The discovery of new maritime trade routes by Western European states allowed them to avoid the Ottoman trade monopoly. The Portuguese discovery of the Cape of Good Hope in 1488 initiated a series of Ottoman-Portuguese naval wars in the Indian Ocean throughout the 16th century. The Somali Muslim Ajuran Empire, allied with the Ottomans, defied the Portuguese economic monopoly in the Indian Ocean by employing a new coinage which followed the Ottoman pattern, thus proclaiming an attitude of economic independence in regard to the Portuguese.

Avoiding the strength of Ottoman trade was accomplished with the discovery of what?

new maritime trade routes

What did the Portuguese discover in 1488?

the Cape of Good Hope

Where did the Ottoman and Portuguese have Naval wars in the 16th century?

the Indian Ocean

Who did the Ottomans ally with in the Indian Ocean?

The Somali Muslim Ajuran Empire

New coins were a proclamation of independence by the Somali Muslim Ajuran Empire from whom?

the Portuguese


In southern Europe, a Catholic coalition led by Philip II of Spain won a victory over the Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Lepanto (1571). It was a startling, if mostly symbolic, blow to the image of Ottoman invincibility, an image which the victory of the Knights of Malta against the Ottoman invaders in the 1565 Siege of Malta had recently set about eroding. The battle was far more damaging to the Ottoman navy in sapping experienced manpower than the loss of ships, which were rapidly replaced. The Ottoman navy recovered quickly, persuading Venice to sign a peace treaty in 1573, allowing the Ottomans to expand and consolidate their position in North Africa.

Which Spaniard led a battle in 1571?

Philip II

What battle did the Spanish win in 1571?

Battle of Lepanto

What siege occurred in 1565?

Siege of Malta

In what year did Venice sign a peace treaty with the Ottomans?

After signing a peace treaty with Venice, in what region did the Ottoman empire expand?

North Africa


By contrast, the Habsburg frontier had settled somewhat, a stalemate caused by a stiffening of the Habsburg defences. The Long War against Habsburg Austria (1593–1606) created the need for greater numbers of Ottoman infantry equipped with firearms, resulting in a relaxation of recruitment policy. This contributed to problems of indiscipline and outright rebelliousness within the corps, which were never fully solved. Irregular sharpshooters (Sekban) were also recruited, and on demobilization turned to brigandage in the Jelali revolts (1595–1610), which engendered widespread anarchy in Anatolia in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. With the Empire's population reaching 30 million people by 1600, the shortage of land placed further pressure on the government . In spite of these problems, the Ottoman state remained strong, and its army did not collapse or suffer crushing defeats. The only exceptions were campaigns against the Safavid dynasty of Persia, where many of the Ottoman eastern provinces were lost, some permanently. This 1603–1618 war eventually resulted in the Treaty of Nasuh Pasha, which ceded the entire Caucasus, except westernmost Georgia, back into Iranian Safavid possession. Campaigns during this era became increasingly inconclusive, even against weaker states with much smaller forces, such as Poland or Austria.

What was the late 16th century war against Habsburg Austria known as?

The Long War

During what years did the Ottoman war against Habsburg Austria occur?

What were ottoman irregular sharpshooters known as?

Sekban

What was the population of the Ottoman empire at the beginning of the 17th century?

30 million people

A war occurring from 1603 to 1618 resulted in what treaty?

Treaty of Nasuh Pasha


During his brief majority reign, Murad IV (1612–1640) reasserted central authority and recaptured Iraq (1639) from the Safavids. The resulting Treaty of Zuhab of that same year decisively parted the Caucasus and adjacent regions between the two neighbouring empires as it had already been defined in the 1555 Peace of Amasya. The Sultanate of women (1648–1656) was a period in which the mothers of young sultans exercised power on behalf of their sons. The most prominent women of this period were Kösem Sultan and her daughter-in-law Turhan Hatice, whose political rivalry culminated in Kösem's murder in 1651. During the Köprülü Era (1656–1703), effective control of the Empire was exercised by a sequence of Grand Viziers from the Köprülü family. The Köprülü Vizierate saw renewed military success with authority restored in Transylvania, the conquest of Crete completed in 1669, and expansion into Polish southern Ukraine, with the strongholds of Khotyn and Kamianets-Podilskyi and the territory of Podolia ceding to Ottoman control in 1676.

Who recaptured Iraq in 1639?

Murad IV

Who had control over Iraq before it was recaptured in 1639?

the Safavids

When was Kösem murdered?

What years define the Köprülü Era?

What territory was conquered by the Köprülü Vizierate in 1669?

Crete


This period of renewed assertiveness came to a calamitous end in May 1683 when Grand Vizier Kara Mustafa Pasha led a huge army to attempt a second Ottoman siege of Vienna in the Great Turkish War of 1683–1687. The final assault being fatally delayed, the Ottoman forces were swept away by allied Habsburg, German and Polish forces spearheaded by the Polish king Jan III Sobieski at the Battle of Vienna. The alliance of the Holy League pressed home the advantage of the defeat at Vienna, culminating in the Treaty of Karlowitz (26 January 1699), which ended the Great Turkish War. The Ottomans surrendered control of significant territories, many permanently. Mustafa II (1695–1703) led the counterattack of 1695–96 against the Habsburgs in Hungary, but was undone at the disastrous defeat at Zenta (in modern Serbia), 11 September 1697.

Which Grand Vizier attempted a siege of Vienna in 1683?

Grand Vizier Kara Mustafa Pasha

What was the war that took place from 1683 to 1687 known as?

the Great Turkish War

Which polish king led the fight against the Ottoman empire in the Battle of Vienna?

Jan III Sobieski

What was the alliance against the late 17th century Ottoman empire known as?

the Holy League

What treaty was signed 26 January 1699?

Treaty of Karlowitz


After the Austro-Turkish War of 1716–1718 the Treaty of Passarowitz confirmed the loss of the Banat, Serbia and "Little Walachia" (Oltenia) to Austria. The Treaty also revealed that the Ottoman Empire was on the defensive and unlikely to present any further aggression in Europe. The Austro-Russian–Turkish War, which was ended by the Treaty of Belgrade in 1739, resulted in the recovery of Serbia and Oltenia, but the Empire lost the port of Azov, north of the Crimean Peninsula, to the Russians. After this treaty the Ottoman Empire was able to enjoy a generation of peace, as Austria and Russia were forced to deal with the rise of Prussia.

Oltenia is also known as what?

Little Walachia

The Austro-Turkish war took place over what years?

The Austro Turkish War culminated in the signing of what treaty?

Treaty of Passarowitz

The Treaty of Belgrade was the result of a war known as what?

Austro-Russian–Turkish War

What port was lost by the Ottoman empire as a result of the Treaty of Belgrade?

port of Azov


Educational and technological reforms came about, including the establishment of higher education institutions such as the Istanbul Technical University. In 1734 an artillery school was established to impart Western-style artillery methods, but the Islamic clergy successfully objected under the grounds of theodicy. In 1754 the artillery school was reopened on a semi-secret basis. In 1726, Ibrahim Muteferrika convinced the Grand Vizier Nevşehirli Damat İbrahim Pasha, the Grand Mufti, and the clergy on the efficiency of the printing press, and Muteferrika was later granted by Sultan Ahmed III permission to publish non-religious books (despite opposition from some calligraphers and religious leaders). Muteferrika's press published its first book in 1729 and, by 1743, issued 17 works in 23 volumes, each having between 500 and 1,000 copies.

What is one university that was formed in the early 18th century of the empire?

Istanbul Technical University

What type of school was established in the empire in 1734?

an artillery school

In 1754 what man convinced the Grand Vizier to allow the use of the printing press?

Ibrahim Muteferrika

Who was the Ottoaman Grand Vizier in 1726?

Nevşehirli Damat İbrahim Pasha

In what year did an Ottoman press produce its first book?


In 1768 Russian-backed Ukrainian Haidamaks, pursuing Polish confederates, entered Balta, an Ottoman-controlled town on the border of Bessarabia in Ukraine, and massacred its citizens and burned the town to the ground. This action provoked the Ottoman Empire into the Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774. The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca of 1774 ended the war and provided freedom to worship for the Christian citizens of the Ottoman-controlled provinces of Wallachia and Moldavia. By the late 18th century, a number of defeats in several wars with Russia led some people in the Ottoman Empire to conclude that the reforms of Peter the Great had given the Russians an edge, and the Ottomans would have to keep up with Western technology in order to avoid further defeats.

Which group supported by Russia entered Balta in 1768?

Ukrainian Haidamaks

Near what region was Balta bording?

Bessarabia

During what years was the Russo-Turkish war?

The Russo-Turkish War resulted in what treaty?

Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca

The culmination of the Russo-Turkish war granted what to the citizens of Ottoman controlled Provinces in Moldavia?

freedom to worship


The Serbian revolution (1804–1815) marked the beginning of an era of national awakening in the Balkans during the Eastern Question. Suzerainty of Serbia as a hereditary monarchy under its own dynasty was acknowledged de jure in 1830. In 1821, the Greeks declared war on the Sultan. A rebellion that originated in Moldavia as a diversion was followed by the main revolution in the Peloponnese, which, along with the northern part of the Gulf of Corinth, became the first parts of the Ottoman Empire to achieve independence (in 1829). By the mid-19th century, the Ottoman Empire was called the "sick man" by Europeans. The suzerain states – the Principality of Serbia, Wallachia, Moldavia and Montenegro – moved towards de jure independence during the 1860s and 1870s.

During what years did the Serbian Revolution occur?

What Serbian monarchy was acknowledged in 1830?

Suzerainty of Serbia

There was a war proclaimed against the Ottoman Sultan in 1821, who declared it?

the Greeks

Some parts of the Ottoman Empire gained independence in what year?

What did Europeans refer to the Ottoman empire as in the 19th century?

the "sick man"


The Christian population of the empire, owing to their higher educational levels, started to pull ahead of the Muslim majority, leading to much resentment on the part of the latter. In 1861, there were 571 primary and 94 secondary schools for Ottoman Christians with 140,000 pupils in total, a figure that vastly exceeded the number of Muslim children in school at the same time, who were further hindered by the amount of time spent learning Arabic and Islamic theology. In turn, the higher educational levels of the Christians allowed them to play a large role in the economy. In 1911, of the 654 wholesale companies in Istanbul, 528 were owned by ethnic Greeks. Of course, it would be a mistake to ignore the geopolitical dimensions of this dynamic. The preponderance of Christian merchants owed not to any innate business sense on their part, although plenty of European observers were keen on making this point. In fact, in many cases, Christians and also Jews were able to gain protection from European consuls and citizenship, meaning they were protected from Ottoman law and not subject to the same economic regulations as their Muslim comrades.

How many primary schools existed for Christians in the Ottoman empire in 1861?

How many Christian pupils were in ottoman schools in 1861?

Greeks in Istanbul owned how many wholesale companies in 1911?

Jews and Christians were offered protection in the form of what assistance by Europe?

consuls and citizenship

There were how many wholesale companies in Istanbul in 1911?


The Crimean War (1853–1856) was part of a long-running contest between the major European powers for influence over territories of the declining Ottoman Empire. The financial burden of the war led the Ottoman state to issue foreign loans amounting to 5 million pounds sterling on 4 August 1854. The war caused an exodus of the Crimean Tatars, about 200,000 of whom moved to the Ottoman Empire in continuing waves of emigration. Toward the end of the Caucasian Wars, 90% of the Circassians were ethnically cleansed and exiled from their homelands in the Caucasus and fled to the Ottoman Empire, resulting in the settlement of 500,000 to 700,000 Circassians in Turkey.[page needed] Some Circassian organisations give much higher numbers, totaling 1–1.5 million deported or killed.

During what years did the Crimean War take place?

On what date did the Ottoman empire issue foreign loans to deal with the cost of the war?

4 August 1854

Roughly 200,000 individuals of what group left Crimea during the war?

Crimean Tatars

Roughly 90% of what group were pushed from their homes or ethnically cleansed during the Caucasian Wars?

Circassians

Where did Circassians settle to when leaving their homes in the Caucasus?

Turkey


As the Ottoman state attempted to modernize its infrastructure and army in response to threats from the outside, it also opened itself up to a different kind of threat: that of creditors. Indeed, as the historian Eugene Rogan has written, "the single greatest threat to the independence of the Middle East" in the nineteenth century "was not the armies of Europe but its banks." The Ottoman state, which had begun taking on debt with the Crimean War, was forced to declare bankruptcy in 1875. By 1881, the Ottoman Empire agreed to have its debt controlled by an institution known as the Ottoman Public Debt Administration, a council of European men with presidency alternating between France and Britain. The body controlled swaths of the Ottoman economy, and used its position to insure that European capital continued to penetrate the empire, often to the detriment of local Ottoman interests.

What historian wrote that banks were the single greatest threat to mid-east independence?

Eugene Rogan

In what year did the Ottoman Empire declare bankruptcy?

What was the administration that the empire used to control its debt called?

Ottoman Public Debt Administration

Who served on the debt controlling administration of the Ottoman Empire?

European men with presidency alternating between France and Britain.

European capital in the Ottoman empire resulted in what?

the detriment of local Ottoman interests


The Ottoman bashi-bazouks brutally suppressed the Bulgarian uprising of 1876, massacring up to 100,000 people in the process. The Russo-Turkish War (1877–78) ended with a decisive victory for Russia. As a result, Ottoman holdings in Europe declined sharply; Bulgaria was established as an independent principality inside the Ottoman Empire, Romania achieved full independence. Serbia and Montenegro finally gained complete independence, but with smaller territories. In 1878, Austria-Hungary unilaterally occupied the Ottoman provinces of Bosnia-Herzegovina and Novi Pazar.

Who held back the Bulgarian uprising in 1876?

Ottoman bashi-bazouks

What war occurred from 1877 to 1878?

Russo-Turkish War

Bulgaria became independent within the Empire as the result of what war?

The Russo-Turkish War

What nation attained full independence as a result of the Russo-Turkish war?

Romania


As the Ottoman Empire gradually shrank in size, some 7–9 million Turkish-Muslims from its former territories in the Caucasus, Crimea, Balkans, and the Mediterranean islands migrated to Anatolia and Eastern Thrace. After the Empire lost the Balkan Wars (1912–13), it lost all its Balkan territories except East Thrace (European Turkey). This resulted in around 400,000 Muslims fleeing with the retreating Ottoman armies (with many dying from cholera brought by the soldiers), and with some 400,000 non-Muslims fleeing territory still under Ottoman rule. Justin McCarthy estimates that during the period 1821 to 1922 several million Muslims died in the Balkans, with the expulsion of a similar number.

Millions of Muslims left the empire and migrated to what places?

Anatolia and Eastern Thrace

When did the Balkan Wars take place?

What was the sole territory that the empire kept in the Balkans after 1913?

East Thrace (European Turkey)

How many Muslims fled the Balkans with the Ottoman armies?

Which individual estimated millions of Muslim deaths in the Balkans in the late 19th and early 20th century?

Justin McCarthy


The defeat and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire (1908–1922) began with the Second Constitutional Era, a moment of hope and promise established with the Young Turk Revolution. It restored the Ottoman constitution of 1876 and brought in multi-party politics with a two-stage electoral system (electoral law) under the Ottoman parliament. The constitution offered hope by freeing the empire’s citizens to modernize the state’s institutions, rejuvenate its strength, and enable it to hold its own against outside powers. Its guarantee of liberties promised to dissolve inter-communal tensions and transform the empire into a more harmonious place. Instead, this period became the story of the twilight struggle of the Empire. Young Turks movement members once underground (named committee, group, etc.) established (declared) their parties. Among them “Committee of Union and Progress,” and “Freedom and Accord Party” were major parties. On the other end of the spectrum were ethnic parties which included; Poale Zion, Al-Fatat, and Armenian national movement organized under Armenian Revolutionary Federation. Profiting from the civil strife, Austria-Hungary officially annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908. The last of Ottoman censuses was performed with the 1914 census. Ottoman military reforms resulted with the Ottoman Modern Army which engaged with Italo-Turkish War (1911), Balkan Wars (1912–1913), and continuous unrest (Counter coup followed by restoration and Saviors followed by Raid on Porte) in the Empire up to World War I.

What era kicked off the end of the Ottoman empire?

Second Constitutional Era

What was the revolution that sparked the end of the Ottoman Empire?

the Young Turk Revolution

The restoration of what happened in 1876?

the Ottoman constitution

What were two major parties established by Young Turk members?

Committee of Union and Progress,” and “Freedom and Accord Party”

What territories were annexed by Austria-Hungary in 1908?

Bosnia and Herzegovina


The history of the Ottoman Empire during World War I began with the Ottoman engagement in the Middle Eastern theatre. There were several important Ottoman victories in the early years of the war, such as the Battle of Gallipoli and the Siege of Kut. The Arab Revolt which began in 1916 turned the tide against the Ottomans on the Middle Eastern front, where they initially seemed to have the upper hand during the first two years of the war. The Armistice of Mudros was signed on 30 October 1918, and set the partition of the Ottoman Empire under the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres. This treaty, as designed in the conference of London, allowed the Sultan to retain his position and title. The occupation of Constantinople and İzmir led to the establishment of a Turkish national movement, which won the Turkish War of Independence (1919–22) under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal (later given the surname "Atatürk"). The sultanate was abolished on 1 November 1922, and the last sultan, Mehmed VI (reigned 1918–22), left the country on 17 November 1922. The caliphate was abolished on 3 March 1924.

Where did the Ottoman empire begin its part in the first world war?

Middle Eastern theatre

The Battle of Gallipoli and the Siege of Kut resulted in what?

Ottoman victories

The Arab Revolt began in what year?

What was the date that the Armistice of Mudros came to be signed?

30 October 1918

When did the Turkish War of Independence take place?


In 1915, as the Russian Caucasus Army continued to advance into eastern Anatolia, the Ottoman government started the deportation of its ethnic Armenian population, resulting in the death of approximately 1.5 million Armenians in what became known as the Armenian Genocide. The genocide was carried out during and after World War I and implemented in two phases: the wholesale killing of the able-bodied male population through massacre and subjection of army conscripts to forced labour, followed by the deportation of women, children, the elderly and infirm on death marches leading to the Syrian desert. Driven forward by military escorts, the deportees were deprived of food and water and subjected to periodic robbery, rape, and systematic massacre. Large-scale massacres were also committed against the Empire's Greek and Assyrian minorities as part of the same campaign of ethnic cleansing.

When did the Russian Caucasus Army advance into eastern Anatolia?

In 1915

What ethnic group was deported by the Ottoman Government from eastern Anatolia?

ethnic Armenian

How many ethnic Armenians are believed to have died in the Armenian Genocide?

1.5 million

Armenian women and children were deported on death marches through what desert?

the Syrian desert

Two other ethnic minorities were massacred during Ottoman ethnic cleansing, what were they?

Greek and Assyrian minorities


Before the reforms of the 19th and 20th centuries, the state organisation of the Ottoman Empire was a simple system that had two main dimensions, which were the military administration and the civil administration. The Sultan was the highest position in the system. The civil system was based on local administrative units based on the region's characteristics. The Ottomans practiced a system in which the state (as in the Byzantine Empire) had control over the clergy. Certain pre-Islamic Turkish traditions that had survived the adoption of administrative and legal practices from Islamic Iran remained important in Ottoman administrative circles. According to Ottoman understanding, the state's primary responsibility was to defend and extend the land of the Muslims and to ensure security and harmony within its borders within the overarching context of orthodox Islamic practice and dynastic sovereignty.

What was the highest ranked person in the Ottoman Empire until the 19th century?

Sultan was the highest position

On type of system were the civil administrations of the empire based on?

local administrative units based on the region's characteristics

Who had control over the clergy in the Ottoman empire?

the state

What was the main responsibility of the Ottoman state as it relates to lands?

to defend and extend the land of the Muslims

What type of practice guided the Ottoman state in its responsibilities?

orthodox Islamic practice


The Ottoman Empire or, as a dynastic institution, the House of Osman was unprecedented and unequaled in the Islamic world for its size and duration. In Europe, only the House of Habsburg had a similarly unbroken line of sovereigns (kings/emperors) from the same family who ruled for so long, and during the same period, between the late 13th and early 20th centuries. The Ottoman dynasty was Turkish in origin. On eleven occasions, the sultan was deposed (replaced by another sultan of the Ottoman dynasty, who were either the former sultan's brother, son or nephew) because he was perceived by his enemies as a threat to the state. There were only two attempts in Ottoman history to unseat the ruling Ottoman dynasty, both failures, which suggests a political system that for an extended period was able to manage its revolutions without unnecessary instability. As such, the last Ottoman sultan Mehmed VI (r. 1918–1922) was a direct patrilineal (male-line) descendant of the first Ottoman sultan Osman I (r. 1299–1326), which was unparallelled in both Europe (e.g. the male line of the House of Habsburg became extinct in 1740) and in the Islamic world. The primary purpose of the Imperial Harem was to ensure the birth of male heirs to the Ottoman throne and secure the continuation of the direct patrilineal (male-line) descendance of the Ottoman sultans.

What was another name for the Ottoman Empire?

House of Osman

What was the other longest ruling House in Europe known as?

House of Habsburg

From what origin did the Ottoman empire come to be?

Turkish

How many times was the the sitting sultan in the House of Osman removed?

eleven occasions

When was the reign of sultan Mehmed VI?


The highest position in Islam, caliphate, was claimed by the sultans starting since Murad I, which was established as Ottoman Caliphate. The Ottoman sultan, pâdişâh or "lord of kings", served as the Empire's sole regent and was considered to be the embodiment of its government, though he did not always exercise complete control. The Imperial Harem was one of the most important powers of the Ottoman court. It was ruled by the Valide Sultan. On occasion, the Valide Sultan would become involved in state politics. For a time, the women of the Harem effectively controlled the state in what was termed the "Sultanate of Women". New sultans were always chosen from the sons of the previous sultan. The strong educational system of the palace school was geared towards eliminating the unfit potential heirs, and establishing support among the ruling elite for a successor. The palace schools, which would also educate the future administrators of the state, were not a single track. First, the Madrasa (Ottoman Turkish: Medrese) was designated for the Muslims, and educated scholars and state officials according to Islamic tradition. The financial burden of the Medrese was supported by vakifs, allowing children of poor families to move to higher social levels and income. The second track was a free boarding school for the Christians, the Enderûn, which recruited 3,000 students annually from Christian boys between eight and twenty years old from one in forty families among the communities settled in Rumelia or the Balkans, a process known as Devshirme (Devşirme).

The Ottoman Caliphate claimed by Murad Ir epresented what in Islam?

The highest position

The person with this what title was believed to be the embodiment of the Ottoman government?

pâdişâh or "lord of kings"

What was the importantance of the imperial Harem?

one of the most important powers of the Ottoman court

What was the purpose of the palace educational system?

eliminating the unfit potential heirs, and establishing support among the ruling elite for a successor

What was the name of the boarding school for Christians during the Ottoman Caliphate?

Enderûn


Though the sultan was the supreme monarch, the sultan's political and executive authority was delegated. The politics of the state had a number of advisors and ministers gathered around a council known as Divan (after the 17th century it was renamed the "Porte"). The Divan, in the years when the Ottoman state was still a Beylik, was composed of the elders of the tribe. Its composition was later modified to include military officers and local elites (such as religious and political advisors). Later still, beginning in 1320, a Grand Vizier was appointed to assume certain of the sultan's responsibilities. The Grand Vizier had considerable independence from the sultan with almost unlimited powers of appointment, dismissal and supervision. Beginning with the late 16th century, sultans withdrew from politics and the Grand Vizier became the de facto head of state.

The sultan of the ottoman empire had what honorific?

the supreme monarch

What was the council that handled state politics named?

Divan

What type of people were initially in the Divan?

elders of the tribe

At a later point other groups were admitted into the Divan, what groups?

military officers and local elites

A Grand Vizar began to be appointed in what year?


The Ottoman legal system accepted the religious law over its subjects. At the same time the Qanun (or Kanun), a secular legal system, co-existed with religious law or Sharia. The Ottoman Empire was always organized around a system of local jurisprudence. Legal administration in the Ottoman Empire was part of a larger scheme of balancing central and local authority. Ottoman power revolved crucially around the administration of the rights to land, which gave a space for the local authority to develop the needs of the local millet. The jurisdictional complexity of the Ottoman Empire was aimed to permit the integration of culturally and religiously different groups. The Ottoman system had three court systems: one for Muslims, one for non-Muslims, involving appointed Jews and Christians ruling over their respective religious communities, and the "trade court". The entire system was regulated from above by means of the administrative Qanun, i.e. laws, a system based upon the Turkic Yassa and Töre, which were developed in the pre-Islamic era.[citation needed]

What was the name of the secular legal system under the Ottoman Caliphate?

Qanun (or Kanun)

What was religious law known as?

Sharia

What did the Ottoman Empire attempt to balance in its legal policies?

central and local authority

How many court systems did the Ottoman empire have?

three court systems

What were the laws of the court system based upon?

Turkic Yassa and Töre


These court categories were not, however, wholly exclusive: for instance, the Islamic courts—which were the Empire's primary courts—could also be used to settle a trade conflict or disputes between litigants of differing religions, and Jews and Christians often went to them to obtain a more forceful ruling on an issue. The Ottoman state tended not to interfere with non-Muslim religious law systems, despite legally having a voice to do so through local governors. The Islamic Sharia law system had been developed from a combination of the Qur'an; the Hadīth, or words of the prophet Muhammad; ijmā', or consensus of the members of the Muslim community; qiyas, a system of analogical reasoning from earlier precedents; and local customs. Both systems were taught at the Empire's law schools, which were in Istanbul and Bursa.

What were the primary courts of the empire?

Islamic courts

From what works was Sharia developed?

the Qur'an; the Hadīth

Whose words contributed to the Islamic Sharia law system?

the prophet Muhammad

Where were the empire's law schools?

in Istanbul and Bursa.

What other religious groups went to Islamic courts?

Jews and Christians


The Ottoman Islamic legal system was set up differently from traditional European courts. Presiding over Islamic courts would be a Qadi, or judge. Since the closing of the ijtihad, or Gate of Interpretation, Qadis throughout the Ottoman Empire focused less on legal precedent, and more with local customs and traditions in the areas that they administered. However, the Ottoman court system lacked an appellate structure, leading to jurisdictional case strategies where plaintiffs could take their disputes from one court system to another until they achieved a ruling that was in their favor.

Who was the one that presided over the empire's Islamic Courts?

Qadi

At what juncture did the Qadi focus less on precedent?

closing of the ijtihad, or Gate of Interpretation

What was one thing the Ottoman legal system lacked?

an appellate structure

What did Qadis focus on in some areas?

local customs and traditions

What is another word for Qadi?

judge


These reforms were based heavily on French models, as indicated by the adoption of a three-tiered court system. Referred to as Nizamiye, this system was extended to the local magistrate level with the final promulgation of the Mecelle, a civil code that regulated marriage, divorce, alimony, will, and other matters of personal status. In an attempt to clarify the division of judicial competences, an administrative council laid down that religious matters were to be handled by religious courts, and statute matters were to be handled by the Nizamiye courts.

Reforms in the Ottoman court system were based on what model?

French models

How many tiers did the Ottoman court system adopt?

three

What was the new Ottoman court system known as?

Nizamiye

What code regulated marriage?

the Mecelle


The first military unit of the Ottoman State was an army that was organized by Osman I from the tribesmen inhabiting the hills of western Anatolia in the late 13th century. The military system became an intricate organization with the advance of the Empire. The Ottoman military was a complex system of recruiting and fief-holding. The main corps of the Ottoman Army included Janissary, Sipahi, Akıncı and Mehterân. The Ottoman army was once among the most advanced fighting forces in the world, being one of the first to use muskets and cannons. The Ottoman Turks began using falconets, which were short but wide cannons, during the Siege of Constantinople. The Ottoman cavalry depended on high speed and mobility rather than heavy armour, using bows and short swords on fast Turkoman and Arabian horses (progenitors of the Thoroughbred racing horse), and often applied tactics similar to those of the Mongol Empire, such as pretending to retreat while surrounding the enemy forces inside a crescent-shaped formation and then making the real attack. The decline in the army's performance became clear from the mid-17th century and after the Great Turkish War. The 18th century saw some limited success against Venice, but in the north the European-style Russian armies forced the Ottomans to concede land.

In what century did the first Osman I organized military unit form?

13th century

From where did tribesmen that formed a unit organized by Osman I originate?

the hills of western Anatolia

There were four corps of the Ottoman Army, what were they?

Janissary, Sipahi, Akıncı and Mehterân

The Ottoman army was among the first to use what two pieces of weapons technology?

muskets and cannons

In what conflict did the Ottoman Turks use falconets?

Siege of Constantinople


The Ottoman Navy vastly contributed to the expansion of the Empire's territories on the European continent. It initiated the conquest of North Africa, with the addition of Algeria and Egypt to the Ottoman Empire in 1517. Starting with the loss of Greece in 1821 and Algeria in 1830, Ottoman naval power and control over the Empire's distant overseas territories began to decline. Sultan Abdülaziz (reigned 1861–1876) attempted to reestablish a strong Ottoman navy, building the largest fleet after those of Britain and France. The shipyard at Barrow, England, built its first submarine in 1886 for the Ottoman Empire.

On what continent did the Ottoman Navy contribute most?

European continent

What region did the Ottoman Navy conquer in the early 16th century?

North Africa

Egypt was added to the Ottoman Empire in what year?

In what year did the Ottoman empire lose Greece?

The Ottoman empire lost what territory in 1830?

Algeria


However, the collapsing Ottoman economy could not sustain the fleet's strength for too long. Sultan Abdülhamid II distrusted the admirals who sided with the reformist Midhat Pasha, and claimed that the large and expensive fleet was of no use against the Russians during the Russo-Turkish War. He locked most of the fleet inside the Golden Horn, where the ships decayed for the next 30 years. Following the Young Turk Revolution in 1908, the Committee of Union and Progress sought to develop a strong Ottoman naval force. The Ottoman Navy Foundation was established in 1910 to buy new ships through public donations.

Which sultan distrusted his admirals during the Russo-Turkish war?

Sultan Abdülhamid II

Who was the reformist that had the backing of Ottoman admirals during the Russo-Turkish war?

Midhat Pasha

Where was the Ottoman fleet left to decay?

the Golden Horn

When was the Young Turk Revolution?

What Ottoman group wanted to form a stronger navy in the early 20th century?

the Committee of Union and Progress


The establishment of Ottoman military aviation dates back to between June 1909 and July 1911. The Ottoman Empire started preparing its first pilots and planes, and with the founding of the Aviation School (Tayyare Mektebi) in Yeşilköy on 3 July 1912, the Empire began to tutor its own flight officers. The founding of the Aviation School quickened advancement in the military aviation program, increased the number of enlisted persons within it, and gave the new pilots an active role in the Ottoman Army and Navy. In May 1913 the world's first specialized Reconnaissance Training Program was started by the Aviation School and the first separate reconnaissance division was established.[citation needed] In June 1914 a new military academy, the Naval Aviation School (Bahriye Tayyare Mektebi) was founded. With the outbreak of World War I, the modernization process stopped abruptly. The Ottoman aviation squadrons fought on many fronts during World War I, from Galicia in the west to the Caucasus in the east and Yemen in the south.

What was the first date that the Ottoman empire had an air-based military unit?

June 1909

Where was the first Ottoman Aviation school?

Yeşilköy

On what date was the Aviation School founded?

3 July 1912

What happened at the aviation school in May 1913?

the world's first specialized Reconnaissance Training Program was started

What new military academy was formed in June 1914?

the Naval Aviation School (Bahriye Tayyare Mektebi)


Ottoman government deliberately pursued a policy for the development of Bursa, Edirne, and Istanbul, successive Ottoman capitals, into major commercial and industrial centres, considering that merchants and artisans were indispensable in creating a new metropolis. To this end, Mehmed and his successor Bayezid, also encouraged and welcomed migration of the Jews from different parts of Europe, who were settled in Istanbul and other port cities like Salonica. In many places in Europe, Jews were suffering persecution at the hands of their Christian counterparts, such as in Spain after the conclusion of Reconquista. The tolerance displayed by the Turks was welcomed by the immigrants.

The goal of developing Bursa and Istanbul was an intentional act to create what?

commercial and industrial centres

Who was Mehmed's successor?

Bayezid

Who did Mehmed and Bayezid encourage to come to Istanbul?

the Jews from different parts of Europe

What group were Jews being persecuted by in Europe?

their Christian counterparts

Persecution of Jews in Spain occurred after what event concluded?

the conclusion of Reconquista


The Ottoman economic mind was closely related to the basic concepts of state and society in the Middle East in which the ultimate goal of a state was consolidation and extension of the ruler's power, and the way to reach it was to get rich resources of revenues by making the productive classes prosperous. The ultimate aim was to increase the state revenues without damaging the prosperity of subjects to prevent the emergence of social disorder and to keep the traditional organization of the society intact.

The economic goal of the state was to serve as what for the ruler?

consolidation and extension of the ruler's power

In what regions concepts was the Ottoman economic system based on?

the Middle East

What was a way to reach the economic goals of the Ottoman economic system?

making the productive classes prosperous

What was the final goal of the state economic system?

to increase the state revenues without damaging the prosperity of subjects

What did the state economic system hope to avoid?

the emergence of social disorder


The organization of the treasury and chancery were developed under the Ottoman Empire more than any other Islamic government and, until the 17th century, they were the leading organization among all their contemporaries. This organization developed a scribal bureaucracy (known as "men of the pen") as a distinct group, partly highly trained ulama, which developed into a professional body. The effectiveness of this professional financial body stands behind the success of many great Ottoman statesmen.

Two of the most developed economic organizations under the Ottoman Empire were what?

the treasury and chancery

What were the scribes of the chancery known as?

men of the pen

Part of the scribal bureaucracy were trained what?

ulama

What did the scribal bureaucracy become?

a professional body

The Ottoman Empire had the most developed economic organizations among Islamic Governments until which century?

the 17th century


The economic structure of the Empire was defined by its geopolitical structure. The Ottoman Empire stood between the West and the East, thus blocking the land route eastward and forcing Spanish and Portuguese navigators to set sail in search of a new route to the Orient. The Empire controlled the spice route that Marco Polo once used. When Vasco da Gama bypassed Ottoman controlled routes and established direct trade links with India in 1498, and Christopher Columbus first journeyed to the Bahamas in 1492, the Ottoman Empire was at its zenith.

What serviced as the foundation for the structure of the economy of the Ottoman empire?

its geopolitical structure

The Ottoman Empire caused navigators from which two nations to find another route to the Orient?

Spanish and Portuguese

Who once used the spice route that the Ottoman Empire controlled?

Marco Polo

When were direct trade links established with India?

When did Christopher Columbus sail to the Bahamas?


Modern Ottoman studies think that the change in relations between the Ottoman Turks and central Europe was caused by the opening of the new sea routes. It is possible to see the decline in the significance of the land routes to the East as Western Europe opened the ocean routes that bypassed the Middle East and Mediterranean as parallel to the decline of the Ottoman Empire itself. The Anglo-Ottoman Treaty, also known as the Treaty of Balta Liman that opened the Ottoman markets directly to English and French competitors, would be seen as one of the staging posts along this development.

What is believed to have caused the opening of new sea routes during the Ottoman Empire?

change in relations between the Ottoman Turks and central Europe

The formation of sea routes bypassing the Middle East may have led to the decline of what?

the Ottoman Empire itself

What is another name for the Treaty of Balta Liman?

The Anglo-Ottoman Treaty

What did the Treaty of Balta Liman do for Ottoman markets?

opened the Ottoman markets directly to English and French competitors

In what direction did land routes lose their importance?

East


By developing commercial centres and routes, encouraging people to extend the area of cultivated land in the country and international trade through its dominions, the state performed basic economic functions in the Empire. But in all this the financial and political interests of the state were dominant. Within the social and political system they were living in Ottoman administrators could not have comprehended or seen the desirability of the dynamics and principles of the capitalist and mercantile economies developing in Western Europe.

The development of what caused people to expand areas of cultivation in the Ottoman Empire?

commercial centres and routes

What dominated all economic and political interests?

interests of the state

What were the types of economies that were being developed in western Europe?

capitalist and mercantile economies

The expansion of international trade through the Empire was the result of what?

developing commercial centres and routes


The rise of port cities saw the clustering of populations caused by the development of steamships and railroads. Urbanization increased from 1700 to 1922, with towns and cities growing. Improvements in health and sanitation made them more attractive to live and work in. Port cities like Salonica, in Greece, saw its population rise from 55,000 in 1800 to 160,000 in 1912 and İzmir which had a population of 150,000 in 1800 grew to 300,000 by 1914. Some regions conversely had population falls – Belgrade saw its population drop from 25,000 to 8,000 mainly due to political strife.

The rise of ports caused what in populations?

the clustering of populations

Steamships and railroads rose with what else?

The rise of port cities

In what year did urbanization in the Ottoman empire begin to increase?

What were two improvements that made cities more desirable to live in?

Improvements in health and sanitation

What was the population of Salonica in 1800?


Economic and political migrations made an impact across the empire. For example, the Russian and Austria-Habsburg annexation of the Crimean and Balkan regions respectively saw large influxes of Muslim refugees – 200,000 Crimean Tartars fleeing to Dobruja. Between 1783 and 1913, approximately 5–7 million refugees flooded into the Ottoman Empire, at least 3.8 million of whom were from Russia. Some migrations left indelible marks such as political tension between parts of the empire (e.g. Turkey and Bulgaria) whereas centrifugal effects were noticed in other territories, simpler demographics emerging from diverse populations. Economies were also impacted with the loss of artisans, merchants, manufacturers and agriculturists. Since the 19th century, a large proportion of Muslim peoples from the Balkans emigrated to present-day Turkey. These people are called Muhacir. By the time the Ottoman Empire came to an end in 1922, half of the urban population of Turkey was descended from Muslim refugees from Russia.

The annexation of what two regions resulted in large groups of Muslim refugees coming into the empire?

the Crimean and Balkan regions

Muslims representing 200,000 of what group fled to Dobruja?

Crimean Tartars

How many refugees fled Russia to the Ottoman Empire from 1783 to 1913?

3.8 million

What are the people from the Balkans who emigrated to Turkey called?

Muhacir

In what year did the Ottoman Empire end?


Ottoman Turkish was the official language of the Empire. It was an Oghuz Turkic language highly influenced by Persian and Arabic. The Ottomans had several influential languages: Turkish, spoken by the majority of the people in Anatolia and by the majority of Muslims of the Balkans except in Albania and Bosnia; Persian, only spoken by the educated; Arabic, spoken mainly in Arabia, North Africa, Iraq, Kuwait, the Levant and parts of the Horn of Africa; and Somali throughout the Horn of Africa. In the last two centuries, usage of these became limited, though, and specific: Persian served mainly as a literary language for the educated, while Arabic was used for religious rites.

What was the official language of the Ottoman Empire?

Ottoman Turkish

What were the main influences of the official language of the Empire?

Persian and Arabic

What language was spoken by most people in Anatolia?

Turkish

Which languages influenced by the empire was spoken in Iraq?

Arabic

What language was used for religious uses in the Empire?

Arabic


Because of a low literacy rate among the public (about 2–3% until the early 19th century and just about 15% at the end of 19th century),[citation needed] ordinary people had to hire scribes as "special request-writers" (arzuhâlcis) to be able to communicate with the government. The ethnic groups continued to speak within their families and neighborhoods (mahalles) with their own languages (e.g., Jews, Greeks, Armenians, etc.). In villages where two or more populations lived together, the inhabitants would often speak each other's language. In cosmopolitan cities, people often spoke their family languages; many of those who were not ethnic Turks spoke Turkish as a second language.

What was the public's literacy rate in leading up to the early 19th century in the empire?

about 2–3%

At the end of the 19th century what was the literacy rate for the public in the Empire believed to be?

What did people resort to when they needed to communicate with the government?

people had to hire scribes

What were hired scribes known as?

"special request-writers" (arzuhâlcis)

What was the second language of those that weren't ethnically Turkish?

Turkish


Until the second half of the 15th century the empire had a Christian majority, under the rule of a Muslim minority. In the late 19th century, the non-Muslim population of the empire began to fall considerably, not only due to secession, but also because of migratory movements. The proportion of Muslims amounted to 60% in the 1820s, gradually increasing to 69% in the 1870s and then to 76% in the 1890s. By 1914, only 19.1% of the empire's population was non-Muslim, mostly made up of Christian Greeks, Assyrians, Armenians, and Jews.

The Empire had a Christian majority until what time?

the second half of the 15th century

What group ruled the empire until the 15th century?

a Muslim minority

What group began to decline within the Empire in the late 19th century?

the non-Muslim population

Muslims accounted for what amount of the population of the Empire in the 1820s?

In 1914 what portion of the Empire weren't Muslims?


Muslim sects regarded as heretical, such as the Druze, Ismailis, Alevis, and Alawites, ranked below Jews and Christians. In 1514, Sultan Selim I, nicknamed "the Grim" because of his cruelty, ordered the massacre of 40,000 Anatolian Alevis (Qizilbash), whom he considered heretics, reportedly proclaiming that "the killing of one Alevi had as much otherworldly reward as killing 70 Christians."[page needed] Selim was also responsible for an unprecedented and rapid expansion of the Ottoman Empire into the Middle East, especially through his conquest of the entire Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt, which included much of the region. With these conquests, Selim further solidified the Ottoman claim for being an Islamic caliphate, although Ottoman sultans had been claiming the title of caliph since the 14th century starting with Murad I (reigned 1362 to 1389). The caliphate would remain held by Ottoman sultans for the rest of the office's duration, which ended with its abolition on 3 March 1924 by the Grand National Assembly of Turkey and the exile of the last caliph, Abdülmecid II, to France.

The Muslim sect known as the Druze is considered what?

heretical

What was Sultan Selim I's nickname?

the Grim

In what year did Sultan Selim I order the massacre of 40,000 people whom he considered heretics?

What group did Sultan Selim I consider heretics and subsequently slaughter?

Anatolian Alevis (Qizilbash)

Under Sultan Selim I the empire swallowed what sultanate in Egypt?

Mamluk Sultanate


Under the millet system, non-Muslim people were considered subjects of the Empire, but were not subject to the Muslim faith or Muslim law. The Orthodox millet, for instance, was still officially legally subject to Justinian's Code, which had been in effect in the Byzantine Empire for 900 years. Also, as the largest group of non-Muslim subjects (or zimmi) of the Islamic Ottoman state, the Orthodox millet was granted a number of special privileges in the fields of politics and commerce, and had to pay higher taxes than Muslim subjects.

What system deemed non-Muslims subjects of the empire but unbound by Muslim law?

the millet system

What code had been active for 900 years in the Byzantine empire?

Justinian's Code

What were non-Muslims also known as in the Islamic Ottoman State?

zimmi

Being a non-muslim in the Empire resulted in what as it related to taxes?

higher taxes

What millet was subject to Justinian's Code?

The Orthodox millet


The Ottomans absorbed some of the traditions, art and institutions of cultures in the regions they conquered, and added new dimensions to them. Numerous traditions and cultural traits of previous empires (in fields such as architecture, cuisine, music, leisure and government) were adopted by the Ottoman Turks, who elaborated them into new forms, which resulted in a new and distinctively Ottoman cultural identity. Despite newer added amalgamations, the Ottoman dynasty, like their predecessors in the Sultanate of Rum and the Seljuk Empire, were thoroughly Persianised in their culture, language, habits and customs, and therefore, the empire has been described as a Persianate empire. Intercultural marriages also played their part in creating the characteristic Ottoman elite culture. When compared to the Turkish folk culture, the influence of these new cultures in creating the culture of the Ottoman elite was clear.

The Ottoman dynasty was preceded by what sultanate?

Sultanate of Rum

What is one way that the Empire was described as it related to culture?

Persianate empire

When the Ottoman empire conquered a region what also became a part of the empire?

some of the traditions, art and institutions of cultures

The Seljuk Empire was influenced by the cultures of others resulting in it being referred to as what?

Persianised


Ottoman Divan poetry was a highly ritualized and symbolic art form. From the Persian poetry that largely inspired it, it inherited a wealth of symbols whose meanings and interrelationships—both of similitude (مراعات نظير mura'ât-i nazîr / تناسب tenâsüb) and opposition (تضاد tezâd) were more or less prescribed. Divan poetry was composed through the constant juxtaposition of many such images within a strict metrical framework, thus allowing numerous potential meanings to emerge. The vast majority of Divan poetry was lyric in nature: either gazels (which make up the greatest part of the repertoire of the tradition), or kasîdes. There were, however, other common genres, most particularly the mesnevî, a kind of verse romance and thus a variety of narrative poetry; the two most notable examples of this form are the Leyli and Majnun of Fuzûlî and the Hüsn ü Aşk of Şeyh Gâlib.

What type of Ottoman poetry is ritualized?

Divan poetry

What kind of poetry inspired Ottoman Divan Poetry?

Persian poetry

What type of framework was Divan poetry based on?

a strict metrical framework

What was the romance genre of Divan poetry known as?

mesnevî

What make up the largest portion of Divan poetry?

gazels (which make up the greatest part of the repertoire of the tradition), or kasîdes.


Until the 19th century, Ottoman prose did not develop to the extent that contemporary Divan poetry did. A large part of the reason for this was that much prose was expected to adhere to the rules of sec (سجع, also transliterated as seci), or rhymed prose, a type of writing descended from the Arabic saj' and which prescribed that between each adjective and noun in a string of words, such as a sentence, there must be a rhyme. Nevertheless, there was a tradition of prose in the literature of the time, though exclusively non-fictional in nature. One apparent exception was Muhayyelât ("Fancies") by Giritli Ali Aziz Efendi, a collection of stories of the fantastic written in 1796, though not published until 1867. The first novel published in the Ottoman Empire was by an Armenian named Vartan Pasha. Published in 1851, the novel was entitled The Story of Akabi (Turkish: Akabi Hikyayesi) and was written in Turkish but with Armenian script.

Prose in the Ottoman empire did not develop to a higher level until which century?

the 19th century

What rules did Ottoman prose have to follow?

the rules of sec (سجع, also transliterated as seci), or rhymed prose

What did the rules of sec require?

between each adjective and noun in a string of words, such as a sentence, there must be a rhyme

Who wrote Muhayyelât?

Giritli Ali Aziz Efendi

When was Muhayyelât written?


Due to historically close ties with France, French literature came to constitute the major Western influence on Ottoman literature throughout the latter half of the 19th century. As a result, many of the same movements prevalent in France during this period also had their Ottoman equivalents: in the developing Ottoman prose tradition, for instance, the influence of Romanticism can be seen during the Tanzimat period, and that of the Realist and Naturalist movements in subsequent periods; in the poetic tradition, on the other hand, it was the influence of the Symbolist and Parnassian movements that became paramount.

What was the biggest influence from the west on Ottoman literature?

French literature

During what time period was Ottoman literate most influenced by the west?

the latter half of the 19th century

During the Tanzimat what western influence could be seen?

the influence of Romanticism

The poetic tradition had its biggest influence on what Ottoman literary movements?

the Symbolist and Parnassian movements

Romanticism, and Realism were two movements from the west that influenced the Ottoman literary scene, what was the third?

Naturalist


Many of the writers in the Tanzimat period wrote in several different genres simultaneously: for instance, the poet Namik Kemal also wrote the important 1876 novel İntibâh ("Awakening"), while the journalist İbrahim Şinasi is noted for writing, in 1860, the first modern Turkish play, the one-act comedy "Şair Evlenmesi" ("The Poet's Marriage"). An earlier play, a farce entitled "Vakâyi'-i 'Acibe ve Havâdis-i Garibe-yi Kefşger Ahmed" ("The Strange Events and Bizarre Occurrences of the Cobbler Ahmed"), dates from the beginning of the 19th century, but there remains some doubt about its authenticity. In a similar vein, the novelist Ahmed Midhat Efendi wrote important novels in each of the major movements: Romanticism (Hasan Mellâh yâhud Sırr İçinde Esrâr, 1873; "Hasan the Sailor, or The Mystery Within the Mystery"), Realism (Henüz On Yedi Yaşında, 1881; "Just Seventeen Years Old"), and Naturalism (Müşâhedât, 1891; "Observations"). This diversity was, in part, due to the Tanzimat writers' wish to disseminate as much of the new literature as possible, in the hopes that it would contribute to a revitalization of Ottoman social structures.

What 1876 Novel did Namik Kemal write?

İntibâh ("Awakening")

What did İbrahim Şinasi write in 1860?

the one-act comedy "Şair Evlenmesi" ("The Poet's Marriage").

Who wrote Hasan Mellâh yâhud Sırr İçinde Esrâr?

Ahmed Midhat Efendi

What Realist novel did Ahmed Midhat Efendi write in 1881?

Henüz On Yedi Yaşında

What did writers of the Tanzimat period hope to accomplish with their publications?

contribute to a revitalization of Ottoman social structures


Examples of Ottoman architecture of the classical period, besides Istanbul and Edirne, can also be seen in Egypt, Eritrea, Tunisia, Algiers, the Balkans and Romania, where mosques, bridges, fountains and schools were built. The art of Ottoman decoration developed with a multitude of influences due to the wide ethnic range of the Ottoman Empire. The greatest of the court artists enriched the Ottoman Empire with many pluralistic artistic influences: such as mixing traditional Byzantine art with elements of Chinese art.

Ottoman artists mixed Chinese art with the art of what else?

traditional Byzantine art

The ottoman empire built structures in Romania that included Mosques, and Bridges, what else was built?

fountains and schools

Why did the art of the Ottoman empire develop the way it did?

the wide ethnic range of the Ottoman Empire

Beside Edirne, Istanbul, and Egypt what other locations can one find the influence of the Ottoman classical period?

Eritrea, Tunisia, Algiers, the Balkans and Romania


Ottoman illumination covers non-figurative painted or drawn decorative art in books or on sheets in muraqqa or albums, as opposed to the figurative images of the Ottoman miniature. It was a part of the Ottoman Book Arts together with the Ottoman miniature (taswir), calligraphy (hat), Islamic calligraphy, bookbinding (cilt) and paper marbling (ebru). In the Ottoman Empire, illuminated and illustrated manuscripts were commissioned by the Sultan or the administrators of the court. In Topkapi Palace, these manuscripts were created by the artists working in Nakkashane, the atelier of the miniature and illumination artists. Both religious and non-religious books could be illuminated. Also sheets for albums levha consisted of illuminated calligraphy (hat) of tughra, religious texts, verses from poems or proverbs, and purely decorative drawings.

Were would one find the sheets where Ottoman's created illuminated decorations?

muraqqa

What is another name for an Ottoman miniature?

taswir

Ottoman calligraphy can also be referred to as what?

hat

Who commissioned illustrated manuscripts in the Ottoman empire?

the Sultan or the administrators of the court

What palace was the place of creation for illustrated manuscripts?

Topkapi Palace


The art of carpet weaving was particularly significant in the Ottoman Empire, carpets having an immense importance both as decorative furnishings, rich in religious and other symbolism, and as a practical consideration, as it was customary to remove one's shoes in living quarters. The weaving of such carpets originated in the nomadic cultures of central Asia (carpets being an easily transportable form of furnishing), and was eventually spread to the settled societies of Anatolia. Turks used carpets, rugs and kilims not just on the floors of a room, but also as a hanging on walls and doorways, where they provided additional insulation. They were also commonly donated to mosques, which often amassed large collections of them.

Which art was important in religious symbolism and as a decoration in the Ottoman empire?

carpet weaving

What was the custom for those wearing shoes indoors in the Ottoman empire?

it was customary to remove one's shoes

Where did carpet weaving in the Empire originate?

the nomadic cultures of central Asia

Where did carpet weaving initially spread to inside of the Empire?

Anatolia

Kilims were used by Turks to provide insulation where?

walls and doorways


Ottoman classical music was an important part of the education of the Ottoman elite, a number of the Ottoman sultans were accomplished musicians and composers themselves, such as Selim III, whose compositions are often still performed today. Ottoman classical music arose largely from a confluence of Byzantine music, Armenian music, Arabic music, and Persian music. Compositionally, it is organised around rhythmic units called usul, which are somewhat similar to meter in Western music, and melodic units called makam, which bear some resemblance to Western musical modes.

The elites of the Ottoman empire found what type of music important?

Ottoman classical music

Many of the Sultans of the Ottoman empire were accomplished at being what?

musicians and composers

The sultan known by what name has compositions which are still performed today?

Selim III

What rhythmic units does Ottoman classical music use?

units called usul

What are the melodic units used by Ottoman classical music?

makam


The instruments used are a mixture of Anatolian and Central Asian instruments (the saz, the bağlama, the kemence), other Middle Eastern instruments (the ud, the tanbur, the kanun, the ney), and—later in the tradition—Western instruments (the violin and the piano). Because of a geographic and cultural divide between the capital and other areas, two broadly distinct styles of music arose in the Ottoman Empire: Ottoman classical music, and folk music. In the provinces, several different kinds of folk music were created. The most dominant regions with their distinguished musical styles are: Balkan-Thracian Türküs, North-Eastern (Laz) Türküs, Aegean Türküs, Central Anatolian Türküs, Eastern Anatolian Türküs, and Caucasian Türküs. Some of the distinctive styles were: Janissary Music, Roma music, Belly dance, Turkish folk music.

What are the three most used Anatolian and central asian instruments in Ottoman Classical music?

the saz, the bağlama, the kemence

Which Middle Eastern instruments can be heard in Ottoman classical music?

the ud, the tanbur, the kanun, the ney

In late Ottoman classical music one can find Western instruments, what were they?

the violin and the piano

There were two main style of music in the Ottoman empire, what were they?

classical music, and folk music

What were the most distinctive style of music in the Ottoman provinces?

Janissary Music, Roma music, Belly dance, Turkish folk music


Ottoman cuisine refers to the cuisine of the capital, Istanbul, and the regional capital cities, where the melting pot of cultures created a common cuisine that most of the population regardless of ethnicity shared. This diverse cuisine was honed in the Imperial Palace's kitchens by chefs brought from certain parts of the Empire to create and experiment with different ingredients. The creations of the Ottoman Palace's kitchens filtered to the population, for instance through Ramadan events, and through the cooking at the Yalıs of the Pashas, and from there on spread to the rest of the population.

The cuisine known as Ottoman cuisine is in reference to the food eaten where?

the capital, Istanbul, and the regional capital cities

In what kitchen's was Ottoman cuisine perfected?

the Imperial Palace's kitchens

What is one type of religious event that the general public may come to experience the creations of the Imperial Palace?

Ramadan

Preparing food at the Yalıs of the Pashas was one way Ottoman Cuisine might spread to whom?

the population

What did the chefs ingredients in the Imperial Palace's kitchens?

create and experiment


Much of the cuisine of former Ottoman territories today is descended from a shared Ottoman cuisine, especially Turkish cuisine, and including Greek cuisine, Balkan cuisine, Armenian cuisine, and Middle Eastern cuisine. Many common dishes in the region, descendants of the once-common Ottoman cuisine, include yogurt, döner kebab/gyro/shawarma, cacık/tzatziki, ayran, pita bread, feta cheese, baklava, lahmacun, moussaka, yuvarlak, köfte/keftés/kofta, börek/boureki, rakı/rakia/tsipouro/tsikoudia, meze, dolma, sarma, rice pilaf, Turkish coffee, sujuk, kashk, keşkek, manti, lavash, kanafeh, and more.

Turkish cuisine originates from what source?

a shared Ottoman cuisine

The cuisine of what territories are descended from Ottoman cuisine?

former Ottoman territories

Turkish and Greek cuisine are descended from Ottoman Cuisine, along with the food of what other regions?

Balkan cuisine, Armenian cuisine, and Middle Eastern cuisine

Turkish coffee is descended from what?

Ottoman cuisine

Pita bread descends from what type of cuisine?

Ottoman cuisine


Over the course of Ottoman history, the Ottomans managed to build a large collection of libraries complete with translations of books from other cultures, as well as original manuscripts. A great part of this desire for local and foreign manuscripts arose in the 15th Century. Sultan Mehmet II ordered Georgios Amiroutzes, a Greek scholar from Trabzon, to translate and make available to Ottoman educational institutions the geography book of Ptolemy. Another example is Ali Qushji -an astronomer, mathematician and physicist originally from Samarkand- who became a professor in two madrasas, and influenced Ottoman circles as a result of his writings and the activities of his students, even though he only spent two or three years before his death in Istanbul.

In what century did the Ottoman's start to desire foreign manuscripts?

15th Century

Which sultan ordered a Greek scholar to do translations of work by Ptolemy?

Sultan Mehmet II

Who did an Ottoman sultan order to translate work by Ptolemy?

Georgios Amiroutzes

How many years did Ali Qushji spend in Istanbul?

two or three years

Where was Ali Qushji from?

originally from Samarkand


The main sports Ottomans were engaged in were Turkish Wrestling, hunting, Turkish archery, horseback riding, Equestrian javelin throw, arm wrestling, and swimming. European model sports clubs were formed with the spreading popularity of football matches in 19th century Constantinople. The leading clubs, according to timeline, were Beşiktaş Gymnastics Club (1903), Galatasaray Sports Club (1905) and Fenerbahçe Sports Club (1907) in Istanbul. Football clubs were formed in other provinces too, such as Karşıyaka Sports Club (1912), Altay Sports Club (1914) and Turkish Fatherland Football Club (later Ülküspor) (1914) of İzmir.

When did European sport clubs begin to form in the Ottoman empire?

19th century

Where did football matches become to be popular in the Ottoman empire?

Constantinople

What was the leading sport club in 1905?

Galatasaray Sports Club

In what year did the Altay Sports Club form?

What was the football club known as Ülküspor formerly known as?

Turkish Fatherland Football Club


Philosophy of space and time is the branch of philosophy concerned with the issues surrounding the ontology, epistemology, and character of space and time. While such ideas have been central to philosophy from its inception, the philosophy of space and time was both an inspiration for and a central aspect of early analytic philosophy. The subject focuses on a number of basic issues, including whether or not time and space exist independently of the mind, whether they exist independently of one another, what accounts for time's apparently unidirectional flow, whether times other than the present moment exist, and questions about the nature of identity (particularly the nature of identity over time).

Which philosophy branch is concerned with issues surrounding ontology?

Philosophy of space and time

The philosophy of space and time was inspired by what kind of philosophy?

early analytic philosophy

The  philosophy of space and time focuses on whether or not time and space exist independently of what?

the mind

The  philosophy of space and time focuses what kind of flow within time?

unidirectional

What philosophy does ontology concern?

I'm not sure.

What was the study of space and time inspired by?

I'm not sure.

What does not change over time?

I'm not sure.

The flow within what is multidirectional?

I'm not sure.


The earliest recorded Western philosophy of time was expounded by the ancient Egyptian thinker Ptahhotep (c. 2650–2600 BC), who said, "Do not lessen the time of following desire, for the wasting of time is an abomination to the spirit." The Vedas, the earliest texts on Indian philosophy and Hindu philosophy, dating back to the late 2nd millennium BC, describe ancient Hindu cosmology, in which the universe goes through repeated cycles of creation, destruction, and rebirth, with each cycle lasting 4,320,000 years. Ancient Greek philosophers, including Parmenides and Heraclitus, wrote essays on the nature of time.

Who expounded the earliest recorded Western philosophy of time?

Ptahhotep

When do the Vedas date back to?

late 2nd millennium BC

Which philosophies are the Vedas oriented with?

Indian philosophy and Hindu philosophy

What do the Vedas describe?

ancient Hindu cosmology

How long is the cycle of rebirth discussed in the Vedas?

4,320,000 years

What was first recorded in the 26th century BC.

I'm not sure.

Who warned people not to increase the time o following desire?

I'm not sure.

What is the name of the earliest Egyptian texts?

I'm not sure.

What texts date to 2000 BC?

I'm not sure.

How long did the Greeksd think a cyle of time was?

I'm not sure.


In Book 11 of St. Augustine's Confessions, he ruminates on the nature of time, asking, "What then is time? If no one asks me, I know: if I wish to explain it to one that asketh, I know not." He goes on to comment on the difficulty of thinking about time, pointing out the inaccuracy of common speech: "For but few things are there of which we speak properly; of most things we speak improperly, still the things intended are understood."  But Augustine presented the first philosophical argument for the reality of Creation (against Aristotle) in the context of his discussion of time, saying that knowledge of time depends on the knowledge of the movement of things, and therefore time cannot be where there are no creatures to measure its passing (Confessions Book XI ¶30; City of God Book XI ch.6).

Which christian philosopher ruminated on time?

St. Augustine

What did St. Augustine comment on in Book 11, regarding thinking about time?

the difficulty

Who presented the first philosophical argument for the reality of Creation?

Augustine

What did Augustine say that the knowledge of time depended on?

the knowledge of the movement of things

Where did Augustine say time could not appear?

where there are no creatures to measure its passing

Who deiscusses the nature of time in his first book?

I'm not sure.

What does St Augustine think common speech adiquetly describes?

I'm not sure.

What did Aristotle present the first philisophical argument for?

I'm not sure.

Who said time exists everywhere?

I'm not sure.


In the early 11th century, the Muslim physicist Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen or Alhazen) discussed space perception and its epistemological implications in his Book of Optics (1021), he also rejected Aristotle's definition of topos (Physics IV) by way of geometric demonstrations and defined place as a mathematical spatial extension. His experimental proof of the intromission model of vision led to changes in the understanding of the visual perception of space, contrary to the previous emission theory of vision supported by Euclid and Ptolemy. In "tying the visual perception of space to prior bodily experience, Alhacen unequivocally rejected the intuitiveness of spatial perception and, therefore, the autonomy of vision. Without tangible notions of distance and size for correlation, sight can tell us next to nothing about such things."

Which 11th century Muslim physicist discussed space perception and its epistemological implications?

al-Haytham

Which 11th century book discussed space perception and its epistemological implications?

Book of Optics

Whose definition of topos did Alhazen reject?

Aristotle's

Alhazen's  experimental proof of the intromission model of vision led to the change of understanding of what?

Without tangible notions of distance and size for correlation, sight can tell us next to nothing about such things

Alhazen stated that without tangible notions of distance and size for correlation, sight can tell us what about spatial perception?

next to nothing

Who discussed space perceptions in the 1100's?

I'm not sure.

What book was written in the the 11th century about time?

I'm not sure.

Who disputed al-Haytham's definition of topos?

I'm not sure.

What did Euclid and Ptolemy tie the visual perception of space to?

I'm not sure.

Who said vision is autonomious?

I'm not sure.


In 1781, Immanuel Kant published the Critique of Pure Reason, one of the most influential works in the history of the philosophy of space and time. He describes time as an a priori notion that, together with other a priori notions such as space, allows us to comprehend sense experience. Kant denies that either space or time are substance, entities in themselves, or learned by experience; he holds, rather, that both are elements of a systematic framework we use to structure our experience. Spatial measurements are used to quantify how far apart objects are, and temporal measurements are used to quantitatively compare the interval between (or duration of) events. Although space and time are held to be transcendentally ideal in this sense, they are also empirically real—that is, not mere illusions.

When did Kant publish one of the most influential works in the history of the philosophy of space and time.

What was Kant's influential work on the history of the philosophy of space and time titled?

Critique of Pure Reason

What did Kant describe time as?

a priori notion

What did Kant say was similar notion to time?

space

What did Kant say time and space allow one to do?

sense experience

Who published Critique of Pure Reason in the 17th century?

I'm not sure.

Who said priori notions allow us to comprehend time?

I'm not sure.

What does Kant claim time and space are?

I'm not sure.

What does Kant say we use as a framework to stucture time?

I'm not sure.

According mto can't what is an illusion?

I'm not sure.


Arguing against the absolutist position, Leibniz offers a number of thought experiments with the purpose of showing that there is contradiction in assuming the existence of facts such as absolute location and velocity. These arguments trade heavily on two principles central to his philosophy: the principle of sufficient reason and the identity of indiscernibles. The principle of sufficient reason holds that for every fact, there is a reason that is sufficient to explain what and why it is the way it is and not otherwise. The identity of indiscernibles states that if there is no way of telling two entities apart, then they are one and the same thing.

What did Leibniz argue against?

the absolutist position

Which principles did Leibniz's arguments trade heavily upon?

the principle of sufficient reason and the identity of indiscernibles

Leibnitz held that there is a reason that is sufficient to explain what and why it is the way it is and not otherwise for every what?

fact

What states that if there is no way of telling two entities apart, then they are one and the same thing?

identity of indiscernibles

Who's position does Leibniz support?

I'm not sure.

What two principles did Leibniz argue against?

I'm not sure.

What states that two things are not necessarily the same just because no difference can be identified?

I'm not sure.


The example Leibniz uses involves two proposed universes situated in absolute space. The only discernible difference between them is that the latter is positioned five feet to the left of the first. The example is only possible if such a thing as absolute space exists. Such a situation, however, is not possible, according to Leibniz, for if it were, a universe's position in absolute space would have no sufficient reason, as it might very well have been anywhere else. Therefore, it contradicts the principle of sufficient reason, and there could exist two distinct universes that were in all ways indiscernible, thus contradicting the identity of indiscernibles.

Leibniz's example involves how many universes?

two

Where are Leibniz's universes situated?

absolute space

How far are Leibniz's universes situated apart?

five feet

What is the only way Leibniz's example would be possible?

absolute space exists

Who's example involves one universe in two places?

I'm not sure.

What does Leibniz place at two points in deep space?

I'm not sure.

What proves the existence of absolute space?

I'm not sure.


Standing out in Clarke's (and Newton's) response to Leibniz's arguments is the bucket argument: Water in a bucket, hung from a rope and set to spin, will start with a flat surface. As the water begins to spin in the bucket, the surface of the water will become concave. If the bucket is stopped, the water will continue to spin, and while the spin continues, the surface will remain concave. The concave surface is apparently not the result of the interaction of the bucket and the water, since the surface is flat when the bucket first starts to spin, it becomes concave as the water starts to spin, and it remains concave as the bucket stops.

What stood out in Clark's response to Leibniz?

the bucket argument

According to Clark's argument, water in a bucket, hung from a rope and spun, will begin with kind of surface?

flat

As the buck spins, what happens to the water?

the water will become concave

If the buck stops, the water will do what?

continue to spin

What is the surface of the water apparently not caused by?

the interaction of the bucket and the water

Who makes the bucket argument in response to Clarke and Newton?

I'm not sure.

What becomes flat as the bucket spins?

I'm not sure.

What does the bucket interact with to create the water surface?

I'm not sure.

What becomes flat when the bucket stops spinning?

I'm not sure.


Leibniz describes a space that exists only as a relation between objects, and which has no existence apart from the existence of those objects. Motion exists only as a relation between those objects. Newtonian space provided the absolute frame of reference within which objects can have motion. In Newton's system, the frame of reference exists independently of the objects contained within it. These objects can be described as moving in relation to space itself. For many centuries, the evidence of a concave water surface held authority.

Leibniz describes space as existing only as a relation between what?

objects

According to Leibniz, what has no existence apart from the existence of objections?

space

What provides the absolute frame of reference within which objects can have motion?

Newtonian space

In Newton's system, how does the frame of reference exist between objects within it?

independently

For how long did the evidence of a concave water surface hold authority in reference to space?

many centuries

What does space exist independently from?

I'm not sure.

What exists as a relationship between space and objects?

I'm not sure.

What provides the absolute frame of refrence for space?

I'm not sure.

What is dependent on the frame of refrence in Newtonian space?

I'm not sure.

What evidence still holds authority?

I'm not sure.


Mach suggested that thought experiments like the bucket argument are problematic. If we were to imagine a universe that only contains a bucket, on Newton's account, this bucket could be set to spin relative to absolute space, and the water it contained would form the characteristic concave surface. But in the absence of anything else in the universe, it would be difficult to confirm that the bucket was indeed spinning. It seems equally possible that the surface of the water in the bucket would remain flat.

How did Mach describe thought experiments like the bucket argument?

problematic

What is difficult to confirm about the bucket in the absence of anything else in the universe?

that the bucket was indeed spinning

What was equally possible about the surface of the water in the bucket?

would remain flat.

Who expanded on thought experiments?

I'm not sure.

What can be confirmed about the bucket independent of other objects in the universe?

I'm not sure.

What could not remain flat in absolute space?

I'm not sure.


Mach argued that, in effect, the water experiment in an otherwise empty universe would remain flat. But if another object were introduced into this universe, perhaps a distant star, there would now be something relative to which the bucket could be seen as rotating. The water inside the bucket could possibly have a slight curve. To account for the curve that we observe, an increase in the number of objects in the universe also increases the curvature in the water. Mach argued that the momentum of an object, whether angular or linear, exists as a result of the sum of the effects of other objects in the universe (Mach's Principle).

What did Mach argue about the water experiment in an otherwise empty universe?

would remain flat

What did Mach argue would happen if another object were introduce in the bucket's universe?

the bucket could be seen as rotating

What does the increase in the number of objects in the universe do to the curvature of the water?

increases the curvature

The Mach argument is called what?

Mach's Principle

Mach argued that the momentum of an object exists as a result of the sum of the effects of what?

effects of other objects in the universe

Who argued that the water experiment in an empty univers would never be flat?

I'm not sure.

What would need to be removed from the universe to prove that the bucket was moving?

I'm not sure.

What decreases as objects are added to the universe?

I'm not sure.

What principle argues that the momentum of an object is independent of other objects in the universe?

I'm not sure.


Albert Einstein proposed that the laws of physics should be based on the principle of relativity. This principle holds that the rules of physics must be the same for all observers, regardless of the frame of reference that is used, and that light propagates at the same speed in all reference frames. This theory was motivated by Maxwell's equations, which show that electromagnetic waves propagate in a vacuum at the speed of light. However, Maxwell's equations give no indication of what this speed is relative to. Prior to Einstein, it was thought that this speed was relative to a fixed medium, called the luminiferous ether. In contrast, the theory of special relativity postulates that light propagates at the speed of light in all inertial frames, and examines the implications of this postulate.

lbert Einstein proposed that the laws of physics should be based on what principle?

relativity

The principle of relativity holds that the rules of physics must be the same for who?

all observers

In all reference frames, how is the the speed of light?

the same

Einstein's theory was motivated by who?

Maxwell

Before Einstein, speed was though to be relative to what?

the luminiferous ether

Who proposed  that the laws of physics where not dependent on relativity?

I'm not sure.

What did Einstein agrue was dependent on the observers frame of refrence?

I'm not sure.

Whatprinciples that light moves at different speeds depending on the refrence point?

I'm not sure.

What equation was motivated by Einstein's theory?

I'm not sure.


In classical physics, an inertial reference frame is one in which an object that experiences no forces does not accelerate. In general relativity, an inertial frame of reference is one that is following a geodesic of space-time. An object that moves against a geodesic experiences a force. An object in free fall does not experience a force, because it is following a geodesic. An object standing on the earth, however, will experience a force, as it is being held against the geodesic by the surface of the planet. In light of this, the bucket of water rotating in empty space will experience a force because it rotates with respect to the geodesic. The water will become concave, not because it is rotating with respect to the distant stars, but because it is rotating with respect to the geodesic.

In classical physics, an inertial reference frame is one in which an object without force does what?

does not accelerate

What follows a geodesic of space-time?

an inertial frame of reference

An object in free fall does not experience what?

force

What holds an object standing on earth against the geodesic?

the surface of the planet

Why will water become concave, according to the relativity theory?

it is rotating with respect to the geodesic.

What kind of frame includes objects that do not accelerate when force in applied to them?

I'm not sure.

What does an external frame of refrence follow?

I'm not sure.

What is not experienced by objects moving against a geodesic?

I'm not sure.

What is an object in free fall moving against?

I'm not sure.

What is experienced by objects in free-fall?

I'm not sure.


Einstein partially advocates Mach's principle in that distant stars explain inertia because they provide the gravitational field against which acceleration and inertia occur. But contrary to Leibniz's account, this warped space-time is as integral a part of an object as are its other defining characteristics, such as volume and mass. If one holds, contrary to idealist beliefs, that objects exist independently of the mind, it seems that relativistics commits them to also hold that space and temporality have exactly the same type of independent existence.

How does Einstein advocate Mach's principle?

partially

How Einstein's theory compared to Leibniz's?

contrary

What is considered contrary to idealist beliefs in regards to space?

objects exist independently of the mind

Who advocates Einstein's theory?

I'm not sure.

Who's theory compliments Leibniz?

I'm not sure.

What do idealist believe can not exist independent of the mind?

I'm not sure.

Space and what have a dependent existence?

I'm not sure.


Coordinative definition has two major features. The first has to do with coordinating units of length with certain physical objects. This is motivated by the fact that we can never directly apprehend length. Instead we must choose some physical object, say the Standard Metre at the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (International Bureau of Weights and Measures), or the wavelength of cadmium to stand in as our unit of length. The second feature deals with separated objects. Although we can, presumably, directly test the equality of length of two measuring rods when they are next to one another, we can not find out as much for two rods distant from one another. Even supposing that two rods, whenever brought near to one another are seen to be equal in length, we are not justified in stating that they are always equal in length. This impossibility undermines our ability to decide the equality of length of two distant objects. Sameness of length, to the contrary, must be set by definition.

Coordinative definition has how many major features?

two

The first feature of Coordinative definition involves what?

coordinating units of length with certain physical objects

What is the first feature motivated by?

we can never directly apprehend length

The second feature of Coordinative definition involves what?

separated objects

Sameness of length must be set how?

by definition

What definition states that units of length can not be coodinated with physical objects?

I'm not sure.

What measurment can be made independently?

I'm not sure.

What can be determined about two objects regardless of their distance from each other?

I'm not sure.

What is always equal rerdless of position?

I'm not sure.

How must diffrence of l;ength be set?

I'm not sure.


In the classical case, the invariance, or symmetry, group and the covariance group coincide, but, interestingly enough, they part ways in relativistic physics. The symmetry group of the general theory of relativity includes all differentiable transformations, i.e., all properties of an object are dynamical, in other words there are no absolute objects. The formulations of the general theory of relativity, unlike those of classical mechanics, do not share a standard, i.e., there is no single formulation paired with transformations. As such the covariance group of the general theory of relativity is just the covariance group of every theory.

The symmetry group of the general theory of relativity includes what?

all differentiable transformations

What else besides  invariance, or symmetry and group part ways in relativistic physics?

the covariance group

Which theory does the relativity depart from?

classical mechanics

What are not pair with transformations in the theory of relativity?

single formulation

The covariance group of the general theory of relativity is the covariance group of how many theories?

every

What groups do do not coincide in the classical case?

I'm not sure.

What groups coincide in relative physics?

I'm not sure.

What is absolute according to the theory of relativity?

I'm not sure.

What theory does relativity coincide with?

I'm not sure.


The problem of the direction of time arises directly from two contradictory facts. Firstly, the fundamental physical laws are time-reversal invariant; if a cinematographic film were taken of any process describable by means of the aforementioned laws and then played backwards, it would still portray a physically possible process. Secondly, our experience of time, at the macroscopic level, is not time-reversal invariant. Glasses can fall and break, but shards of glass cannot reassemble and fly up onto tables. We have memories of the past, and none of the future. We feel we can't change the past but can influence the future.

How many contradictory facts does the problem of the direction of time arise from?

two

What kind of physical laws are time-reversal invariant?

fundamental

If if a cinematographic film were taken by means of physical  laws and then played backwards, it would still portray what?

physically possible process

How is our experience of time at the macro level?

not time-reversal invariant

What do we not have memories of?

the future

What laws are time-reversal variant?

I'm not sure.

What do we experience as time-reversal invariant?

I'm not sure.

What can we influence besides the future?

I'm not sure.


But in statistical mechanics things get more complicated. On one hand, statistical mechanics is far superior to classical thermodynamics, in that thermodynamic behavior, such as glass breaking, can be explained by the fundamental laws of physics paired with a statistical postulate. But statistical mechanics, unlike classical thermodynamics, is time-reversal symmetric. The second law of thermodynamics, as it arises in statistical mechanics, merely states that it is overwhelmingly likely that net entropy will increase, but it is not an absolute law.

How are things in statistical mechanics?

complicated

What are superior to classical thermodynamics?

statistical mechanics

In order to explain glass breaking, Fundamental laws of physics can be paired with what?

a statistical postulate

Is statistical mechanics asymmetric or symmetric in regards to time-reversal?

symmetric

What kind of law is the second law of thermodynamics, as it arises in statistical mechanics?

not an absolute law

What type of mechanics help to simplify things?

I'm not sure.

What is superior to statistical mechanics?

I'm not sure.

What thermodynamic behavior can not be explained by the fundemental laws of physics?

I'm not sure.

What is an abso;ute law in statistical mechanics?

I'm not sure.


A third type of solution to the problem of the direction of time, although much less represented, argues that the laws are not time-reversal symmetric. For example, certain processes in quantum mechanics, relating to the weak nuclear force, are not time-reversible, keeping in mind that when dealing with quantum mechanics time-reversibility comprises a more complex definition. But this type of solution is insufficient because 1) the time-asymmetric phenomena in quantum mechanics are too few to account for the uniformity of macroscopic time-asymmetry and 2) it relies on the assumption that quantum mechanics is the final or correct description of physical processes.[citation needed]

What does the third type of solution to the problem of the direction of time argue?

the laws are not time-reversal symmetric

What is are kind of nuclear force is not time-reversibile?

weak nuclear force

Time asymmetric phenomena in quantum mechanics are to few to account what kind of time-asymmetry?

macroscopic

What does the thirs solution argue is time-reversal symmetric?

I'm not sure.

What processes in quantum mechanics are reversable?

I'm not sure.

What asymmetric phenomena are common in quantum mechanics?

I'm not sure.


One recent proponent of the laws solution is Tim Maudlin who argues that the fundamental laws of physics are laws of temporal evolution (see Maudlin ). However, elsewhere Maudlin argues: "[the] passage of time is an intrinsic asymmetry in the temporal structure of the world... It is the asymmetry that grounds the distinction between sequences that runs from past to future and sequences which run from future to past" [ibid, 2010 edition, p. 108]. Thus it is arguably difficult to assess whether Maudlin is suggesting that the direction of time is a consequence of the laws or is itself primitive.

Who argues that the fundamental laws of physics are laws of temporal evolution?

Tim Maudlin

Maudlin argues that the passage of time is what kind of asymmetry?

intrinsic

What grounds the distinction between sequences?

asymmetry

Whose suggestion is difficult to assess in regards to the direction of time?

Maudlin

Who oposses the laws solution?

I'm not sure.

Who says that the laws of physics are not laws of temporal evolution?

I'm not sure.

What does Maudlin claim time is not in the structure of the world?

I'm not sure.

What does the symetry in the temoral structure of the world ground?

I'm not sure.


The problem of the flow of time, as it has been treated in analytic philosophy, owes its beginning to a paper written by J. M. E. McTaggart. In this paper McTaggart proposes two "temporal series". The first series, which means to account for our intuitions about temporal becoming, or the moving Now, is called the A-series. The A-series orders events according to their being in the past, present or future, simpliciter and in comparison to each other. The B-series eliminates all reference to the present, and the associated temporal modalities of past and future, and orders all events by the temporal relations earlier than and later than.

Who started the discussion within analytic philosophy on the problem of the flow of time?

J. M. E. McTaggart

How many "temporal series" did McTaggart propose?

two

What was McTaggart's first series called?

the A-series

The A-Series orders events according to their being in the past, present or future and in comparison to what else?

each other

What is McTaggart's second series called?

The B-series

Who created a problem with the flow of time?

I'm not sure.

What orders events according to their existance in the past, present or future?

I'm not sure.

What implements refrences to the past?

I'm not sure.