common are historical works where the protagonist is either a samurai or former samurai (or another rank or position) who possesses considerable martial skill. Eiji Yoshikawa is one of the most famous Japanese historical novelists. His retellings of popular works, including Taiko, Musashi and Heike Tale, are popular among readers for their epic narratives and rich realism in depicting samurai and warrior culture.[citation needed] The samurai have also appeared frequently in Japanese comics (manga) and animation (anime). Samurai-like characters are not just restricted to historical settings and a number of works set in the modern age, and even the future, include characters who live, train and fight like samurai. Examples are Samurai Champloo, Requiem from the Darkness, Muramasa: The Demon Blade, and Afro Samurai. Some of these works have made their way to the west, where it has been increasing in popularity with America.

Who is Eiji Yoshikawa?

one of the most famous Japanese historical novelists

Why are Eiji Yoshikawa's books popular?

for their epic narratives and rich realism in depicting samurai and warrior culture

What are Japanese comic books called?

manga

What are Japanese animation called?

anime


Just in the last two decades,[when?] samurai have become more popular in America. “Hyperbolizing the samurai in such a way that they appear as a whole to be a loyal body of master warriors provides international interest in certain characters due to admirable traits” (Moscardi, N.D.). Through various medium, producers and writers have been capitalizing on the notion that Americans admire the samurai lifestyle. The animated series, Afro Samurai, became well-liked in American popular culture due to its blend of hack-and-slash animation and gritty urban music.

Who said America hyperbolizes the samurai?

Moscardi, N.D.

What kind of animation did Afro Samurai have?

hack-and-slash

What kind of music did Afro Samurai have?

gritty urban


Created by Takashi Okazaki, Afro Samurai was initially a doujinshi, or manga series, which was then made into an animated series by Studio Gonzo. In 2007 the animated series debuted on American cable television on the Spike TV channel (Denison, 2010). The series was produced for American viewers which “embodies the trend... comparing hip-hop artists to samurai warriors, an image some rappers claim for themselves (Solomon, 2009). The storyline keeps in tone with the perception of a samurais finding vengeance against someone who has wronged him. Starring the voice of well known American actor Samuel L. Jackson, “Afro is the second-strongest fighter in a futuristic, yet, still feudal Japan and seeks revenge upon the gunman who killed his father” (King 2008). Due to its popularity, Afro Samurai was adopted into a full feature animated film and also became titles on gaming consoles such as the PlayStation 3 and Xbox. Not only has the samurai culture been adopted into animation and video games, it can also be seen in comic books.

Who created Afro Samurai?

Takashi Okazaki

Who made Afro Samurai into an animated TV show?

Studio Gonzo

When did Afro Samurai first air?

On what channel did Afro Samurai air?

Spike TV

Who was the star voice actor of Afro Samurai?

Samuel L. Jackson


American comic books have adopted the character type for stories of their own like the mutant-villain Silver Samurai of Marvel Comics. The design of this character preserves the samurai appearance; the villain is “Clad in traditional gleaming samurai armor and wielding an energy charged katana” (Buxton, 2013). Not only does the Silver Samurai make over 350 comic book appearances, the character is playable in several video games, such as Marvel Vs. Capcom 1 and 2. In 2013, the samurai villain was depicted in James Mangold’s film The Wolverine. Ten years before the Wolverine debuted, another film helped pave the way to ensure the samurai were made known to American cinema: A film released in 2003 titled The Last Samurai, starring Tom Cruise, is inspired by the samurai way of life. In the film, Cruise’s character finds himself deeply immersed in samurai culture. The character in the film, “Nathan Algren, is a fictional contrivance to make nineteenth-century Japanese history less foreign to American viewers”.(Ravina, 2010) After being captured by a group of samurai rebels, he becomes empathetic towards the cause they fight for. Taking place during the Meiji Period, Tom Cruise plays the role of US Army Captain Nathan Algren, who travels to Japan to train a rookie army in fighting off samurai rebel groups. Becoming a product of his environment, Algren joins the samurai clan in an attempt to rescue a captured samurai leader. “By the end of the film, he has clearly taken on many of the samurai traits, such as zen-like mastery of the sword, and a budding understanding of spirituality”. (Manion, 2006)

In what company's comics did Silver Samurai appear?

Marvel

What is Silver Samurai's weapon?

an energy charged katana

How many comic books has Silver Samurai appeared in?

over 350

Who starred in The Last Samurai?

Tom Cruise

Who did Tom Cruise play in The Last Samurai?

US Army Captain Nathan Algren


As the number of possible tests for even simple software components is practically infinite, all software testing uses some strategy to select tests that are feasible for the available time and resources. As a result, software testing typically (but not exclusively) attempts to execute a program or application with the intent of finding software bugs (errors or other defects). The job of testing is an iterative process as when one bug is fixed, it can illuminate other, deeper bugs, or can even create new ones.

What is the purpose of testing software?

finding software bugs

Why is it so difficult to locate bugs in software?

tests for even simple software components is practically infinite

What can come from one bug being fixed?

it can illuminate other, deeper bugs,

What is the number of tests for complex software components?

I'm not sure.

Firmware testing uses strategy to accomplish what?

I'm not sure.

software testing attempts to eliminate a program for what reason?

I'm not sure.

The job of testing is called what type of progress?

I'm not sure.

What are some complications of not fixing bugs?

I'm not sure.


Although testing can determine the correctness of software under the assumption of some specific hypotheses (see hierarchy of testing difficulty below), testing cannot identify all the defects within software. Instead, it furnishes a criticism or comparison that compares the state and behavior of the product against oracles—principles or mechanisms by which someone might recognize a problem. These oracles may include (but are not limited to) specifications, contracts, comparable products, past versions of the same product, inferences about intended or expected purpose, user or customer expectations, relevant standards, applicable laws, or other criteria.

What can testing not completely find?

all the defects

While looking for bugs, what else can testing do?

furnishes a criticism or comparison

What does the software compare during testing against?

oracles—principles or mechanisms

What make up the oracle during testing?

specifications, contracts, comparable products, past versions

Testing can identify all the defects within what?

I'm not sure.

While looking for bug, what can testing not do?

I'm not sure.

What are some things oracles include and are limited to?

I'm not sure.

What does the software contrast during testing against?

I'm not sure.


A primary purpose of testing is to detect software failures so that defects may be discovered and corrected. Testing cannot establish that a product functions properly under all conditions but can only establish that it does not function properly under specific conditions. The scope of software testing often includes examination of code as well as execution of that code in various environments and conditions as well as examining the aspects of code: does it do what it is supposed to do and do what it needs to do. In the current culture of software development, a testing organization may be separate from the development team. There are various roles for testing team members. Information derived from software testing may be used to correct the process by which software is developed.

What is the primamry reason for testing software?

to detect software failures

What can testing software not fully completely establish?

cannot establish that a product functions properly under all conditions

What does the scope of testing the software also look at?

examination of code as well as execution of that code

Which two teams would you normally separate when writing and testing software?

testing organization may be separate from the development team

What is a secondary purpose of testing software?

I'm not sure.

What does software testing always include?

I'm not sure.

In the previous culture of software development, what two things were separate?

I'm not sure.

Data from software testing may be used to model what?

I'm not sure.


Software faults occur through the following processes. A programmer makes an error (mistake), which results in a defect (fault, bug) in the software source code. If this defect is executed, in certain situations the system will produce wrong results, causing a failure. Not all defects will necessarily result in failures. For example, defects in dead code will never result in failures. A defect can turn into a failure when the environment is changed. Examples of these changes in environment include the software being run on a new computer hardware platform, alterations in source data, or interacting with different software. A single defect may result in a wide range of failure symptoms.

What is the first step that leads to a software failure?

programmer makes an error

What is the result of the programmer making a mistake?

defect (fault, bug)

When can software defects in dead code cause problems?

run on a new computer hardware platform

Software programs evolve through what process?

I'm not sure.

All defects result in what?

I'm not sure.

Defects in dead code always do what?

I'm not sure.

When the environment is changed, what does a failure always result from?

I'm not sure.

What can a single defect not result in?

I'm not sure.


A fundamental problem with software testing is that testing under all combinations of inputs and preconditions (initial state) is not feasible, even with a simple product.:17-18 This means that the number of defects in a software product can be very large and defects that occur infrequently are difficult to find in testing. More significantly, non-functional dimensions of quality (how it is supposed to be versus what it is supposed to do)—usability, scalability, performance, compatibility, reliability—can be highly subjective; something that constitutes sufficient value to one person may be intolerable to another.

What is the primary issue with running software testing?

testing under all combinations of inputs and preconditions (initial state) is not feasible

What types of software bugs are difficult to find during testing?

defects that occur infrequently

What other non-functional dimensions can cause software to underperform and cause other problems?

usability, scalability, performance, compatibility, reliability

What is the secondary problem  with running software testing?

I'm not sure.

Defects that occur frequently are how easy to find?

I'm not sure.

What are examples of functional dimensions of quality?

I'm not sure.

What is the issue with the functional dimensions of quality?

I'm not sure.


Software developers can't test everything, but they can use combinatorial test design to identify the minimum number of tests needed to get the coverage they want. Combinatorial test design enables users to get greater test coverage with fewer tests. Whether they are looking for speed or test depth, they can use combinatorial test design methods to build structured variation into their test cases. Note that "coverage", as used here, is referring to combinatorial coverage, not requirements coverage.

Although software developers are unable to test everything, what do they run to keep the testing to a minimum?

use combinatorial test design

What does the use of combinatorial testing consist of?

get greater test coverage with fewer tests

What two types of testing are involved with combinatorial testing as mentioned here?

speed or test depth

What test do firmware developers use to find out how to keep testing to a minimum?

I'm not sure.

Combinatorial test design does not allow users to get what?

I'm not sure.

Unstructured variations can be built into what items?

I'm not sure.

"Coverage" is referring to combined coverage but not what?

I'm not sure.


It is commonly believed that the earlier a defect is found, the cheaper it is to fix it. The following table shows the cost of fixing the defect depending on the stage it was found. For example, if a problem in the requirements is found only post-release, then it would cost 10–100 times more to fix than if it had already been found by the requirements review. With the advent of modern continuous deployment practices and cloud-based services, the cost of re-deployment and maintenance may lessen over time.

What determines the cost of fixing a bug?

the earlier a defect is found

Ho many more times would the cost be if the problem is found after the software's release?

10–100 times more

What could possibly lessen the cost of fixing buggy software?

cloud-based services

What is the unpopular belief about the cost of fixing a bug?

I'm not sure.

The cost of fixing a defect does not depend on what?

I'm not sure.

How much less would it cost to fix a problem found after the software's release?

I'm not sure.

What modern items may increase the cost of re-deployment over time?

I'm not sure.


There are many approaches available in software testing. Reviews, walkthroughs, or inspections are referred to as static testing, whereas actually executing programmed code with a given set of test cases is referred to as dynamic testing. Static testing is often implicit, as proofreading, plus when programming tools/text editors check source code structure or compilers (pre-compilers) check syntax and data flow as static program analysis. Dynamic testing takes place when the program itself is run. Dynamic testing may begin before the program is 100% complete in order to test particular sections of code and are applied to discrete functions or modules. Typical techniques for this are either using stubs/drivers or execution from a debugger environment.

Name three approaches software testers take when testing their software?

Reviews, walkthroughs, or inspections

What is the term that is used to described executing programmed code with a given set of test?

dynamic testing

When can dynamic testing occur?

before the program is 100% complete

What are commonly used techniques during dynamic testing?

stubs/drivers or execution from a debugger environment

There are few approached in what type of testing?

I'm not sure.

Examples of static testing include previews, walkthroughs, and what other item?

I'm not sure.

Dynamic testing refers to executing predetermined code with what?

I'm not sure.

When does dynamic testing not take place?

I'm not sure.

Static testing is always what?

I'm not sure.


White-box testing (also known as clear box testing, glass box testing, transparent box testing and structural testing, by seeing the source code) tests internal structures or workings of a program, as opposed to the functionality exposed to the end-user. In white-box testing an internal perspective of the system, as well as programming skills, are used to design test cases. The tester chooses inputs to exercise paths through the code and determine the appropriate outputs. This is analogous to testing nodes in a circuit, e.g. in-circuit testing (ICT).

What is another term used for White-box testing?

clear box testing

What is involved with White-box testing?

by seeing the source code

Which two procedures are used to design test cases in White-box testing?

testing an internal perspective of the system, as well as programming skills

White-box data testing is also known by what other names?

I'm not sure.

An external perspective is used in white-box testing as well as what else is used to develop test cases?

I'm not sure.

The tester chooses outputs to accomplish what?

I'm not sure.

What is in-circulus testing also known as?

I'm not sure.


Black-box testing treats the software as a "black box", examining functionality without any knowledge of internal implementation, without seeing the source code. The testers are only aware of what the software is supposed to do, not how it does it. Black-box testing methods include: equivalence partitioning, boundary value analysis, all-pairs testing, state transition tables, decision table testing, fuzz testing, model-based testing, use case testing, exploratory testing and specification-based testing.

What is the main difference between black-box testing and white-box testing?

seeing the source code

What are the software testers aware of?

aware of what the software is supposed to do

What are the first three methods mentioned that make up black-box testing??

equivalence partitioning, boundary value analysis

Black-box testing treats data as what?

I'm not sure.

Testers are always aware of what?

I'm not sure.

What are the first three methods of white-box testing?

I'm not sure.

Black-box testing works with seeing what type of code?

I'm not sure.


Specification-based testing aims to test the functionality of software according to the applicable requirements. This level of testing usually requires thorough test cases to be provided to the tester, who then can simply verify that for a given input, the output value (or behavior), either "is" or "is not" the same as the expected value specified in the test case. Test cases are built around specifications and requirements, i.e., what the application is supposed to do. It uses external descriptions of the software, including specifications, requirements, and designs to derive test cases. These tests can be functional or non-functional, though usually functional.

What term is used to test functionality of the software accordingly with the application requirements?

Specification-based testing

What are the test cases built around?

specifications and requirements

When building test cases which of the two methods used is more common over the other?

functional

What does specialization-based testing aim to test?

I'm not sure.

Test cases are built around specializations and what else?

I'm not sure.

Out of the two methods of building test cases, non-functional and unfunctional, which is more common?

I'm not sure.

What descriptions of the firmware are used in test cases?

I'm not sure.


One advantage of the black box technique is that no programming knowledge is required. Whatever biases the programmers may have had, the tester likely has a different set and may emphasize different areas of functionality. On the other hand, black-box testing has been said to be "like a walk in a dark labyrinth without a flashlight." Because they do not examine the source code, there are situations when a tester writes many test cases to check something that could have been tested by only one test case, or leaves some parts of the program untested.

What is one huge advantage to using the black-box method?

no programming knowledge is required

What can black-box testing sometimes be referred to with the in-ability to see the code?

like a walk in a dark labyrinth without a flashlight.

What is a good reason to have testers and developers separate?

tester likely has a different set and may emphasize different areas of functionality

What knowledge is required for the black box technique?

I'm not sure.

Black-box coding has been compared to what?

I'm not sure.

Some parts of the program can remain untested because the what law is not examined?

I'm not sure.

Testers and developers are kept together for what reason?

I'm not sure.


Grey-box testing (American spelling: gray-box testing) involves having knowledge of internal data structures and algorithms for purposes of designing tests, while executing those tests at the user, or black-box level. The tester is not required to have full access to the software's source code.[not in citation given] Manipulating input data and formatting output do not qualify as grey-box, because the input and output are clearly outside of the "black box" that we are calling the system under test. This distinction is particularly important when conducting integration testing between two modules of code written by two different developers, where only the interfaces are exposed for test.

What does grey-box testing involve?

having knowledge of internal data structures and algorithms

What does a grey-box tester not need to run their test?

not required to have full access to the software's source code

What does not qualify as grey-box testing?

Manipulating input data and formatting output

Grey-box testing involves having knowledge of external data structures and what else?

I'm not sure.

The tester is required to have full access to what piece of information?

I'm not sure.

Manipulating data and formatting input do not qualify as what?

I'm not sure.

When is the distinction between black and grey box not important?

I'm not sure.


By knowing the underlying concepts of how the software works, the tester makes better-informed testing choices while testing the software from outside. Typically, a grey-box tester will be permitted to set up an isolated testing environment with activities such as seeding a database. The tester can observe the state of the product being tested after performing certain actions such as executing SQL statements against the database and then executing queries to ensure that the expected changes have been reflected. Grey-box testing implements intelligent test scenarios, based on limited information. This will particularly apply to data type handling, exception handling, and so on.

What dopes a typical grey-box tester sets up?

an isolated testing environment

What does the tester execute while performing certain actions?

SQL statements

What does a grey-box tester implement when they have limited information?

intelligent test scenarios

Knowing the overlying concepts of how software works helps testers how?

I'm not sure.

A black-box tester will usually be able to set up what type of testing environment?

I'm not sure.

What does the tester execute while preforming certain queries?

I'm not sure.

Based on lengthy information, what does grey-box testing implement?

I'm not sure.


There are generally four recognized levels of tests: unit testing, integration testing, component interface testing, and system testing. Tests are frequently grouped by where they are added in the software development process, or by the level of specificity of the test. The main levels during the development process as defined by the SWEBOK guide are unit-, integration-, and system testing that are distinguished by the test target without implying a specific process model. Other test levels are classified by the testing objective.

What are the four recognized levels of testing software?

unit testing, integration testing, component interface testing, and system testing

What are these test (level testing) typically grouped by?

software development process, or by the level of specificity of the test

What is defined in the SWEBOK guide as to testing the main levels?

unit-, integration-, and system testing

What are the other levels classified by?

the testing objective

What are the four unrecognized levels of tests?

I'm not sure.

How are test infrequently grouped?

I'm not sure.

What defines all the levels of the development process?

I'm not sure.

The levels covered in the SWEBOK guide are unit-, reintegration, and what other level?

I'm not sure.

What is classified by the pretesting objective?

I'm not sure.


Unit testing is a software development process that involves synchronized application of a broad spectrum of defect prevention and detection strategies in order to reduce software development risks, time, and costs. It is performed by the software developer or engineer during the construction phase of the software development lifecycle. Rather than replace traditional QA focuses, it augments it. Unit testing aims to eliminate construction errors before code is promoted to QA; this strategy is intended to increase the quality of the resulting software as well as the efficiency of the overall development and QA process.

What is the main reasoning behind Unit testing that involves synchronization of the application on a broad spectrum?

reduce software development risks, time, and costs

Who performs the Unit testing phase?

software developer or engineer

What does Unit testing look to eliminate?

construction errors

By elimination construction errors, what is the expected end result?

increase the quality of the resulting software

Unit testing is a firmware development that involves what?

I'm not sure.

Unit testing is preformed by the architect or what kind of developer?

I'm not sure.

Instead of reducing traditional QA focuses, unit testing does what to it?

I'm not sure.

Unit testing tries to eliminate collaboration errors before what?

I'm not sure.


The practice of component interface testing can be used to check the handling of data passed between various units, or subsystem components, beyond full integration testing between those units. The data being passed can be considered as "message packets" and the range or data types can be checked, for data generated from one unit, and tested for validity before being passed into another unit. One option for interface testing is to keep a separate log file of data items being passed, often with a timestamp logged to allow analysis of thousands of cases of data passed between units for days or weeks. Tests can include checking the handling of some extreme data values while other interface variables are passed as normal values. Unusual data values in an interface can help explain unexpected performance in the next unit. Component interface testing is a variation of black-box testing, with the focus on the data values beyond just the related actions of a subsystem component.

What is it called to check data passed between units?

component interface testing

What is it called when data is being passed?

message packets

What is an option  of component interface testing  used while sending message packets?

keep a separate log file of data items being passed

What is a variation of black-box testing?

Component interface testing

What can be used to check the databases passed between units?

I'm not sure.

What is another name for the data being possessed?

I'm not sure.

What is one option for interface integration?

I'm not sure.

Usual data values in an interface can be used to explain what?

I'm not sure.

What is a variation of black-boxing testing?

I'm not sure.


Operational Acceptance is used to conduct operational readiness (pre-release) of a product, service or system as part of a quality management system. OAT is a common type of non-functional software testing, used mainly in software development and software maintenance projects. This type of testing focuses on the operational readiness of the system to be supported, and/or to become part of the production environment. Hence, it is also known as operational readiness testing (ORT) or Operations readiness and assurance (OR&A) testing. Functional testing within OAT is limited to those tests which are required to verify the non-functional aspects of the system.

What is the term used to test software during a pre-release?

Operational Acceptance

What does Operational Acceptance focus on?

operational readiness of the system

What is Operational Acceptance limited to while testing?

limited to those tests which are required to verify the non-functional aspects of the system

What is Occupational Acceptance used for?

I'm not sure.

What is an uncommon type of functional software testing?

I'm not sure.

What is Operational Acceptance limited to while running?

I'm not sure.

OAT focuses the least on what?

I'm not sure.


A common cause of software failure (real or perceived) is a lack of its compatibility with other application software, operating systems (or operating system versions, old or new), or target environments that differ greatly from the original (such as a terminal or GUI application intended to be run on the desktop now being required to become a web application, which must render in a web browser). For example, in the case of a lack of backward compatibility, this can occur because the programmers develop and test software only on the latest version of the target environment, which not all users may be running. This results in the unintended consequence that the latest work may not function on earlier versions of the target environment, or on older hardware that earlier versions of the target environment was capable of using. Sometimes such issues can be fixed by proactively abstracting operating system functionality into a separate program module or library.

What is the most common reason for software failure?

compatibility with other application software

What do developers commonly do when creating software that can lead to failures?

lack of backward compatibility

What is the most common cause for software failure?

lack of its compatibility with other application software

What often lacks in software developed when its released that can eventually lead to errors?

a lack of backward compatibility

What does backwards compatibility always seem to be the cause of errors and bugs after a release?

test software only on the latest version of the target environment

Lack of compatibility with other application software is an uncommon cause of what?

I'm not sure.

Programmers develop software on the earliest version of what environment?

I'm not sure.

What is the most uncommon reason for software failure?

I'm not sure.

Target environments rarely differ greatly from the what?

I'm not sure.


Regression testing focuses on finding defects after a major code change has occurred. Specifically, it seeks to uncover software regressions, as degraded or lost features, including old bugs that have come back. Such regressions occur whenever software functionality that was previously working correctly, stops working as intended. Typically, regressions occur as an unintended consequence of program changes, when the newly developed part of the software collides with the previously existing code. Common methods of regression testing include re-running previous sets of test-cases and checking whether previously fixed faults have re-emerged. The depth of testing depends on the phase in the release process and the risk of the added features. They can either be complete, for changes added late in the release or deemed to be risky, or be very shallow, consisting of positive tests on each feature, if the changes are early in the release or deemed to be of low risk. Regression testing is typically the largest test effort in commercial software development, due to checking numerous details in prior software features, and even new software can be developed while using some old test-cases to test parts of the new design to ensure prior functionality is still supported.

Finding defects once a change in code had already happened is called?

Regression testing

What happens to software after a major change in code that leads to regression??

stops working as intended

What is a common method used during regression testing?

re-running previous sets of test-cases

What determines how deep a tester will go during regression?

phase in the release process and the risk of the added features

If changes need to occur during the softwares early release with regression testing how much of an impact does this have on the team as related to other testing?

typically the largest test effort in commercial software development

What type of testing is used to find defects after minor code changes?

I'm not sure.

How does regression testing classify recovering software regressions?

I'm not sure.

Usually regressions happen as an intended consequence of what?

I'm not sure.

What are common methods of regression coding?

I'm not sure.

What is usually the largest test effort in personal software development?

I'm not sure.


Beta testing comes after alpha testing and can be considered a form of external user acceptance testing. Versions of the software, known as beta versions, are released to a limited audience outside of the programming team known as beta testers. The software is released to groups of people so that further testing can ensure the product has few faults or bugs. Beta versions can be made available to the open public to increase the feedback field to a maximal number of future users and to deliver value earlier, for an extended or even indefinite period of time (perpetual beta).[citation needed]

What typically comes after the Alpha stage in the development and testing of software?

Beta testing

To whom is the beta testing released to?

limited audience outside of the programming

What is it called when a public test continues indefinitely?

perpetual beta

What type of testing comes before alpha testing?

I'm not sure.

Beta versions are released to a broad audience known as what?

I'm not sure.

Why are alpha version made available to the public?

I'm not sure.

What is the term for the public test that continues for a definite amount of time?

I'm not sure.


Destructive testing attempts to cause the software or a sub-system to fail. It verifies that the software functions properly even when it receives invalid or unexpected inputs, thereby establishing the robustness of input validation and error-management routines.[citation needed] Software fault injection, in the form of fuzzing, is an example of failure testing. Various commercial non-functional testing tools are linked from the software fault injection page; there are also numerous open-source and free software tools available that perform destructive testing.

What method is used to cause a system to fail?

Destructive testing

What does Destructive testing verify?

software functions properly even when it receives invalid or unexpected inputs

What is one example of failure testing?

Software fault injection

Destruction testing does what?

I'm not sure.

What does destruction testing verify?

I'm not sure.

What is an example of software fault injecture?

I'm not sure.

There are very few open-source and free tools that do what?

I'm not sure.


Load testing is primarily concerned with testing that the system can continue to operate under a specific load, whether that be large quantities of data or a large number of users. This is generally referred to as software scalability. The related load testing activity of when performed as a non-functional activity is often referred to as endurance testing. Volume testing is a way to test software functions even when certain components (for example a file or database) increase radically in size. Stress testing is a way to test reliability under unexpected or rare workloads. Stability testing (often referred to as load or endurance testing) checks to see if the software can continuously function well in or above an acceptable period.

What method is used to test software under a specific load?

Load testing

What two methods can be used when using Load Testing?

data or a large number of users

What is called to test software functions when certain components increase in side?

Volume testing

What is Stable testing also called?

endurance testing

What method is used to test components under unexpected workloads?

Stress testing

What method is used to test firmware under a specific load?

I'm not sure.

What two methods cannot be used when using Load Testing?

I'm not sure.

Volume Testing is a way to test firmware when?

I'm not sure.

Testing reliability under expected or rare workload is called what?

I'm not sure.


Development Testing is a software development process that involves synchronized application of a broad spectrum of defect prevention and detection strategies in order to reduce software development risks, time, and costs. It is performed by the software developer or engineer during the construction phase of the software development lifecycle. Rather than replace traditional QA focuses, it augments it. Development Testing aims to eliminate construction errors before code is promoted to QA; this strategy is intended to increase the quality of the resulting software as well as the efficiency of the overall development and QA process.

What method is used that involves synchronization of a application?

Development Testing

When is development testing used?

construction phase of the software development lifecycle

What does Development testing look to eliminate?

construction errors

What method is used that involved syncopation of an application?

I'm not sure.

When is development testing not used?

I'm not sure.

Development Testing attempts to eliminate instruction errors before code is promoted where?

I'm not sure.

Development Testing is designed by who?

I'm not sure.


In contrast, some emerging software disciplines such as extreme programming and the agile software development movement, adhere to a "test-driven software development" model. In this process, unit tests are written first, by the software engineers (often with pair programming in the extreme programming methodology). Of course these tests fail initially; as they are expected to. Then as code is written it passes incrementally larger portions of the test suites. The test suites are continuously updated as new failure conditions and corner cases are discovered, and they are integrated with any regression tests that are developed. Unit tests are maintained along with the rest of the software source code and generally integrated into the build process (with inherently interactive tests being relegated to a partially manual build acceptance process). The ultimate goal of this test process is to achieve continuous integration where software updates can be published to the public frequently.

Which two current movements adhere to the "test-driven software development"?

extreme programming and the agile software development

Under the development of agile software and extreme programing what is written first?

unit tests are written first

What is the goal of Unit testing?

achieve continuous integration where software updates can be published to the public frequently

Which two old movements adhere to the "test-driven software development?"

I'm not sure.

Under the development of fragile software and extreme programming what is written first?

I'm not sure.

The goal of unit testing is to achieve discontinuous integration where software updates can be what?

I'm not sure.


Bottom Up Testing is an approach to integrated testing where the lowest level components (modules, procedures, and functions) are tested first, then integrated and used to facilitate the testing of higher level components. After the integration testing of lower level integrated modules, the next level of modules will be formed and can be used for integration testing. The process is repeated until the components at the top of the hierarchy are tested. This approach is helpful only when all or most of the modules of the same development level are ready.[citation needed] This method also helps to determine the levels of software developed and makes it easier to report testing progress in the form of a percentage.[citation needed]

What three components make up Bottom Up Testing?

modules, procedures, and functions

Bottom Up Testing helps facilitate the testing of what?

the testing of higher level components

What does Bottom Up Testing also help with once the process has been repeated over and over again at all levels?

makes it easier to report testing progress in the form of a percentage

When the highest level components are tested first, the testing process is called what?

I'm not sure.

What three components make up Bottom Down Testing?

I'm not sure.

This approach only works when half of the modules of the same what are ready?

I'm not sure.

Bottom Up Testing helps determine levels of software developed and makes it harder to complete what?

I'm not sure.


It has been proved that each class is strictly included into the next. For instance, testing when we assume that the behavior of the implementation under test can be denoted by a deterministic finite-state machine for some known finite sets of inputs and outputs and with some known number of states belongs to Class I (and all subsequent classes). However, if the number of states is not known, then it only belongs to all classes from Class II on. If the implementation under test must be a deterministic finite-state machine failing the specification for a single trace (and its continuations), and its number of states is unknown, then it only belongs to classes from Class III on. Testing temporal machines where transitions are triggered if inputs are produced within some real-bounded interval only belongs to classes from Class IV on, whereas testing many non-deterministic systems only belongs to Class V (but not all, and some even belong to Class I). The inclusion into Class I does not require the simplicity of the assumed computation model, as some testing cases involving implementations written in any programming language, and testing implementations defined as machines depending on continuous magnitudes, have been proved to be in Class I. Other elaborated cases, such as the testing framework by Matthew Hennessy under must semantics, and temporal machines with rational timeouts, belong to Class II.

If the number of states is unknown, what group does this fall into?

Class II

There are three classes, what has been concluded and proven for all classes?

each class is strictly included into the next

If the number of states are unknown and the finite state of the machine is failing for a single trace, which group does this fall into?

Class III

It has been disproved that each class is included into what?

I'm not sure.

If there are infinite sets of inputs and outputs, the states belong to what class?

I'm not sure.

The inclusion into Class I requires what?

I'm not sure.

Matthew Hennessy wrote what?

I'm not sure.


Several certification programs exist to support the professional aspirations of software testers and quality assurance specialists. No certification now offered actually requires the applicant to show their ability to test software. No certification is based on a widely accepted body of knowledge. This has led some to declare that the testing field is not ready for certification. Certification itself cannot measure an individual's productivity, their skill, or practical knowledge, and cannot guarantee their competence, or professionalism as a tester.

With several certifications out there that can be aquired, what is the one trait they all share?

requires the applicant to show their ability to test software

What has the inability for the applicant to show how well they test led to?

testing field is not ready for certification

What four traits can a certification not measure?

individual's productivity, their skill, or practical knowledge

What programs are available to support non-professional aspirations of software testers?

I'm not sure.

What certification requires applicants to demonstrate ability?

I'm not sure.

Some say the testing field is ready for what?

I'm not sure.

Certification is a measure of what?

I'm not sure.


Software testing is a part of the software quality assurance (SQA) process.:347 In SQA, software process specialists and auditors are concerned for the software development process rather than just the artifacts such as documentation, code and systems. They examine and change the software engineering process itself to reduce the number of faults that end up in the delivered software: the so-called "defect rate". What constitutes an "acceptable defect rate" depends on the nature of the software; A flight simulator video game would have much higher defect tolerance than software for an actual airplane. Although there are close links with SQA, testing departments often exist independently, and there may be no SQA function in some companies.[citation needed]

What makes up part of the SQA?

Software testing

What is the primary concern for the software specialist and auditors?

software development process

What type of software would have a better defect tolerance?

video game