In the wake of these external defeats, the Guangxu Emperor initiated the Hundred Days' Reform of 1898. Newer, more radical advisers such as Kang Youwei were given positions of influence. The emperor issued a series of edicts and plans were made to reorganize the bureaucracy, restructure the school system, and appoint new officials. Opposition from the bureaucracy was immediate and intense. Although she had been involved in the initial reforms, the empress dowager stepped in to call them off, arrested and executed several reformers, and took over day-to-day control of policy. Yet many of the plans stayed in place, and the goals of reform were implanted.

Name an advisor to Guangxu?

Kang Youwei

What did the emperor do in response to so many defeats by the Europeans?

Hundred Days' Reform of 1898

Who took over the policy of China?

empress dowager


Widespread drought in North China, combined with the imperialist designs of European powers and the instability of the Qing government, created conditions that led to the emergence of the Righteous and Harmonious Fists, or "Boxers." In 1900, local groups of Boxers proclaiming support for the Qing dynasty murdered foreign missionaries and large numbers of Chinese Christians, then converged on Beijing to besiege the Foreign Legation Quarter. A coalition of European, Japanese, and Russian armies (the Eight-Nation Alliance) then entered China without diplomatic notice, much less permission. Cixi declared war on all of these nations, only to lose control of Beijing after a short, but hard-fought campaign. She fled to Xi'an. The victorious allies drew up scores of demands on the Qing government, including compensation for their expenses in invading China and execution of complicit officials.

Where was there a drought?

North China

What was another name for the Boxers?

Righteous and Harmonious Fists

When did the Boxers begin to kill missionaries and Chinese Christians?

Who invaded China?

A coalition of European, Japanese, and Russian armies

Where did Cixi go after Beijing fell to the 8 armies?

Xi'an


By the early 20th century, mass civil disorder had begun in China, and it was growing continuously. To overcome such problems, Empress Dowager Cixi issued an imperial edict in 1901 calling for reform proposals from the governors-general and governors and initiated the era of the dynasty's "New Policies", also known as the "Late Qing Reform". The edict paved the way for the most far-reaching reforms in terms of their social consequences, including the creation of a national education system and the abolition of the imperial examinations in 1905.

What did Cixi do in 1901?

issued an imperial edict

What were the governments New Policies also called?

"Late Qing Reform"

When were imperial examinations halted?


The Guangxu Emperor died on November 14, 1908, and on November 15, 1908, Cixi also died. Rumors held that she or Yuan Shikai ordered trusted eunuchs to poison the Guangxu Emperor, and an autopsy conducted nearly a century later confirmed lethal levels of arsenic in his corpse. Puyi, the oldest son of Zaifeng, Prince Chun, and nephew to the childless Guangxu Emperor, was appointed successor at the age of two, leaving Zaifeng with the regency. This was followed by the dismissal of General Yuan Shikai from his former positions of power. In April 1911 Zaifeng created a cabinet in which there were two vice-premiers. Nonetheless, this cabinet was also known by contemporaries as "The Royal Cabinet" because among the thirteen cabinet members, five were members of the imperial family or Aisin Gioro relatives. This brought a wide range of negative opinions from senior officials like Zhang Zhidong. The Wuchang Uprising of October 10, 1911, led to the creation of a new central government, the Republic of China, in Nanjing with Sun Yat-sen as its provisional head. Many provinces soon began "separating" from Qing control. Seeing a desperate situation unfold, the Qing government brought Yuan Shikai back to military power. He took control of his Beiyang Army to crush the revolution in Wuhan at the Battle of Yangxia. After taking the position of Prime Minister and creating his own cabinet, Yuan Shikai went as far as to ask for the removal of Zaifeng from the regency. This removal later proceeded with directions from Empress Dowager Longyu.

What year did Guangxu die?

What year did Cixi die?

Who ruled after Guangxu?

Prince Chun

How old was Prince Chun?

two

What year was the Republic of China created?


With Zaifeng gone, Yuan Shikai and his Beiyang commanders effectively dominated Qing politics. He reasoned that going to war would be unreasonable and costly, especially when noting that the Qing government had a goal for constitutional monarchy. Similarly, Sun Yat-sen's government wanted a republican constitutional reform, both aiming for the benefit of China's economy and populace. With permission from Empress Dowager Longyu, Yuan Shikai began negotiating with Sun Yat-sen, who decided that his goal had been achieved in forming a republic, and that therefore he could allow Yuan to step into the position of President of the Republic of China.

Who led the Qing?

Yuan Shikai

Who negotiated with Yuan Shikai to prevent war?

Sun Yat-sen

Who led the Republic of China?

Sun Yat-sen,

Who became the President?

Yuan


On 12 February 1912, after rounds of negotiations, Longyu issued an imperial edict bringing about the abdication of the child emperor Puyi. This brought an end to over 2,000 years of Imperial China and began an extended period of instability of warlord factionalism. The unorganized political and economic systems combined with a widespread criticism of Chinese culture led to questioning and doubt about the future. In the 1930s, the Empire of Japan invaded Northeast China and founded Manchukuo in 1932, with Puyi, as the emperor. After the invasion by the Soviet Union, Manchukuo collapsed in 1945.

What year did the end of Imperial China occur?

How long did Imperial China last for?

2,000 years

When was Manchukuo created?


The early Qing emperors adopted the bureaucratic structures and institutions from the preceding Ming dynasty but split rule between Han Chinese and Manchus, with some positions also given to Mongols. Like previous dynasties, the Qing recruited officials via the imperial examination system, until the system was abolished in 1905. The Qing divided the positions into civil and military positions, each having nine grades or ranks, each subdivided into a and b categories. Civil appointments ranged from attendant to the emperor or a Grand Secretary in the Forbidden City (highest) to being a prefectural tax collector, deputy jail warden, deputy police commissioner or tax examiner. Military appointments ranged from being a field marshal or chamberlain of the imperial bodyguard to a third class sergeant, corporal or a first or second class private.

Who split the leadership roles in the Qing dynasty?

Han Chinese and Manchus

Where did the Qing find their officials?

imperial examination system

How many ranks were there in civil service in the Qing dynasty?

nine


The formal structure of the Qing government centered on the Emperor as the absolute ruler, who presided over six Boards (Ministries[c]), each headed by two presidents[d] and assisted by four vice presidents.[e] In contrast to the Ming system, however, Qing ethnic policy dictated that appointments were split between Manchu noblemen and Han officials who had passed the highest levels of the state examinations. The Grand Secretariat,[f] which had been an important policy-making body under the Ming, lost its importance during the Qing and evolved into an imperial chancery. The institutions which had been inherited from the Ming formed the core of the Qing "Outer Court," which handled routine matters and was located in the southern part of the Forbidden City.

Who was the main leader of the Qing?

Emperor

Which ethnicities made up the Qing government?

Manchu noblemen and Han officials

What happened to the Grand Secretariat?

evolved into an imperial chancery


In order not to let the routine administration take over the running of the empire, the Qing emperors made sure that all important matters were decided in the "Inner Court," which was dominated by the imperial family and Manchu nobility and which was located in the northern part of the Forbidden City. The core institution of the inner court was the Grand Council.[g] It emerged in the 1720s under the reign of the Yongzheng Emperor as a body charged with handling Qing military campaigns against the Mongols, but it soon took over other military and administrative duties and served to centralize authority under the crown. The Grand Councillors[h] served as a sort of privy council to the emperor.

Who controlled the "Inner Court"?

imperial family and Manchu nobility

Where was the Inner Court?

Forbidden City

What was the Grand Council?

core institution of the inner court


From the early Qing, the central government was characterized by a system of dual appointments by which each position in the central government had a Manchu and a Han Chinese assigned to it. The Han Chinese appointee was required to do the substantive work and the Manchu to ensure Han loyalty to Qing rule. The distinction between Han Chinese and Manchus extended to their court costumes. During the Qianlong Emperor's reign, for example, members of his family were distinguished by garments with a small circular emblem on the back, whereas Han officials wore clothing with a square emblem.

What shape of emblem signified a Han official?

square emblem

What shape of emblam signified members of the royal family?

circular

Which two ethnicities made up each position in government?

Manchu and a Han Chinese


In addition to the six boards, there was a Lifan Yuan unique to the Qing government. This institution was established to supervise the administration of Tibet and the Mongol lands. As the empire expanded, it took over administrative responsibility of all minority ethnic groups living in and around the empire, including early contacts with Russia — then seen as a tribute nation. The office had the status of a full ministry and was headed by officials of equal rank. However, appointees were at first restricted only to candidates of Manchu and Mongol ethnicity, until later open to Han Chinese as well.

Who governed the areas of Tibet and Mongolia?

Lifan Yuan

Who administered the minority groups?

Lifan Yuan

How many boards were there in the Qing government?

six


Even though the Board of Rites and Lifan Yuan performed some duties of a foreign office, they fell short of developing into a professional foreign service. It was not until 1861 — a year after losing the Second Opium War to the Anglo-French coalition — that the Qing government bowed to foreign pressure and created a proper foreign affairs office known as the Zongli Yamen. The office was originally intended to be temporary and was staffed by officials seconded from the Grand Council. However, as dealings with foreigners became increasingly complicated and frequent, the office grew in size and importance, aided by revenue from customs duties which came under its direct jurisdiction.

What was the foreign service called?

Zongli Yamen

Who performed the tasks of the Zongli Yamen before it was created?

Board of Rites and Lifan Yuan

What was the war called fought between the British and French against the Qing?

Second Opium War


There was also another government institution called Imperial Household Department which was unique to the Qing dynasty. It was established before the fall of the Ming, but it became mature only after 1661, following the death of the Shunzhi Emperor and the accession of his son, the Kangxi Emperor. The department's original purpose was to manage the internal affairs of the imperial family and the activities of the inner palace (in which tasks it largely replaced eunuchs), but it also played an important role in Qing relations with Tibet and Mongolia, engaged in trading activities (jade, ginseng, salt, furs, etc.), managed textile factories in the Jiangnan region, and even published books. Relations with the Salt Superintendents and salt merchants, such as those at Yangzhou, were particularly lucrative, especially since they were direct, and did not go through absorptive layers of bureaucracy. The department was manned by booi,[o] or "bondservants," from the Upper Three Banners. By the 19th century, it managed the activities of at least 56 subagencies.

Which emperor followed Shunzhi?

Kangxi

Where were textile factories located?

Jiangnan region

What did China trade with Tibet and Mongolia?

jade, ginseng, salt, furs


Qing China reached its largest extent during the 18th century, when it ruled China proper (eighteen provinces) as well as the areas of present-day Northeast China, Inner Mongolia, Outer Mongolia, Xinjiang and Tibet, at approximately 13 million km2 in size. There were originally 18 provinces, all of which in China proper, but later this number was increased to 22, with Manchuria and Xinjiang being divided or turned into provinces. Taiwan, originally part of Fujian province, became a province of its own in the late 19th century, but was ceded to the Empire of Japan in 1895 following the First Sino-Japanese War. In addition, many surrounding countries, such as Korea (Joseon dynasty), Vietnam frequently paid tribute to China during much of this period. Khanate of Kokand were forced to submit as protectorate and pay tribute to the Qing dynasty in China between 1774 and 1798.

What century did Qing China stretch to its largest?

18th century

How many kilometers was Qing China at its height?

13 million km2

How many provinces were there at the height of Qing China?

When did Japan take over Taiwan?

How did the Japanese win Taiwan?

First Sino-Japanese


The Qing organization of provinces was based on the fifteen administrative units set up by the Ming dynasty, later made into eighteen provinces by splitting for example, Huguang into Hubei and Hunan provinces. The provincial bureaucracy continued the Yuan and Ming practice of three parallel lines, civil, military, and censorate, or surveillance. Each province was administered by a governor (巡撫, xunfu) and a provincial military commander (提督, tidu). Below the province were prefectures (府, fu) operating under a prefect (知府, zhīfǔ), followed by subprefectures under a subprefect. The lowest unit was the county, overseen by a county magistrate. The eighteen provinces are also known as "China proper". The position of viceroy or governor-general (總督, zongdu) was the highest rank in the provincial administration. There were eight regional viceroys in China proper, each usually took charge of two or three provinces. The Viceroy of Zhili, who was responsible for the area surrounding the capital Beijing, is usually considered as the most honorable and powerful viceroy among the eight.

What two provinces were formed from Huguang?

Hubei and Hunan

What was the name of the highest ranking official in a province?

governor

What were provinces broken up into?

prefectures

What is another name for the main 18 provinces?

China proper

How many viceroys were there in China Proper?

eight


By the mid-18th century, the Qing had successfully put outer regions such as Inner and Outer Mongolia, Tibet and Xinjiang under its control. Imperial commissioners and garrisons were sent to Mongolia and Tibet to oversee their affairs. These territories were also under supervision of a central government institution called Lifan Yuan. Qinghai was also put under direct control of the Qing court. Xinjiang, also known as Chinese Turkestan, was subdivided into the regions north and south of the Tian Shan mountains, also known today as Dzungaria and Tarim Basin respectively, but the post of Ili General was established in 1762 to exercise unified military and administrative jurisdiction over both regions. Dzungaria was fully opened to Han migration by the Qianlong Emperor from the beginning. Han migrants were at first forbidden from permanently settling in the Tarim Basin but were the ban was lifted after the invasion by Jahangir Khoja in the 1820s. Likewise, Manchuria was also governed by military generals until its division into provinces, though some areas of Xinjiang and Northeast China were lost to the Russian Empire in the mid-19th century. Manchuria was originally separated from China proper by the Inner Willow Palisade, a ditch and embankment planted with willows intended to restrict the movement of the Han Chinese, as the area was off-limits to civilian Han Chinese until the government started colonizing the area, especially since the 1860s.

When did Tibet become part of Qing China?

mid-18th century

What was the main government entity that ran the territories like Tibet?

Lifan Yuan

What is another name for Chinese Turkestan?

Xinjiang

Which emperor allowed Han migration to Dzungaria?

Qianlong

Who first ran Manchuria?

military generals


With respect to these outer regions, the Qing maintained imperial control, with the emperor acting as Mongol khan, patron of Tibetan Buddhism and protector of Muslims. However, Qing policy changed with the establishment of Xinjiang province in 1884. During The Great Game era, taking advantage of the Dungan revolt in northwest China, Yaqub Beg invaded Xinjiang from Central Asia with support from the British Empire, and made himself the ruler of the kingdom of Kashgaria. The Qing court sent forces to defeat Yaqub Beg and Xinjiang was reconquered, and then the political system of China proper was formally applied onto Xinjiang. The Kumul Khanate, which was incorporated into the Qing empire as a vassal after helping Qing defeat the Zunghars in 1757, maintained its status after Xinjiang turned into a province through the end of the dynasty in the Xinhai Revolution up until 1930. In early 20th century, Britain sent an expedition force to Tibet and forced Tibetans to sign a treaty. The Qing court responded by asserting Chinese sovereignty over Tibet, resulting in the 1906 Anglo-Chinese Convention signed between Britain and China. The British agreed not to annex Tibetan territory or to interfere in the administration of Tibet, while China engaged not to permit any other foreign state to interfere with the territory or internal administration of Tibet. Furthermore, similar to Xinjiang which was converted into a province earlier, the Qing government also turned Manchuria into three provinces in the early 20th century, officially known as the "Three Northeast Provinces", and established the post of Viceroy of the Three Northeast Provinces to oversee these provinces, making the total number of regional viceroys to nine.

What title did the emperor hold in Mongolia?

khan

Who ruled Kashgaria?

Yaqub Beg

Who supported Beg?

British

When did the British invade Tibet?

early 20th century

What was the name of the agreement between Britain and the Chinese that kept the British out of Tibet?

1906 Anglo-Chinese Convention


The early Qing military was rooted in the Eight Banners first developed by Nurhaci to organize Jurchen society beyond petty clan affiliations. There were eight banners in all, differentiated by color. The yellow, bordered yellow, and white banners were known as the "Upper Three Banners" and were under the direct command of the emperor. Only Manchus belonging to the Upper Three Banners, and selected Han Chinese who had passed the highest level of martial exams could serve as the emperor's personal bodyguards. The remaining Banners were known as the "Lower Five Banners." They were commanded by hereditary Manchu princes descended from Nurhachi's immediate family, known informally as the "Iron cap princes". Together they formed the ruling council of the Manchu nation as well as high command of the army. Nurhachi's son Hong Taiji expanded the system to include mirrored Mongol and Han Banners. After capturing Beijing in 1644, the relatively small Banner armies were further augmented by the Green Standard Army, made up of those Ming troops who had surrendered to the Qing, which eventually outnumbered Banner troops three to one. They maintained their Ming era organization and were led by a mix of Banner and Green Standard officers.[citation needed]

Who created the Eight Banners?

Nurhaci

How were the 8 banners recognized?

color

What were the banners called that were under direct leadership of the emperor?

Upper Three Banners

What ethnicity made up the Upper Three Banners?

Manchus

What were the rest of the banners called?

Lower Five Banners


Banner Armies were organized along ethnic lines, namely Manchu and Mongol, but included non-Manchu bondservants registered under the household of their Manchu masters. The years leading up to the conquest increased the number of Han Chinese under Manchu rule, leading Hong Taiji to create the Eight Han Banners (zh), and around the time of the Qing takeover of Beijing, their numbers rapidly swelled. Han Bannermen held high status and power in the early Qing period, especially immediately after the conquest during Shunzhi and Kangxi's reign where they dominated Governor-Generalships and Governorships across China at the expense of both Manchu Bannermen and Han civilians. Han also numerically dominated the Banners up until the mid 18th century. European visitors in Beijing called them "Tartarized Chinese" or "Tartarified Chinese". It was in Qianlong's reign that the Qianlong Emperor, concerned about maintaining Manchu identity, re-emphasized Manchu ethnicity, ancestry, language, and culture in the Eight Banners and started a mass discharge of Han Bannermen from the Eight Banners, either asking them to voluntarily resign from the Banner rolls or striking their names off. This led to a change from Han majority to a Manchu majority within the Banner system, and previous Han Bannermen garrisons in southern China such as at Fuzhou, Zhenjiang, Guangzhou, were replaced by Manchu Bannermen in the purge, which started in 1754. The turnover by Qianlong most heavily impacted Han banner garrisons stationed in the provinces while it less impacted Han Bannermen in Beijing, leaving a larger proportion of remaining Han Bannermen in Beijing than the provinces. Han Bannermen's status was decreased from that point on with Manchu Banners gaining higher status. Han Bannermen numbered 75% in 1648 Shunzhi's reign, 72% in 1723 Yongzheng's reign, but decreased to 43% in 1796 during the first year of Jiaqing's reign, which was after Qianlong's purge. The mass discharge was known as the Disbandment of the Han Banners (zh). Qianlong directed most of his ire at those Han Bannermen descended from defectors who joined the Qing after the Qing passed through the Great Wall at Shanhai Pass in 1644, deeming their ancestors as traitors to the Ming and therefore untrustworthy, while retaining Han Bannermen who were descended from defectors who joined the Qing before 1644 in Liaodong and marched through Shanhai pass, also known as those who "followed the Dragon through the pass" (從龍入關; cong long ru guan).

How were Banner's organized?

along ethnic lines

Which two ethnicities made up the majority of the Banner Armies?

Manchu and Mongol

Which ethnicity dominated the army in the reigns of Shunzhi and Kangxi?

Han Bannermen

What did the Europeans call Han Bannermen?

"Tartarized Chinese" or "Tartarified Chinese"

When did Manchu ethnicity become important again in the Eight Banners?

Qianlong's reign


Early during the Taiping Rebellion, Qing forces suffered a series of disastrous defeats culminating in the loss of the regional capital city of Nanjing in 1853. Shortly thereafter, a Taiping expeditionary force penetrated as far north as the suburbs of Tianjin, the imperial heartlands. In desperation the Qing court ordered a Chinese official, Zeng Guofan, to organize regional and village militias into an emergency army called tuanlian. Zeng Guofan's strategy was to rely on local gentry to raise a new type of military organization from those provinces that the Taiping rebels directly threatened. This new force became known as the Xiang Army, named after the Hunan region where it was raised. The Xiang Army was a hybrid of local militia and a standing army. It was given professional training, but was paid for out of regional coffers and funds its commanders — mostly members of the Chinese gentry — could muster. The Xiang Army and its successor, the Huai Army, created by Zeng Guofan's colleague and mentee Li Hongzhang, were collectively called the "Yong Ying" (Brave Camp).

What caused the Qing armies to lose many battles?

Taiping Rebellion

What city did the Qing lose in 1853?

Nanjing

Who created a new type of army to thwart the Taiping rebels?

Zeng Guofan

What was Zeng Guofan?

Xiang Army

What was the Xiang Army named after?

Hunan region where it was raised


Zeng Guofan had no prior military experience. Being a classically educated official, he took his blueprint for the Xiang Army from the Ming general Qi Jiguang, who, because of the weakness of regular Ming troops, had decided to form his own "private" army to repel raiding Japanese pirates in the mid-16th century. Qi Jiguang's doctrine was based on Neo-Confucian ideas of binding troops' loyalty to their immediate superiors and also to the regions in which they were raised. Zeng Guofan's original intention for the Xiang Army was simply to eradicate the Taiping rebels. However, the success of the Yongying system led to its becoming a permanent regional force within the Qing military, which in the long run created problems for the beleaguered central government.

Who inspired Zeng Guofan in creating his army?

Qi Jiguang

What did Qi Jiguang's private army do?

repel raiding Japanese pirates

What was the original plan for the Xiang Army?

eradicate the Taiping rebels


First, the Yongying system signaled the end of Manchu dominance in Qing military establishment. Although the Banners and Green Standard armies lingered on as a drain on resources, henceforth the Yongying corps became the Qing government's de facto first-line troops. Second, the Yongying corps were financed through provincial coffers and were led by regional commanders, weakening central government's grip on the whole country. Finally, the nature of Yongying command structure fostered nepotism and cronyism amongst its commanders, who laid the seeds of regional warlordism in the first half of the 20th century.

What entity became the main Qing troops?

Yongying corps

Who paid for the Yongying?

provincial coffers

Who led the Yongying?

regional commanders


By the late 19th century, the most conservative elements within the Qing court could no longer ignore China's military weakness. In 1860, during the Second Opium War, the capital Beijing was captured and the Summer Palace sacked by a relatively small Anglo-French coalition force numbering 25,000. The advent of modern weaponry resulting from the European Industrial Revolution had rendered China's traditionally trained and equipped army and navy obsolete. The government attempts to modernize during the Self-Strengthening Movement were initially successful, but yielded few lasting results because of the central government's lack of funds, lack of political will, and unwillingness to depart from tradition.

When was the Second Opium War?

What happened to the Summer Palace?

sacked

How big was the French-British army?

What was the Qing governments attempt to create a modern socity called?

Self-Strengthening Movement


Losing the First Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895 was a watershed. Japan, a country long regarded by the Chinese as little more than an upstart nation of pirates, annihilated the Qing government's modernized Beiyang Fleet, then deemed to be the strongest naval force in Asia. The Japanese victory occurred a mere three decades after the Meiji Restoration set a feudal Japan on course to emulate the Western nations in their economic and technological achievements. Finally, in December 1894, the Qing government took concrete steps to reform military institutions and to re-train selected units in westernized drills, tactics and weaponry. These units were collectively called the New Army. The most successful of these was the Beiyang Army under the overall supervision and control of a former Huai Army commander, General Yuan Shikai, who used his position to build networks of loyal officers and eventually become President of the Republic of China.

Who beat the Chinese in the First Sino-Japanese War?

Japan

Which fleet did the Japanese destroy?

Beiyang Fleet

When did the Qing decide to modernize their military?

What was the new modern army called?

the New Army

Who became the President of the Republic of China?

General Yuan Shikai


The most significant fact of early and mid-Qing social history was population growth. The population doubled during the 18th century. People in this period were also remarkably on the move. There is evidence suggesting that the empire's rapidly expanding population was geographically mobile on a scale, which, in term of its volume and its protracted and routinized nature, was unprecedented in Chinese history. Indeed, the Qing government did far more to encourage mobility than to discourage it. Migration took several different forms, though might be divided in two varieties: permanent migration for resettlement, and relocation conceived by the party (in theory at least) as a temporary sojourn. Parties to the latter would include the empire's increasingly large and mobile manual workforce, as well as its densely overlapping internal diaspora of local-origin-based merchant groups. It would also included the patterned movement of Qing subjects overseas, largely to Southeastern Asia, in search of trade and other economic opportunities.

What happened in early and middle Qing history?

population growth

How much did the population grow during the 18th century?

doubled

What were the 2 types of migration during the 18th century?

permanent migration for resettlement, and relocation conceived by the party (in theory at least) as a temporary sojourn


According to statute, Qing society was divided into relatively closed estates, of which in most general terms there were five. Apart from the estates of the officials, the comparatively minuscule aristocracy, and the degree-holding literati, there also existed a major division among ordinary Chinese between commoners and people with inferior status. They were divided into two categories: one of them, the good "commoner" people, the other "mean" people. The majority of the population belonged to the first category and were described as liangmin, a legal term meaning good people, as opposed to jianmin meaning the mean (or ignoble) people. Qing law explicitly stated that the traditional four occupational groups of scholars, farmers, artisans and merchants were "good", or having a status of commoners. On the other hand, slaves or bondservants, entertainers (including prostitutes and actors), and those low-level employees of government officials were the "mean people". Mean people were considered legally inferior to commoners and suffered unequal treatments, forbidden to take the imperial examination.

How many estates were there in Qing society?

five

What 2 groups were normal Chinese broken into?

the good "commoner" people, the other "mean" people

What was the legal term for commoner?

liangmin


By the end of the 17th century, the Chinese economy had recovered from the devastation caused by the wars in which the Ming dynasty were overthrown, and the resulting breakdown of order. In the following century, markets continued to expand as in the late Ming period, but with more trade between regions, a greater dependence on overseas markets and a greatly increased population. After the re-opening of the southeast coast, which had been closed in the late 17th century, foreign trade was quickly re-established, and was expanding at 4% per annum throughout the latter part of the 18th century. China continued to export tea, silk and manufactures, creating a large, favorable trade balance with the West. The resulting inflow of silver expanded the money supply, facilitating the growth of competitive and stable markets.

What did China export?

tea, silk and manufactures

What did the Chinese get paid for their goods?

silver

When did the Chinese economy finally recover after the wars with the Mings?

end of the 17th century


The government broadened land ownership by returning land that had been sold to large landowners in the late Ming period by families unable to pay the land tax. To give people more incentives to participate in the market, they reduced the tax burden in comparison with the late Ming, and replaced the corvée system with a head tax used to hire laborers. The administration of the Grand Canal was made more efficient, and transport opened to private merchants. A system of monitoring grain prices eliminated severe shortages, and enabled the price of rice to rise slowly and smoothly through the 18th century. Wary of the power of wealthy merchants, Qing rulers limited their trading licenses and usually refused them permission to open new mines, except in poor areas. These restrictions on domestic resource exploration, as well as on foreign trade, are held by some scholars as a cause of the Great Divergence, by which the Western world overtook China economically.

What did the Qing do to reform land ownership?

reduced the tax burden

What happened to the price of rice during the 18th century?

rise slowly and smoothly

What was the Great Divergence?

Western world overtook China economically


By the end of the 18th century the population had risen to 300 million from approximately 150 million during the late Ming dynasty. The dramatic rise in population was due to several reasons, including the long period of peace and stability in the 18th century and the import of new crops China received from the Americas, including peanuts, sweet potatoes and maize. New species of rice from Southeast Asia led to a huge increase in production. Merchant guilds proliferated in all of the growing Chinese cities and often acquired great social and even political influence. Rich merchants with official connections built up huge fortunes and patronized literature, theater and the arts. Textile and handicraft production boomed.

What was China's population at the end of the 18th century?

300 million

What were the reasons for the population explosion during the 18th century?

peace and stability in the 18th century and the import of new crops

What crops were imported?

peanuts, sweet potatoes and maize. New species of rice


The Qing emperors were generally adept at poetry and often skilled in painting, and offered their patronage to Confucian culture. The Kangxi and Qianlong Emperors, for instance, embraced Chinese traditions both to control them and to proclaim their own legitimacy. The Kangxi Emperor sponsored the Peiwen Yunfu, a rhyme dictionary published in 1711, and the Kangxi Dictionary published in 1716, which remains to this day an authoritative reference. The Qianlong Emperor sponsored the largest collection of writings in Chinese history, the Siku Quanshu, completed in 1782. Court painters made new versions of the Song masterpiece, Zhang Zeduan's Along the River During the Qingming Festival whose depiction of a prosperous and happy realm demonstrated the beneficence of the emperor. The emperors undertook tours of the south and commissioned monumental scrolls to depict the grandeur of the occasion. Imperial patronage also encouraged the industrial production of ceramics and Chinese export porcelain.

What arts were the Qing emperors good at?

poetry and often skilled in painting

What was the rhyme dictionary called that was published by Kangxi?

Peiwen Yunfu

When was the Kangxi Dictionary published?

When was the Siku Quanshu finished?


Yet the most impressive aesthetic works were done among the scholars and urban elite. Calligraphy and painting remained a central interest to both court painters and scholar-gentry who considered the Four Arts part of their cultural identity and social standing. The painting of the early years of the dynasty included such painters as the orthodox Four Wangs and the individualists Bada Shanren (1626–1705) and Shitao (1641–1707). The nineteenth century saw such innovations as the Shanghai School and the Lingnan School which used the technical skills of tradition to set the stage for modern painting.

Name three painters?

Four Wangs and the individualists Bada Shanren (1626–1705) and Shitao (1641–1707)

What two schools of art were created in the 19th century?

Shanghai School and the Lingnan School

Name two arts of the Four Arts?

Calligraphy and painting


Literature grew to new heights in the Qing period. Poetry continued as a mark of the cultivated gentleman, but women wrote in larger and larger numbers and poets came from all walks of life. The poetry of the Qing dynasty is a lively field of research, being studied (along with the poetry of the Ming dynasty) for its association with Chinese opera, developmental trends of Classical Chinese poetry, the transition to a greater role for vernacular language, and for poetry by women in Chinese culture. The Qing dynasty was a period of much literary collection and criticism, and many of the modern popular versions of Classical Chinese poems were transmitted through Qing dynasty anthologies, such as the Quantangshi and the Three Hundred Tang Poems. Pu Songling brought the short story form to a new level in his Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio, published in the mid-18th century, and Shen Fu demonstrated the charm of the informal memoir in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, written in the early 19th century but published only in 1877. The art of the novel reached a pinnacle in Cao Xueqin's Dream of the Red Chamber, but its combination of social commentary and psychological insight were echoed in highly skilled novels such as Wu Jingzi's The Scholars (1750) and Li Ruzhen's Flowers in the Mirror (1827).

What was the sign of a gentleman?

Poetry

Who started writing poety during the Qing dynasty?

women

What was the name of Pu Songling's collection of short stories?

Strange Stories

What was the name of Shen Fu's memoir?

Six Chapters of a Floating Life

Who wrote the novel Dream of the Red Chamber?

Cao Xueqin


Cuisine aroused a cultural pride in the accumulated richness of a long and varied past. The gentleman gourmet, such as Yuan Mei, applied aesthetic standards to the art of cooking, eating, and appreciation of tea at a time when New World crops and products entered everyday life. The Suiyuan Shidan written by him, detailed the culinary esthetics and theory, along with a wide range of recipes from the ruling period of Qianlong during Qing Dynasty. The Manchu Han Imperial Feast originated at the court. Although this banquet was probably never common, it reflected an appreciation by Han Chinese for Manchu culinary customs. Nevertheless, culinary traditionalists such as Yuan Mei lambasted the opulent culinary rituals of the Manchu Han Imperial Feast, saying that it is cause in part by "...the vulgar habits of bad chefs" and that "Display this trite are useful only for welcoming new relations through one’s gates or when the boss comes to visit." (皆惡廚陋習。只可用之於新親上門，上司入境)

Who wrote the Suiyuan Shidan?

Yuan Mei

What was the Suiyaun Shidan about?

recipes

What was the Manchu Han Imperial Feast?

appreciation by Han Chinese for Manchu culinary customs


The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the descendants of the pre-Columbian inhabitants of the Americas. Pueblos indígenas (indigenous peoples) is a common term in Spanish-speaking countries. Aborigen (aboriginal/native) is used in Argentina, whereas "Amerindian" is used in Quebec, The Guianas, and the English-speaking Caribbean. Indigenous peoples are commonly known in Canada as Aboriginal peoples, which include First Nations, Inuit, and Métis peoples. Indigenous peoples of the United States are commonly known as Native Americans or American Indians, and Alaska Natives.

Who are the indigenous people of the Americas descended from?

pre-Columbian inhabitants of the Americas

What is a common term in Spanish speaking countries for the indigenous peoples?

Pueblos indígenas

What term is used in Argentina to refer to the original peoples of a continent?

Aborigen

In Quebec, The Guianas and places in the Caribbean where English is spoken, what is the preferred term for the indigenous people of the Americas?

Amerindian

How are the indigenous people most commonly referred to by citizens of the U.S.?

Native Americans


According to the prevailing theories of the settlement of the Americas, migrations of humans from Asia (in particular North Asia) to the Americas took place via Beringia, a land bridge which connected the two continents across what is now the Bering Strait. The majority of experts agree that the earliest pre-modern human migration via Beringia took place at least 13,500 years ago, with disputed evidence that people had migrated into the Americas much earlier, up to 40,000 years ago. These early Paleo-Indians spread throughout the Americas, diversifying into many hundreds of culturally distinct nations and tribes. According to the oral histories of many of the indigenous peoples of the Americas, they have been living there since their genesis, described by a wide range of creation myths.

Where do most theories today attribute the settlement of the Americas as originating from?

Asia

How did humans cross over to the Americas from Asia?

Beringia

What was Beringia?

a land bridge which connected the two continents

Most experts can at least agree that the earliest pre-modern human migration took place when?

13,500 years ago

How do the indigenous peoples explain how they came to live in the Americas?

a wide range of creation myths


Application of the term "Indian" originated with Christopher Columbus, who, in his search for Asia, thought that he had arrived in the East Indies. The Americas came to be known as the "West Indies", a name still used to refer to the islands of the Caribbean Sea. This led to the names "Indies" and "Indian", which implied some kind of racial or cultural unity among the aboriginal peoples of the Americas. This unifying concept, codified in law, religion, and politics, was not originally accepted by indigenous peoples but has been embraced by many over the last two centuries.[citation needed] Even though the term "Indian" does not include the Aleuts, Inuit, or Yupik peoples, these groups are considered indigenous peoples of the Americas.

What incorrect term for the indigenous population originated with Christopher Columbus?

Indian

Where did Columbus believe he had arrived?

East Indies

Because of Columbus' mistake, the Americas came to be known as what?

West Indies

What is implied by the global term of "Indian"?

some kind of racial or cultural unity

Despite fitting under the umbrella label of "Indian", Aleuts, Inuit and Yupik peoples are still considered to be what to the Americas?

indigenous


Although some indigenous peoples of the Americas were traditionally hunter-gatherers—and many, especially in Amazonia, still are—many groups practiced aquaculture and agriculture. The impact of their agricultural endowment to the world is a testament to their time and work in reshaping and cultivating the flora indigenous to the Americas. Although some societies depended heavily on agriculture, others practiced a mix of farming, hunting, and gathering. In some regions the indigenous peoples created monumental architecture, large-scale organized cities, chiefdoms, states, and empires.

What were many of the indigenous people of the Americas traditionally?

hunter-gatherers

What did many segments of the indigenous population also practice?

aquaculture and agriculture

What remains as a testament to the time and work the indigenous people spent cultivating the flora of the Americas?

agricultural endowment

What did many of the societies practice a mix of?

farming, hunting, and gathering

Large cities, chiefdoms, monuments and empires were just some of the things created by which peoples?

indigenous


Many parts of the Americas are still populated by indigenous peoples; some countries have sizable populations, especially Belize, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Greenland, Guatemala, Mexico, and Peru. At least a thousand different indigenous languages are spoken in the Americas. Some, such as the Quechuan languages, Aymara, Guaraní, Mayan languages, and Nahuatl, count their speakers in millions. Many also maintain aspects of indigenous cultural practices to varying degrees, including religion, social organization, and subsistence practices. Like most cultures, over time, cultures specific to many indigenous peoples have evolved to incorporate traditional aspects, but also cater to modern needs. Some indigenous peoples still live in relative isolation from Western culture and a few are still counted as uncontacted peoples.

Where are there still populations of indigenous peoples?

Many parts of the Americas

Belize, Chile and Greenland are just some countries with sizable populations of what peoples?

indigenous

How many different indigenous languages are spoken in the Americas?

At least a thousand

What do many indigenous cultures still practice to different extends to this day?

religion, social organization, and subsistence practices

What have some indigenous peoples managed to remain in relative isolation from?

Western culture


The specifics of Paleo-Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the exact dates and routes traveled, provide the subject of ongoing research and discussion. According to archaeological and genetic evidence, North and South America were the last continents in the world with human habitation. During the Wisconsin glaciation, 50–17,000 years ago, falling sea levels allowed people to move across the land bridge of Beringia that joined Siberia to north west North America (Alaska). Alaska was a glacial refugia because it had low snowfall, allowing a small population to exist. The Laurentide Ice Sheet covered most of North America, blocking nomadic inhabitants and confining them to Alaska (East Beringia) for thousands of years.

How Paleo-Indians migrated to the Americas is still a matter for what type of research?

ongoing

When did humans inhabit North and South America's continents?

last

What allowed people to move across Beringia to North America?

falling sea levels

A small population could exist in Alaska because of it's lack of any significant what?

snowfall

What confined the nomadic inhabitants to East Beringia for thousands of years?

Laurentide Ice Sheet


Indigenous genetic studies suggest that the first inhabitants of the Americas share a single ancestral population, one that developed in isolation, conjectured to be Beringia. The isolation of these peoples in Beringia might have lasted 10–20,000 years. Around 16,500 years ago, the glaciers began melting, allowing people to move south and east into Canada and beyond. These people are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct Pleistocene megafauna along ice-free corridors that stretched between the Laurentide and Cordilleran Ice Sheets.

What do studies on the genetics of the first American inhabitants conclude about their ancestral population?

single

Where did the single ancestral population of all the indigenous peoples of the Americas likely develop?

in isolation

How many years may the isolation of the peoples in Beringia lasted?

10–20,000 years

When did the glaciers begin to melt?

16,500 years ago

What did the people follow in the corridors between the ice sheets?

Pleistocene megafauna


The data indicate that the individual was from a population directly ancestral to present South American and Central American Native American populations, and closely related to present North American Native American populations. The implication is that there was an early divergence between North American and Central American plus South American populations. Hypotheses which posit that invasions subsequent to the Clovis culture overwhelmed or assimilated previous migrants into the Americas were ruled out.

What does the data indicate about the population the individual was from?

directly ancestral

What populations is the individual closely related to?

present North American Native American

What type of divergence is implicated to have occurred between North American and South American populations?

early

Theories that there were invasions which overwhelmed or assimilated previous migrants into the Americas have been what?

ruled out


While technically referring to the era before Christopher Columbus' voyages of 1492 to 1504, in practice the term usually includes the history of American indigenous cultures until Europeans either conquered or significantly influenced them, even if this happened decades or even centuries after Columbus' initial landing. "Pre-Columbian" is used especially often in the context of discussing the great indigenous civilizations of the Americas, such as those of Mesoamerica (the Olmec, the Toltec, the Teotihuacano, the Zapotec, the Mixtec, the Aztec, and the Maya civilizations) and those of the Andes (Inca Empire, Moche culture, Muisca Confederation, Cañaris).

The term Pre-Columbian technically refers to which era?

before Christopher Columbus' voyages of 1492

When was Columbus' first voyage?

In practice, Pre-Columbian refers to the history of the indigenous cultures of America prior to Europeans doing what to them?

conquered or significantly influenced

What term is used most often when discussing the great civilizations of the Americas?

"Pre-Columbian"

What area of the Americas did the Inca Empire, Moche culture and Muisca confederation hail from?

Andes


Many pre-Columbian civilizations established characteristics and hallmarks which included permanent or urban settlements, agriculture, civic and monumental architecture, and complex societal hierarchies. Some of these civilizations had long faded by the time of the first significant European and African arrivals (ca. late 15th–early 16th centuries), and are known only through oral history and through archaeological investigations. Others were contemporary with this period, and are also known from historical accounts of the time. A few, such as the Mayan, Olmec, Mixtec, and Nahua peoples, had their own written records. However, the European colonists of the time worked to eliminate non-Christian beliefs, and Christian pyres destroyed many pre-Columbian written records. Only a few documents remained hidden and survived, leaving contemporary historians with glimpses of ancient culture and knowledge.

Urban settlements and complex societal hierarchies are just some of the hallmarks established by which civilizations?

pre-Columbian

What had long faded prior to the first European and African arrivals?

Some of these civilizations

How do we know about some of the civilizations that were gone by the time of European arrival?

oral history and through archaeological investigations

What did European colonists destroy on their pyres?

written records

What gave today's historians a glimpse of the culture and knowledge of the indigenous civilizations?

a few documents


According to both indigenous American and European accounts and documents, American civilizations at the time of European encounter had achieved many accomplishments. For instance, the Aztecs built one of the largest cities in the world, Tenochtitlan, the ancient site of Mexico City, with an estimated population of 200,000. American civilizations also displayed impressive accomplishments in astronomy and mathematics. The domestication of maize or corn required thousands of years of selective breeding.

What had the civilizations in the Americas achieved by the time the Europeans encountered them?

many accomplishments

What had the Aztec civilization constructed?

one of the largest cities in the world

How big was the population of the Aztec cit of Tenochtitlan?

Astronomy and mathematics were also accomplishments of which civilizations?

American

How many years of selective breeding did it take to domesticate maize?

thousands


The European colonization of the Americas forever changed the lives and cultures of the peoples of the continents. Although the exact pre-contact population of the Americas is unknown, scholars estimate that Native American populations diminished by between 80 and 90% within the first centuries of contact with Europeans. The leading cause was disease. The continent was ravaged by epidemics of diseases such as smallpox, measles, and cholera, which were brought from Europe by the early explorers and spread quickly into new areas even before later explorers and colonists reached them. Native Americans suffered high mortality rates due to their lack of prior exposure to these diseases. The loss of lives was exacerbated by conflict between colonists and indigenous people. Colonists also frequently perpetrated massacres on the indigenous groups and enslaved them. According to the U.S. Bureau of the Census (1894), the North American Indian Wars of the 19th century cost the lives of about 19,000 whites and 30,000 Native Americans.

What did the European colonization forever change?

lives and cultures of the peoples of the continents

How much did the population of the Americas decrease after first contact with the Europeans?

between 80 and 90%

What was the leading cause of death for the native population after European contact?

disease

What triad of disease epidemics ravaged the American continent?

smallpox, measles, and cholera

Why did Native Americans suffer such high mortality rates to the diseases?

lack of prior exposure


The first indigenous group encountered by Columbus were the 250,000 Taínos of Hispaniola who represented the dominant culture in the Greater Antilles and the Bahamas. Within thirty years about 70% of the Taínos had died. They had no immunity to European diseases, so outbreaks of measles and smallpox ravaged their population. Increasing punishment of the Taínos for revolting against forced labour, despite measures put in place by the encomienda, which included religious education and protection from warring tribes, eventually led to the last great Taíno rebellion.

Who was the first group of indigenous people Columbus encountered?

the 250,000 Taínos of Hispaniola

What did the Taínos represent in the Greater Antilles and Bahamas?

dominant culture

What percentage of the Taínos were dead thirty years after contact with Columbus?

Why were outbreaks of measles and smallpox able to so easily decimate the Taínos' population?

no immunity to European diseases

What led to the last great Taínos rebellion?

Increasing punishment


Following years of mistreatment, the Taínos began to adopt suicidal behaviors, with women aborting or killing their infants and men jumping from the cliffs or ingesting untreated cassava, a violent poison. Eventually, a Taíno Cacique named Enriquillo managed to hold out in the Baoruco Mountain Range for thirteen years, causing serious damage to the Spanish, Carib-held plantations and their Indian auxiliaries. Hearing of the seriousness of the revolt, Emperor Charles V (also King of Spain) sent captain Francisco Barrionuevo to negotiate a peace treaty with the ever-increasing number of rebels. Two months later, after consultation with the Audencia of Santo Domingo, Enriquillo was offered any part of the island to live in peace.

What behaviors did the Taínos begin to adopt after years of mistreatment?

suicidal

What did Taínos women start doing to their infants?

aborting or killing

Why would ingesting untreated cassava be a bad idea?

violent poison

How many years was a Taínos Cacique able to hold ou in the Baoruco Mountain Range?

thirteen

Who was sent to negotiate a peace treaty with the rebels?

Francisco Barrionuevo


Various theories for the decline of the Native American populations emphasize epidemic diseases, conflicts with Europeans, and conflicts among warring tribes. Scholars now believe that, among the various contributing factors, epidemic disease was the overwhelming cause of the population decline of the American natives. Some believe that after first contacts with Europeans and Africans, Old World diseases caused the death of 90 to 95% of the native population of the New World in the following 150 years. Smallpox killed up to one third of the native population of Hispaniola in 1518. By killing the Incan ruler Huayna Capac, smallpox caused the Inca Civil War. Smallpox was only the first epidemic. Typhus (probably) in 1546, influenza and smallpox together in 1558, smallpox again in 1589, diphtheria in 1614, measles in 1618—all ravaged the remains of Inca culture.

What was the overwhelming reason for the decline of Native American populations?

epidemic disease

Old World diseases accounted for up to what percentage of deaths among the native New World population?

90 to 95%

How long did it take for the Old World diseases to decimate the native population to the extent it did?

150 years

What disease killed almost a third of the population of Hispaniola in 1518?

Smallpox

How did smallpox cause the Inca Civil War?

By killing the Incan ruler Huayna Capac


Contact with European diseases such as smallpox and measles killed between 50 and 67 per cent of the Aboriginal population of North America in the first hundred years after the arrival of Europeans. Some 90 per cent of the native population near Massachusetts Bay Colony died of smallpox in an epidemic in 1617–1619. In 1633, in Plymouth, the Native Americans there were exposed to smallpox because of contact with Europeans. As it had done elsewhere, the virus wiped out entire population groups of Native Americans. It reached Lake Ontario in 1636, and the lands of the Iroquois by 1679. During the 1770s, smallpox killed at least 30% of the West Coast Native Americans. The 1775–82 North American smallpox epidemic and 1837 Great Plains smallpox epidemic brought devastation and drastic population depletion among the Plains Indians. In 1832, the federal government of the United States established a smallpox vaccination program for Native Americans (The Indian Vaccination Act of 1832).

What percent of the Aboriginal population of North America was killed in the first hundred years after first contact by smallpox and measles?

between 50 and 67 per cent

How much of the native population near Massachusetts was killed by smallpox in the epidemic between 1617 and 1619?

90 per cent

Who were the Native Americans exposed to smallpox because of?

Europeans

When did smallpox read the lands of the Iroquois?

by 1679

What did the Indian Vaccination Act of 1832 establish?

a smallpox vaccination program for Native Americans


The Spanish Empire and other Europeans brought horses to the Americas. Some of these animals escaped and began to breed and increase their numbers in the wild. The re-introduction of the horse, extinct in the Americas for over 7500 years, had a profound impact on Native American culture in the Great Plains of North America and of Patagonia in South America. By domesticating horses, some tribes had great success: horses enabled them to expand their territories, exchange more goods with neighboring tribes, and more easily capture game, especially bison.

What Empire brought horses to the Americas?

Spanish

How long had horses been extinct in the Americas prior to their re-introduction?

7500 years

What kind of impact did the re-emergence of horses have on some Native American cultures?

profound

What did some tribes achieve by domesticating horses?

great success

What enabled some tribes to expand territory, increase trade and capture more game?

horses


Over the course of thousands of years, American indigenous peoples domesticated, bred and cultivated a large array of plant species. These species now constitute 50–60% of all crops in cultivation worldwide. In certain cases, the indigenous peoples developed entirely new species and strains through artificial selection, as was the case in the domestication and breeding of maize from wild teosinte grasses in the valleys of southern Mexico. Numerous such agricultural products retain their native names in the English and Spanish lexicons.

What did the indigenous peoples of America cultivate over the course of thousands of years?

a large array of plant species

What percent of worldwide crops in cultivation derive from the efforts of the America's indigenous people?

How were new species and strains of crops developed?

artificial selection

What was the origin of maize?

wild teosinte grasses

What products sometimes retain their native names in both English and Spanish?

agricultural


The South American highlands were a center of early agriculture. Genetic testing of the wide variety of cultivars and wild species suggests that the potato has a single origin in the area of southern Peru, from a species in the Solanum brevicaule complex. Over 99% of all modern cultivated potatoes worldwide are descendants of a subspecies indigenous to south-central Chile, Solanum tuberosum ssp. tuberosum, where it was cultivated as long as 10,000 years ago. According to George Raudzens, "It is clear that in pre-Columbian times some groups struggled to survive and often suffered food shortages and famines, while others enjoyed a varied and substantial diet." The persistent drought around 850 AD coincided with the collapse of Classic Maya civilization, and the famine of One Rabbit (AD 1454) was a major catastrophe in Mexico.

Where was a center of early agriculture?

South American highlands

Based on genetic testing, what has been suggested about the origin of the potato?

single

Where did the potato originate?

area of southern Peru

How long ago was the decedent of 99% of all modern potatoes cultivated as long ago as?

10,000 years ago

What event in 850 AD coincided with the collapse of Mayan civilization?

persistent drought


Natives of North America began practicing farming approximately 4,000 years ago, late in the Archaic period of North American cultures. Technology had advanced to the point that pottery was becoming common and the small-scale felling of trees had become feasible. Concurrently, the Archaic Indians began using fire in a controlled manner. Intentional burning of vegetation was used to mimic the effects of natural fires that tended to clear forest understories. It made travel easier and facilitated the growth of herbs and berry-producing plants, which were important for both food and medicines.

When did the North American natives begin farming?

approximately 4,000 years ago

What had pottery become 4,000 years ago in the Americas?

common

What did technology make feasible when it came to trees?

small-scale felling

How did Archaic Indians use fire?

a controlled manner

What was the intentional burning of vegetation intended to mimic?

effects of natural fires


Many crops first domesticated by indigenous Americans are now produced and used globally. Chief among these is maize or "corn", arguably the most important crop in the world. Other significant crops include cassava, chia, squash (pumpkins, zucchini, marrow, acorn squash, butternut squash), the pinto bean, Phaseolus beans including most common beans, tepary beans and lima beans, tomatoes, potatoes, avocados, peanuts, cocoa beans (used to make chocolate), vanilla, strawberries, pineapples, Peppers (species and varieties of Capsicum, including bell peppers, jalapeños, paprika and chili peppers) sunflower seeds, rubber, brazilwood, chicle, tobacco, coca, manioc and some species of cotton.

What global industry owes its existence to having been domesticated by indigenous Americans?

Many crops

What is arguably the most important crop in the world?

corn

Squash, beans, and peppers are all examples of what type of crop?

significant

What type of bean is used to make chocolate?

cocoa

Who do we owe gratitude for even some species of cotton to?

indigenous Americans


Cultural practices in the Americas seem to have been shared mostly within geographical zones where unrelated peoples adopted similar technologies and social organizations. An example of such a cultural area is Mesoamerica, where millennia of coexistence and shared development among the peoples of the region produced a fairly homogeneous culture with complex agricultural and social patterns. Another well-known example is the North American plains where until the 19th century several peoples shared the traits of nomadic hunter-gatherers based primarily on buffalo hunting.

What did geographical zones encourage the sharing of?

Cultural practices

What did people in the same reason adopt?

similar technologies and social organizations

Where did millennia of coexistence produce a culture with advanced agricultural and social patterns?

Mesoamerica

How long was there a homogeneous culture on the North American plains?

until the 19th century

What creature did the nomadic hunter-gatherers of the plains hunt?

buffalo


The development of writing is counted among the many achievements and innovations of pre-Columbian American cultures. Independent from the development of writing in other areas of the world, the Mesoamerican region produced several indigenous writing systems beginning in the 1st millennium BCE. What may be the earliest-known example in the Americas of an extensive text thought to be writing is by the Cascajal Block. The Olmec hieroglyphs tablet has been indirectly dated from ceramic shards found in the same context to approximately 900 BCE, around the time that Olmec occupation of San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán began to wane.

What was one of the many achievements of the American cultures?

development of writing

What region produced several writing systems independent of other areas of the world?

the Mesoamerican region

When were writing systems being created in the Americas?

beginning in the 1st millennium BCE

What is presumed to be written upon the Cascajal Block?

extensive text

When has the Olmec tablet been dated to?

900 BCE


The Maya writing system (often called hieroglyphs from a superficial resemblance to the Ancient Egyptian writing) was a combination of phonetic symbols and logograms. It is most often classified as a logographic or (more properly) a logosyllabic writing system, in which syllabic signs play a significant role. It is the only pre-Columbian writing system known to represent completely the spoken language of its community. In total, the script has more than one thousand different glyphs although a few are variations of the same sign or meaning and many appear only rarely or are confined to particular localities. At any one time, no more than about five hundred glyphs were in use, some two hundred of which (including variations) had a phonetic or syllabic interpretation.

What writing system combined phonetic symbols and logograms?

Maya

What signs play a significant role in the Mayan's writing system?

syllabic

What is the Mayan writing system the only known pre-Columbian one to completely represent this?

spoken language of its community

How many different glyphs in total does the Mayan writing system have?

more than one thousand

How many of the Mayan glyphs had phonetic or syllabic interpretations?

some two hundred


Spanish mendicants in the sixteenth century taught indigenous scribes in their communities to write their languages in Latin letters and there is a large number of local-level documents in Nahuatl, Zapotec, Mixtec, and Yucatec Maya from the colonial era, many of which were part of lawsuits and other legal matters. Although Spaniards initially taught indigenous scribes alphabetic writing, the tradition became self-perpetuating at the local level. The Spanish crown gathered such documentation and contemporary Spanish translations were made for legal cases. Scholars have translated and analyzed these documents in what is called the New Philology to write histories of indigenous peoples from indigenous viewpoints.

Who taught indigenous scribes to write their languages?

Spanish

When were indigenous scribes taught to use Latin letters?

the sixteenth century

What were a large number of the local documents in regards to?

lawsuits and other legal matters

What were Spanish translations at the time made for?

legal cases

What viewpoint have scholars translated and analyzed documents to writes histories from?

indigenous


Native American music in North America is almost entirely monophonic, but there are notable exceptions. Traditional Native American music often centers around drumming. Rattles, clappersticks, and rasps were also popular percussive instruments. Flutes were made of rivercane, cedar, and other woods. The tuning of these flutes is not precise and depends on the length of the wood used and the hand span of the intended player, but the finger holes are most often around a whole step apart and, at least in Northern California, a flute was not used if it turned out to have an interval close to a half step. The Apache fiddle is a single stringed instrument.

What characteristic did the majority of Native American music have?

monophonic

What did traditional Native American music center around?

drumming

What are examples of popular percussive instruments of Native Americans?

Rattles, clappersticks, and rasps

How were flutes constructed by the Native Americans?

rivercane, cedar, and other woods

How many strings did the Apache fiddle have?

single


The music of the indigenous peoples of Central Mexico and Central America was often pentatonic. Before the arrival of the Spaniards and other Europeans, music was inseparable from religious festivities and included a large variety of percussion and wind instruments such as drums, flutes, sea snail shells (used as a trumpet) and "rain" tubes. No remnants of pre-Columbian stringed instruments were found until archaeologists discovered a jar in Guatemala, attributed to the Maya of the Late Classic Era (600–900 CE), which depicts a stringed musical instrument which has since been reproduced. This instrument is one of the very few stringed instruments known in the Americas prior to the introduction of European musical instruments; when played it produces a sound virtually identical to a jaguar's growl.

What feature did the music of Central America have?

pentatonic

What role did music play in the religious festivities?

inseparable from

What instruments were used to make music by the Central Americans?

large variety of percussion and wind

Where did archaeologists find a depiction of a Mayan stringed instrument?

a jar in Guatemala

What did the Mayan's stringed instrument sound like when played?

a jaguar's growl


Visual arts by indigenous peoples of the Americas comprise a major category in the world art collection. Contributions include pottery, paintings, jewellery, weavings, sculptures, basketry, carvings, and beadwork. Because too many artists were posing as Native Americans and Alaska Natives in order to profit from the caché of Indigenous art in the United States, the U.S. passed the Indian Arts and Crafts Act of 1990, requiring artists to prove that they are enrolled in a state or federally recognized tribe. To support the ongoing practice of American Indian, Alaska Native and Native Hawaiian arts and cultures in the United States, the Ford Foundation, arts advocates and American Indian tribes created an endowment seed fund and established a national Native Arts and Cultures Foundation in 2007.

What comprises a major category in the world art collection?

Visual arts by indigenous peoples

Pottery, weavings and carvings are just some of the contributions to art by which peoples?

indigenous

Why did the U.S. pass the Indian Arts and Crafts Act of 1990?

too many artists were posing as Native Americans

What does the Indian Arts and Crafts Act of 1990 require artists to prove they're enrolled in?

a state or federally recognized tribe

When was a national Native Arts and Cultures Foundation established?


In 2005, Argentina's indigenous population (known as pueblos originarios) numbered about 600,329 (1.6% of total population); this figure includes 457,363 people who self-identified as belonging to an indigenous ethnic group and 142,966 who identified themselves as first-generation descendants of an indigenous people. The ten most populous indigenous peoples are the Mapuche (113,680 people), the Kolla (70,505), the Toba (69,452), the Guaraní (68,454), the Wichi (40,036), the Diaguita-Calchaquí (31,753), the Mocoví (15,837), the Huarpe (14,633), the Comechingón (10,863) and the Tehuelche (10,590). Minor but important peoples are the Quechua (6,739), the Charrúa (4,511), the Pilagá (4,465), the Chané (4,376), and the Chorote (2,613). The Selknam (Ona) people are now virtually extinct in its pure form. The languages of the Diaguita, Tehuelche, and Selknam nations have become extinct or virtually extinct: the Cacán language (spoken by Diaguitas) in the 18th century and the Selknam language in the 20th century; one Tehuelche language (Southern Tehuelche) is still spoken by a handful of elderly people.

What was the number of indigenous people in Argentina as of 2005?

about 600,329

How many Mapuche were there in Argentina in 2005?

Who are the Quechua and Chorote?

Minor but important peoples

What indigenous population is now virtually extinct?

The Selknam

Who still speaks Southern Tehuelche?

a handful of elderly people


In Bolivia, a 62% majority of residents over the age of 15 self-identify as belonging to an indigenous people, while another 3.7% grew up with an indigenous mother tongue yet do not self-identify as indigenous. Including both of these categories, and children under 15, some 66.4% of Bolivia's population was registered as indigenous in the 2001 Census. The largest indigenous ethnic groups are: Quechua, about 2.5 million people; Aymara, 2.0 million; Chiquitano, 181,000; Guaraní, 126,000; and Mojeño, 69,000. Some 124,000 belong to smaller indigenous groups. The Constitution of Bolivia, enacted in 2009, recognizes 36 cultures, each with its own language, as part of a plurinational state. Some groups, including CONAMAQ (the National Council of Ayllus and Markas of Qullasuyu) draw ethnic boundaries within the Quechua- and Aymara-speaking population, resulting in a total of fifty indigenous peoples native to Bolivia.

What percentage of the residents in Bolivia self-identify as belonging to an indigenous people?

What percent of people in Bolivia grew up with an indigenous mother tongue yet don't call themselves indigenous?

In the 2001 census, how much of Bolivia's population was labeled as being indigenous?

How many cultures does the Constitution of Bolivia recognize?

How many total groups of indigenous peoples are in Bolivia?

fifty


Large numbers of Bolivian highland peasants retained indigenous language, culture, customs, and communal organization throughout the Spanish conquest and the post-independence period. They mobilized to resist various attempts at the dissolution of communal landholdings and used legal recognition of "empowered caciques" to further communal organization. Indigenous revolts took place frequently until 1953. While the National Revolutionary Movement government begun in 1952 discouraged self-identification as indigenous (reclassifying rural people as campesinos, or peasants), renewed ethnic and class militancy re-emerged in the Katarista movement beginning in the 1970s. Lowland indigenous peoples, mostly in the east, entered national politics through the 1990 March for Territory and Dignity organized by the CIDOB confederation. That march successfully pressured the national government to sign the ILO Convention 169 and to begin the still-ongoing process of recognizing and titling indigenous territories. The 1994 Law of Popular Participation granted "grassroots territorial organizations" that are recognized by the state certain rights to govern local areas.

Who retained indigenous language and culture after the Spanish conquest?

Bolivian highland peasants

What did the highland peasants resist attempts at?

dissolution of communal landholdings

What took place frequently until 1953?

Indigenous revolts

What re-emerged during the Katarista movement in the 1970s?

ethnic and class militancy

What march successfully pressured the national government to sign the ILO Convetion 169?

March for Territory and Dignity


Morales began work on his "indigenous autonomy" policy, which he launched in the eastern lowlands department on August 3, 2009, making Bolivia the first country in the history of South America to affirm the right of indigenous people to govern themselves. Speaking in Santa Cruz Department, the President called it "a historic day for the peasant and indigenous movement", saying that, though he might make errors, he would "never betray the fight started by our ancestors and the fight of the Bolivian people". A vote on further autonomy will take place in referendums which are expected to be held in December 2009. The issue has divided the country.

Who came up with a policy for indigenous autonomy?

Morales

When did Morales launch his policy in the eastern lowlands?

What was Bolivia the first country in the history of South America to do?

affirm the right of indigenous people to govern themselves

What did the President vow he would never betray?

fight

What effect has the issue of indigenous autonomy had on Bolivia?

divided


Indigenous peoples of Brazil make up 0.4% of Brazil's population, or about 700,000 people, even though millions of Brazilians have some indigenous ancestry. Indigenous peoples are found in the entire territory of Brazil, although the majority of them live in Indian reservations in the North and Center-Western part of the country. On January 18, 2007, FUNAI reported that it had confirmed the presence of 67 different uncontacted tribes in Brazil, up from 40 in 2005. With this addition Brazil has now overtaken the island of New Guinea as the country having the largest number of uncontacted tribes.

How much of Brazil's population is comprised of indigenous peoples?

How many Brazillians have some indigenous ancestry?

millions

Where do the majority of the indigenous people of Brazil live?

Indian reservations

How many different uncontacted tribes were confirmed in Brazil in 2007?

What country has the largest number of uncontacted tribes?

Brazil


Aboriginal peoples in Canada comprise the First Nations, Inuit and Métis; the descriptors "Indian" and "Eskimo" are falling into disuse, and other than in neighboring Alaska. "Eskimo" is considered derogatory in many other places because it was given by non-Inuit people and was said to mean "eater of raw meat." Hundreds of Aboriginal nations evolved trade, spiritual and social hierarchies. The Métis culture of mixed blood originated in the mid-17th century when First Nation and native Inuit married European settlers. The Inuit had more limited interaction with European settlers during that early period. Various laws, treaties, and legislation have been enacted between European immigrants and First Nations across Canada. Aboriginal Right to Self-Government provides opportunity to manage historical, cultural, political, health care and economic control aspects within first people's communities.

What is the term Eskimo said to mean?

"eater of raw meat."

First Nations and Inuit are labels for what peoples in Canada?

Aboriginal

How many Aboriginal nations evolved trade, as well as spiritual and social hierarchies?

Hundreds

What resulted from First Nation and Inuit people marrying European settlers?

The Métis culture

What has been enacted between European immigrants and First Nations across Canada?

Various laws, treaties, and legislation


Although not without conflict, European/Canadian early interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations were relatively peaceful compared to the experience of native peoples in the United States. Combined with a late economic development in many regions, this relatively peaceful history has allowed Canadian Indigenous peoples to have a fairly strong influence on the early national culture while preserving their own identity. From the late 18th century, European Canadians encouraged Aboriginals to assimilate into their own culture, referred to as "Canadian culture". These attempts reached a climax in the late 19th and early 20th centuries with forced integration. National Aboriginal Day recognises the cultures and contributions of Aboriginal peoples of Canada. There are currently over 600 recognized First Nations governments or bands encompassing 1,172,790 2006 people spread across Canada with distinctive Aboriginal cultures, languages, art, and music.

What were the early interactions between First Nations and Europeans?

relatively peaceful

What have Canadian indigenous peoples been able to have a strong influence on?

national culture

How long have European Canadians been encouraging Aboriginals to assimilate into their culture?

late 18th century

What does National Aboriginal Day recognize from the Aboriginal peoples of Canada?

cultures and contributions

How many recognized First Nations governments are spread across Canada?

over 600


According to the 2002 Census, 4.6% of the Chilean population, including the Rapanui (a Polynesian people) of Easter Island, was indigenous, although most show varying degrees of mixed heritage. Many are descendants of the Mapuche, and live in Santiago, Araucanía and the lake district. The Mapuche successfully fought off defeat in the first 300–350 years of Spanish rule during the Arauco War. Relations with the new Chilean Republic were good until the Chilean state decided to occupy their lands. During the Occupation of Araucanía the Mapuche surrendered to the country's army in the 1880s. Their land was opened to settlement by Chileans and Europeans. Conflict over Mapuche land rights continues to the present.

What percent of the Chilean population were indigenous according to the 2002 census?

What is the name for the Polynesian people living on Easter Island?

the Rapanui

Who are many of the people of Chile the descendants of?

the Mapuche

How long were the Mapuche able to fight off the Spaniards?

350 years

When did the Mapuche surrender to the Chilean army?


Ecuador was the site of many indigenous cultures, and civilizations of different proportions. An early sedentary culture, known as the Valdivia culture, developed in the coastal region, while the Caras and the Quitus unified to form an elaborate civilization that ended at the birth of the Capital Quito. The Cañaris near Cuenca were the most advanced, and most feared by the Inca, due to their fierce resistance to the Incan expansion. Their architecture remains were later destroyed by Spaniards and the Incas.

What was Ecuador the site of?

many indigenous cultures

Where did the Valdivia culture develop?

coastal region

What two cultures unified to for an elaborate civilization?

the Caras and the Quitus

What culture did the Inca fear the most?

The Cañaris

What did the Spaniards and Incas destroy?

architecture remains


Approximately 96.4% of Ecuador's Indigenous population are Highland Quichuas living in the valleys of the Sierra region. Primarily consisting of the descendents of Incans, they are Kichwa speakers and include the Caranqui, the Otavalos, the Cayambi, the Quitu-Caras, the Panzaleo, the Chimbuelo, the Salasacan, the Tugua, the Puruhá, the Cañari, and the Saraguro. Linguistic evidence suggests that the Salascan and the Saraguro may have been the descendants of Bolivian ethnic groups transplanted to Ecuador as mitimaes.

What percentage of Ecuador's indigenous population are Highland Quichuas?

Where do the Highland Quichuas live?

valleys of the Sierra region

Who are the Highland Quichuas primarily descended from?

Inca

What language do the Highland Quichuas speak?

Kichwa

The Saraguro and Panzaleo are two of the member groups of what population?

Highland Quichuas


Much of El Salvador was home to the Pipil, the Lenca, Xinca, and Kakawira. The Pipil lived in western El Salvador, spoke Nawat, and had many settlements there, most noticeably Cuzcatlan. The Pipil had no precious mineral resources, but they did have rich and fertile land that was good for farming. The Spaniards were disappointed not to find gold or jewels in El Salvador as they had in other lands like Guatemala or Mexico, but upon learning of the fertile land in El Salvador, they attempted to conquer it. Noted Meso-American indigenous warriors to rise militarily against the Spanish included Princes Atonal and Atlacatl of the Pipil people in central El Salvador and Princess Antu Silan Ulap of the Lenca people in eastern El Salvador, who saw the Spanish not as gods but as barbaric invaders. After fierce battles, the Pipil successfully fought off the Spanish army led by Pedro de Alvarado along with their Mexican Indian allies (the Tlaxcalas), sending them back to Guatemala. After many other attacks with an army reinforced with Guatemalan Indian allies, the Spanish were able to conquer Cuzcatlan. After further attacks, the Spanish also conquered the Lenca people. Eventually, the Spaniards intermarried with Pipil and Lenca women, resulting in the Mestizo population which would become the majority of the Salvadoran people. Today many Pipil and other indigenous populations live in the many small towns of El Salvador like Izalco, Panchimalco, Sacacoyo, and Nahuizalco.

El Salvador was home to which indigenous peoples?

the Pipil, the Lenca, Xinca, and Kakawira

What was a major Pipil settlement in western El Salvador?

Cuzcatlan

What was the language of the Pipil?

Nawat

What did the Princes and Princesses see the Spanish as?

barbaric invaders

What people resulted from the Spaniards intermarrying with Pipll and Lenca women?

Mestizo


About five percent of the population are of full-blooded indigenous descent, but upwards to eighty percent more or the majority of Hondurans are mestizo or part-indigenous with European admixture, and about ten percent are of indigenous or African descent. The main concentration of indigenous in Honduras are in the rural westernmost areas facing Guatemala and to the Caribbean Sea coastline, as well on the Nicaraguan border. The majority of indigenous people are Lencas, Miskitos to the east, Mayans, Pech, Sumos, and Tolupan.

How much of the population of Honduras is of full-blooded indigenous descent?

About five percent

What percentage of Hondurans have African blood mixed in with the rest of their ancestry?

about ten percent

Where are the main concentrations of indigenous people in Honduras?

rural westernmost areas

The Lencas, Miskitos, Mayans Pech, Sumos and Tolupan comprise the majority of what in Honduras?

indigenous people


The territory of modern-day Mexico was home to numerous indigenous civilizations prior to the arrival of the Spanish conquistadores: The Olmecs, who flourished from between 1200 BCE to about 400 BCE in the coastal regions of the Gulf of Mexico; the Zapotecs and the Mixtecs, who held sway in the mountains of Oaxaca and the Isthmus of Tehuantepec; the Maya in the Yucatan (and into neighbouring areas of contemporary Central America); the Purépecha in present-day Michoacán and surrounding areas, and the Aztecs/Mexica, who, from their central capital at Tenochtitlan, dominated much of the centre and south of the country (and the non-Aztec inhabitants of those areas) when Hernán Cortés first landed at Veracruz.

What was Mexico home to prior to the arrival of the Spaniards?

indigenous civilizations

When did the Olmecs flourish?

from between 1200 BCE to about 400 BCE

Who held sway in the mountains of Oaxaca?

the Zapotecs and the Mixtecs

Who lived in the Yucatan?

the Maya

Where was the Aztec's central capital located?

Tenochtitlan


The "General Law of Linguistic Rights of the Indigenous Peoples" grants all indigenous languages spoken in Mexico, regardless of the number of speakers, the same validity as Spanish in all territories in which they are spoken, and indigenous peoples are entitled to request some public services and documents in their native languages. Along with Spanish, the law has granted them — more than 60 languages — the status of "national languages". The law includes all indigenous languages of the Americas regardless of origin; that is, it includes the indigenous languages of ethnic groups non-native to the territory. As such the National Commission for the Development of Indigenous Peoples recognizes the language of the Kickapoo, who immigrated from the United States, and recognizes the languages of the Guatemalan indigenous refugees. The Mexican government has promoted and established bilingual primary and secondary education in some indigenous rural communities. Nonetheless, of the indigenous peoples in Mexico, only about 67% of them (or 5.4% of the country's population) speak an indigenous language and about a sixth do not speak Spanish (1.2% of the country's population).

What grants all indigenous languages spoken in Mexico validity?

General Law of Linguistic Rights of the Indigenous Peoples

What are indigenous peoples entitled to request?

some public services and documents in their native languages

How many languages have been giving the status of "national languages"?

more than 60

What has the Mexican government promoted in some indigenous rural communities?

bilingual primary and secondary education

How many of the indigenous peoples in Mexico speak an indigenous language?

about 67% of them


About 5% of the Nicaraguan population are indigenous. The largest indigenous group in Nicaragua is the Miskito people. Their territory extended from Cape Camarón, Honduras, to Rio Grande, Nicaragua along the Mosquito Coast. There is a native Miskito language, but large groups speak Miskito Coast Creole, Spanish, Rama and other languages. The Creole English came about through frequent contact with the British who colonized the area. Many are Christians. Traditional Miskito society was highly structured with a defined political structure. There was a king, but he did not have total power. Instead, the power was split between himself, a governor, a general, and by the 1750s, an admiral. Historical information on kings is often obscured by the fact that many of the kings were semi-mythical. Another major group is the Mayangna (or Sumu) people, counting some 10,000 people.

What percentage of the Nicaraguan population are indigenous?

About 5%

What is the largest indigenous group in Nicaragua?

Miskito

How did Creole English come about?

frequent contact with the British

What didn't the king have in Miskito society?

total power

How many Mayanga people are in Nicaragua?

some 10,000


Indigenous population in Peru make up around 45%. Native Peruvian traditions and customs have shaped the way Peruvians live and see themselves today. Cultural citizenship—or what Renato Rosaldo has called, "the right to be different and to belong, in a democratic, participatory sense" (1996:243)—is not yet very well developed in Peru. This is perhaps no more apparent than in the country's Amazonian regions where indigenous societies continue to struggle against state-sponsored economic abuses, cultural discrimination, and pervasive violence.

What percentage of Peru's population is indigenous?

What has shaped the way Peruvians live and see themselves today?

Native Peruvian traditions

What is not very well developed in Peru?

Cultural citizenship

What regions suffer from state-sponsored abuse and violence?

Amazonian


Indigenous peoples in what is now the contiguous United States, including their descendants, are commonly called "American Indians", or simply "Indians" domestically, or "Native Americans" by the USCB. In Alaska, indigenous peoples belong to 11 cultures with 11 languages. These include the St. Lawrence Island Yupik, Iñupiat, Athabaskan, Yup'ik, Cup'ik, Unangax, Alutiiq, Eyak, Haida, Tsimshian, and Tlingit, who are collectively called Alaska Natives. Indigenous Polynesian peoples, which include Marshallese, Samoan, Tahitian, and Tongan, are politically considered Pacific Islands American but are geographically and culturally distinct from indigenous peoples of the Americas.

Where are the indigenous peoples referred to as "American Indians"?

the contiguous United States

How many cultures and languages do the indigenous peoples of Alaska have?

Eyak and Tlingit are some of the peoples who are collectively called what?

Alaska Natives

Tahitian and Tongan are two examples of indigenous peoples of what descent?

Polynesian

How are Pacific Islands Americans distinct from the indigenous peoples of the Americas?

geographically and culturally


Native Americans in the United States make up 0.97% to 2% of the population. In the 2010 census, 2.9 million people self-identified as Native American, Native Hawaiian, and Alaska Native alone, and 5.2 million people identified as U.S. Native Americans, either alone or in combination with one or more ethnicity or other races. 1.8 million are recognized as enrolled tribal members.[citation needed] Tribes have established their own criteria for membership, which are often based on blood quantum, lineal descent, or residency. A minority of US Native Americans live in land units called Indian reservations. Some California and Southwestern tribes, such as the Kumeyaay, Cocopa, Pascua Yaqui and Apache span both sides of the US–Mexican border. Haudenosaunee people have the legal right to freely cross the US–Canadian border. Athabascan, Tlingit, Haida, Tsimshian, Iñupiat, Blackfeet, Nakota, Cree, Anishinaabe, Huron, Lenape, Mi'kmaq, Penobscot, and Haudenosaunee, among others live in both Canada and the US.

What amoun of the United States population is compromised of Native Americans?

0.97% to 2%

How many people identified as Native American in the 2010 census?

5.2 million

How many of the self-identified Native Americans are recognized as enrolled tribal members?

1.8 million

Where do a minority of US Native Americans live?

Indian reservations

What tribe has the legal right to freely cross the US-Canadian border?

Haudenosaunee


Most Venezuelans have some indigenous heritage, but the indigenous population make up only around 2% of the total population. They speak around 29 different languages and many more dialects, but some of the ethnic groups are very small and their languages are in danger of becoming extinct in the next decades. The most important indigenous groups are the Ye'kuana, the Wayuu, the Pemon and the Warao. The most advanced native people to have lived in present-day Venezuela is thought to have been the Timoto-cuicas, who mainly lived in the Venezuelan Andes. In total it is estimated that there were between 350 thousand and 500 thousand inhabitants, the most densely populated area being the Andean region (Timoto-cuicas), thanks to the advanced agricultural techniques used.

What do most Venezuelans have?

some indigenous heritage

How many different languages does the 2% of truly indigenous Venezuelans speak?

around 29

Why are the languages of the indigenous peoples of Venezuela in danger of becoming extinct?

groups are very small

Who were the most advanced native people to have lived in what is present-day Venezuela?

Timoto-cuicas

What made the Timoto-cuicas so advanced?

agricultural techniques used


The Native American name controversy is an ongoing dispute over the acceptable ways to refer to the indigenous peoples of the Americas and to broad subsets thereof, such as those living in a specific country or sharing certain cultural attributes. When discussing broader subsets of peoples, naming may be based on shared language, region, or historical relationship. Many English exonyms have been used to refer to the indigenous peoples of the Americas. Some of these names were based on foreign-language terms used by earlier explorers and colonists, while others resulted from the colonists' attempt to translate endonyms from the native language into their own, and yet others were pejorative terms arising out of prejudice and fear, during periods of conflict.

What remains a controversy regarding how to refer to the indigenous peoples of the Americas?

The Native American name

How may subsets of peoples be named?

shared language, region, or historical relationship

Many of what have been used to refer to the indigenous peoples of the Americas?

English exonyms

Who used foreign language terms to give names to indigenous peoples?

earlier explorers and colonists

Why were pejorative terms sometimes used for the native populations?

out of prejudice and fear


However, since the 20th century, indigenous peoples in the Americas have been more vocal about the ways they wish to be referred to, pressing for the elimination of terms widely considered to be obsolete, inaccurate, or racist. During the latter half of the 20th century and the rise of the Indian rights movement, the United States government responded by proposing the use of the term "Native American," to recognize the primacy of indigenous peoples' tenure in the nation, but this term was not fully accepted. Other naming conventions have been proposed and used, but none are accepted by all indigenous groups.

What have the peoples in the Americas been more vocal about since the 20th century?

the ways they wish to be referred to

What terms do the indigenous people press to eliminate?

obsolete, inaccurate, or racist.

Who initially proposed using the term "Native American" to recognize the primacy of the native population?

United States government

What naming convention is accepted by all indigenous groups?


In recent years, there has been a rise of indigenous movements in the Americas (mainly South America). These are rights-driven groups that organize themselves in order to achieve some sort of self-determination and the preservation of their culture for their peoples. Organizations like the Coordinator of Indigenous Organizations of the Amazon River Basin and the Indian Council of South America are examples of movements that are breaking the barrier of borders in order to obtain rights for Amazonian indigenous populations everywhere. Similar movements for indigenous rights can also be seen in Canada and the United States, with movements like the International Indian Treaty Council and the accession of native Indian group into the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization.

Where has there been a rise of indigenous movements in recent years?

the Americas (mainly South America)

What do the organizing groups hope to obtain for themselves?

preservation of their culture

What is an example of a movement which is working to obtain rights for Amazonian populations everywhere?

Indian Council of South America

Where can similar movements for indigenous rights be seen?

Canada and the United States,