In 1566, the first police investigator of Rio de Janeiro was recruited. By the 17th century, most captaincies already had local units with law enforcement functions. On July 9, 1775 a Cavalry Regiment was created in the state of Minas Gerais for maintaining law and order. In 1808, the Portuguese royal family relocated to Brazil, because of the French invasion of Portugal. King João VI established the "Intendência Geral de Polícia" (General Police Intendancy) for investigations. He also created a Royal Police Guard for Rio de Janeiro in 1809. In 1831, after independence, each province started organizing its local "military police", with order maintenance tasks. The Federal Railroad Police was created in 1852.

When did Rio get its first police investigator?

How had the Rio police grown by the 17th century?

most captaincies already had local units with law enforcement functions

When did Minas Gerais get a cavalry regiment?

July 9, 1775

Where did the Portuguese royal family move in 1808?

Brazil

Who invaded Portugal in 1808?

French

When did Rio get its first police inspector?

I'm not sure.

How had the Rio police grown by the 16th century?

I'm not sure.

When didn't Minas Gerais get a cavalry regiment?

I'm not sure.

Where did the Portuguese royal family move in 1880?

I'm not sure.

Who supported Portugal in 1808?

I'm not sure.


In Canada, the Royal Newfoundland Constabulary was founded in 1729, making it the first police force in present-day Canada. It was followed in 1834 by the Toronto Police, and in 1838 by police forces in Montreal and Quebec City. A national force, the Dominion Police, was founded in 1868. Initially the Dominion Police provided security for parliament, but its responsibilities quickly grew. The famous Royal Northwest Mounted Police was founded in 1873. The merger of these two police forces in 1920 formed the world-famous Royal Canadian Mounted Police.

When did Canada get its first police?

What was Canada's first police force?

Royal Newfoundland Constabulary

When was the Toronto police created?

When was the Montreal police created?

When were the first Mounties created?

When did Canada get its last police?

I'm not sure.

What wasn't Canada's first police force?

I'm not sure.

When was the Toronto police destroyed?

I'm not sure.

When was the Montreal police not created?

I'm not sure.

When were the first Mounties destroyed?

I'm not sure.


In the American Old West, policing was often of very poor quality.[citation needed] The Army often provided some policing alongside poorly resourced sheriffs and temporarily organized posses.[citation needed] Public organizations were supplemented by private contractors, notably the Pinkerton National Detective Agency, which was hired by individuals, businessmen, local governments and the federal government. At its height, the Pinkerton Agency's numbers exceeded those of the United States Army.[citation needed]

What were the Old West's local police options?

poorly resourced sheriffs and temporarily organized posses

Which military branch helped the Old West's inadequate local police?

The Army

Which private contractor acted as police for businesses?

Pinkerton National Detective Agency

Which military branch did the Pinkertons exceed at their height?

Army

What were the New West's local police options?

I'm not sure.

What were the Old West's national police options?

I'm not sure.

Which military branch fought the Old West's inadequate local police?

I'm not sure.

Which public contractor acted as police for businesses?

I'm not sure.

Which military branch did the Pinkertons never exceed at their height?

I'm not sure.


Michel Foucault claims that the contemporary concept of police as a paid and funded functionary of the state was developed by German and French legal scholars and practitioners in Public administration and Statistics in the 17th and early 18th centuries, most notably with Nicolas Delamare's Traité de la Police ("Treatise on the Police"), first published in 1705. The German Polizeiwissenschaft (Science of Police) first theorized by Philipp von Hörnigk a 17th-century Austrian Political economist and civil servant and much more famously by Johann Heinrich Gottlob Justi who produced an important theoretical work known as Cameral science on the formulation of police. Foucault cites Magdalene Humpert author of Bibliographie der Kameralwissenschaften (1937) in which the author makes note of a substantial bibliography was produced of over 4000 pieces of the practice of Polizeiwissenschaft however, this maybe a mistranslation of Foucault's own work the actual source of Magdalene Humpert states over 14,000 items were produced from the 16th century dates ranging from 1520-1850.

Which countries' scholars developed the contemporary police concept?

German and French

Who wrote the 'Treatise on the Police'?

Nicolas Delamare

What was the 'Treatise on the Police' called in French?

Traité de la Police

When was the 'Treatise on the Police' published?

What was von Hornigk's career?

Political economist and civil servant

Which countries' scholars rejected the contemporary police concept?

I'm not sure.

Who co-wrote the 'Treatise on the Police'?

I'm not sure.

What wasn't the 'Treatise on the Police' called in French?

I'm not sure.

When was the 'Treatise on the Police' abolished?

I'm not sure.

What wasn't von Hornigk's career?

I'm not sure.


As conceptualized by the Polizeiwissenschaft,according to Foucault the police had an administrative,economic and social duty ("procuring abundance"). It was in charge of demographic concerns and needed to be incorporated within the western political philosophy system of raison d'état and therefore giving the superficial appearance of empowering the population (and unwittingly supervising the population), which, according to mercantilist theory, was to be the main strength of the state. Thus, its functions largely overreached simple law enforcement activities and included public health concerns, urban planning (which was important because of the miasma theory of disease; thus, cemeteries were moved out of town, etc.), and surveillance of prices.

Who wrote about Polizeiwissenschaft?

Foucault

How did Foucault describe the social duty of police?

procuring abundance

Which economic theory did Foucault say supported the police?

mercantilist theory

Why did the functions of police grow beyond law enforcement to urban planning?

because of the miasma theory of disease; thus, cemeteries were moved out of town, etc.

Who never wrote about Polizeiwissenschaft?

I'm not sure.

How did Foucault describe the social duty of army?

I'm not sure.

Which economic theory did Foucault say rejected the police?

I'm not sure.

Which biology theory did Foucault say supported the police?

I'm not sure.

Why didn't the functions of police grow beyond law enforcement to urban planning?

I'm not sure.


Edwin Chadwick's 1829 article, "Preventive police" in the London Review, argued that prevention ought to be the primary concern of a police body, which was not the case in practice. The reason, argued Chadwick, was that "A preventive police would act more immediately by placing difficulties in obtaining the objects of temptation." In contrast to a deterrent of punishment, a preventive police force would deter criminality by making crime cost-ineffective - "crime doesn't pay". In the second draft of his 1829 Police Act, the "object" of the new Metropolitan Police, was changed by Robert Peel to the "principal object," which was the "prevention of crime." Later historians would attribute the perception of England's "appearance of orderliness and love of public order" to the preventive principle entrenched in Peel's police system.

Who wrote 'Preventive Police'?

Edwin Chadwick

When was 'Preventive Police' published?

Where was 'Preventive Police' published?

London Review

What did Chadwick say police should be focused on?

prevention

What was the alternative to prevention?

a deterrent of punishment

Who co-wrote 'Preventive Police'?

I'm not sure.

When was 'Preventive Police' not published?

I'm not sure.

Where was 'Preventive Police' unpublished?

I'm not sure.

What did Chadwick say police shouldn't be focused on?

I'm not sure.

What was the same as prevention?

I'm not sure.


Despite popular conceptions promoted by movies and television, many US police departments prefer not to maintain officers in non-patrol bureaus and divisions beyond a certain period of time, such as in the detective bureau, and instead maintain policies that limit service in such divisions to a specified period of time, after which officers must transfer out or return to patrol duties.[citation needed] This is done in part based upon the perception that the most important and essential police work is accomplished on patrol in which officers become acquainted with their beats, prevent crime by their presence, respond to crimes in progress, manage crises, and practice their skills.[citation needed]

What do some police departments make detectives go back to periodically?

patrol duties

Where do some think the most important police work happens?

on patrol

How do patrol officers affect crime?

prevent crime by their presence

What do some police departments make detectives never go back to?

I'm not sure.

What do all police departments make detectives go back to periodically?

I'm not sure.

Where do all think the most important police work happens?

I'm not sure.

Where do some think the most minor police work happens?

I'm not sure.

How do patrol officers ignore crime?

I'm not sure.


The terms international policing, transnational policing, and/or global policing began to be used from the early 1990s onwards to describe forms of policing that transcended the boundaries of the sovereign nation-state (Nadelmann, 1993), (Sheptycki, 1995). These terms refer in variable ways to practices and forms for policing that, in some sense, transcend national borders. This includes a variety of practices, but international police cooperation, criminal intelligence exchange between police agencies working in different nation-states, and police development-aid to weak, failed or failing states are the three types that have received the most scholarly attention.

When did Nadelmann write about global policing?

When did Sheptycki write about global policing?

What terms have been used to describe policing beyond one country?

international policing, transnational policing, and/or global policing

When didb't Nadelmann write about global policing?

I'm not sure.

When did Nadelmann write about local policing?

I'm not sure.

When didn't Sheptycki write about global policing?

I'm not sure.

When did Sheptycki write about local policing?

I'm not sure.

What terms haven't been used to describe policing beyond one country?

I'm not sure.


Historical studies reveal that policing agents have undertaken a variety of cross-border police missions for many years (Deflem, 2002). For example, in the 19th century a number of European policing agencies undertook cross-border surveillance because of concerns about anarchist agitators and other political radicals. A notable example of this was the occasional surveillance by Prussian police of Karl Marx during the years he remained resident in London. The interests of public police agencies in cross-border co-operation in the control of political radicalism and ordinary law crime were primarily initiated in Europe, which eventually led to the establishment of Interpol before the Second World War. There are also many interesting examples of cross-border policing under private auspices and by municipal police forces that date back to the 19th century (Nadelmann, 1993). It has been established that modern policing has transgressed national boundaries from time to time almost from its inception. It is also generally agreed that in the post–Cold War era this type of practice became more significant and frequent (Sheptycki, 2000).

When did Deflem write about cross-border policing?

What groups did European police work against across borders in the 19th century?

anarchist agitators and other political radicals

Which police force monitored Karl Marx?

Prussian

What international police agency was created before WW2?

Interpol

In what era did cross-border policing increase?

post–Cold War

When did Deflem write about in-border policing?

I'm not sure.

What groups did European police work against across borders in the 18th century?

I'm not sure.

Which police force ignored Karl Marx?

I'm not sure.

What national police agency was created before WW2?

I'm not sure.

In what era did cross-border policing decrease?

I'm not sure.


Not a lot of empirical work on the practices of inter/transnational information and intelligence sharing has been undertaken. A notable exception is James Sheptycki's study of police cooperation in the English Channel region (2002), which provides a systematic content analysis of information exchange files and a description of how these transnational information and intelligence exchanges are transformed into police case-work. The study showed that transnational police information sharing was routinized in the cross-Channel region from 1968 on the basis of agreements directly between the police agencies and without any formal agreement between the countries concerned. By 1992, with the signing of the Schengen Treaty, which formalized aspects of police information exchange across the territory of the European Union, there were worries that much, if not all, of this intelligence sharing was opaque, raising questions about the efficacy of the accountability mechanisms governing police information sharing in Europe (Joubert and Bevers, 1996).

Where did Sheptycki study police cooperation?

the English Channel region

When did Sheptycki write about police cooperation?

When did the Channel region establish routine cross-border policing?

When was the Schengen Treaty signed?

What did the Schengen Treaty do for policing?

formalized aspects of police information exchange across the territory of the European Union

Where did Sheptycki study police interigation?

I'm not sure.

Where didn't Sheptycki study police cooperation?

I'm not sure.

When didn't Sheptycki write about police cooperation?

I'm not sure.

When did the Channel region reject routine cross-border policing?

I'm not sure.

When was the Schengen Treaty rejected?

I'm not sure.


Studies of this kind outside of Europe are even rarer, so it is difficult to make generalizations, but one small-scale study that compared transnational police information and intelligence sharing practices at specific cross-border locations in North America and Europe confirmed that low visibility of police information and intelligence sharing was a common feature (Alain, 2001). Intelligence-led policing is now common practice in most advanced countries (Ratcliffe, 2007) and it is likely that police intelligence sharing and information exchange has a common morphology around the world (Ratcliffe, 2007). James Sheptycki has analyzed the effects of the new information technologies on the organization of policing-intelligence and suggests that a number of 'organizational pathologies' have arisen that make the functioning of security-intelligence processes in transnational policing deeply problematic. He argues that transnational police information circuits help to "compose the panic scenes of the security-control society". The paradoxical effect is that, the harder policing agencies work to produce security, the greater are feelings of insecurity.

Where has cross-border policing been most under-studied?

outside of Europe

Who compared transnational police information and intelligence sharing practices?

Alain

What kind of policing has become common practice?

Intelligence-led

What problems did Sheptycki say 'organizational pathologies' have caused for police?

make the functioning of security-intelligence processes in transnational policing deeply problematic

What paradox did Sheptycki point out?

the harder policing agencies work to produce security, the greater are feelings of insecurity

Where has cross-border policing been least under-studied?

I'm not sure.

Where has cross-border policing been most over-studied?

I'm not sure.

What kind of policing has become rare practice?

I'm not sure.

What problems did Sheptycki say 'organizational pathologies' haven't caused for police?

I'm not sure.

What paradox did Sheptycki ignore?

I'm not sure.


Police development-aid to weak, failed or failing states is another form of transnational policing that has garnered attention. This form of transnational policing plays an increasingly important role in United Nations peacekeeping and this looks set to grow in the years ahead, especially as the international community seeks to develop the rule of law and reform security institutions in States recovering from conflict (Goldsmith and Sheptycki, 2007) With transnational police development-aid the imbalances of power between donors and recipients are stark and there are questions about the applicability and transportability of policing models between jurisdictions (Hills, 2009).

Where has transnational policing become more important?

in United Nations peacekeeping

What kind of countries get assistance with policing?

weak, failed or failing states

Who wrote about police development-aid in 2007?

Goldsmith and Sheptycki

What concern did Hills raise about police models?

there are questions about the applicability and transportability of policing models between jurisdictions

What concern did Hills raise about power imbalances?

With transnational police development-aid the imbalances of power between donors and recipients are stark

Where has transnational policing become less important?

I'm not sure.

What kind of countries get no assistance with policing?

I'm not sure.

Who wrote about police development-aid in 2006?

I'm not sure.

What concern did Hills ignore about police models?

I'm not sure.

What concern did Hills ignore about power imbalances?

I'm not sure.


Perhaps the greatest question regarding the future development of transnational policing is: in whose interest is it? At a more practical level, the question translates into one about how to make transnational policing institutions democratically accountable (Sheptycki, 2004). For example, according to the Global Accountability Report for 2007 (Lloyd, et al. 2007) Interpol had the lowest scores in its category (IGOs), coming in tenth with a score of 22% on overall accountability capabilities (p. 19). As this report points out, and the existing academic literature on transnational policing seems to confirm, this is a secretive area and one not open to civil society involvement.

Who wrote the Global Accountability Report for 2007?

Lloyd, et al.

What is the least-accountable IGO?

Interpol

How accountable is Interpol?

Why is transnational policing so unaccountable?

this is a secretive area and one not open to civil society involvement

Who wrote the Local Accountability Report for 2007?

I'm not sure.

What is the most-accountable IGO?

I'm not sure.

How unaccountable is Interpol?

I'm not sure.

Why is transnational policing so accountable?

I'm not sure.

Why isn't transnational policing so unaccountable?

I'm not sure.


They can also be armed with non-lethal (more accurately known as "less than lethal" or "less-lethal") weaponry, particularly for riot control. Non-lethal weapons include batons, tear gas, riot control agents, rubber bullets, riot shields, water cannons and electroshock weapons. Police officers often carry handcuffs to restrain suspects. The use of firearms or deadly force is typically a last resort only to be used when necessary to save human life, although some jurisdictions (such as Brazil) allow its use against fleeing felons and escaped convicts. A "shoot-to-kill" policy was recently introduced in South Africa, which allows police to use deadly force against any person who poses a significant threat to them or civilians. With the country having one of the highest rates of violent crime, president Jacob Zuma states that South Africa needs to handle crime differently from other countries.

What should non-lethal weapons properly be called?

"less than lethal" or "less-lethal"

What are common less-lethal weapons?

batons, tear gas, riot control agents, rubber bullets, riot shields, water cannons and electroshock weapons

What is supposed to be the last resort for police?

The use of firearms or deadly force

What is South Africa's "shoot-to-kill" policy?

allows police to use deadly force against any person who poses a significant threat to them or civilians

Where can police shoot fleeing convicts?

Brazil

What should lethal weapons properly be called?

I'm not sure.

What are uncommon less-lethal weapons?

I'm not sure.

What is supposed to be the first resort for police?

I'm not sure.

What is North Africa's "shoot-to-kill" policy?

I'm not sure.

Where can't police shoot fleeing convicts?

I'm not sure.


Modern police forces make extensive use of radio communications equipment, carried both on the person and installed in vehicles, to co-ordinate their work, share information, and get help quickly. In recent years, vehicle-installed computers have enhanced the ability of police communications, enabling easier dispatching of calls, criminal background checks on persons of interest to be completed in a matter of seconds, and updating officers' daily activity log and other, required reports on a real-time basis. Other common pieces of police equipment include flashlights/torches, whistles, police notebooks and "ticket books" or citations.

How do modern police often communicate?

radio

Where do police have radios?

carried both on the person and installed in vehicles

Why do police use radios?

to co-ordinate their work, share information, and get help quickly

What have computers in police cars enabled for investigation?

criminal background checks on persons of interest to be completed in a matter of seconds

What have computers in police cars enabled for reporting?

updating officers' daily activity log and other, required reports on a real-time basis

How do modern police never communicate?

I'm not sure.

Where don't police have radios?

I'm not sure.

Why don't police use radios?

I'm not sure.

What have computers in police cars enabled for investigation?

I'm not sure.

What have computers in police cars disbled for reporting?

I'm not sure.


Unmarked vehicles are used primarily for sting operations or apprehending criminals without alerting them to their presence. Some police forces use unmarked or minimally marked cars for traffic law enforcement, since drivers slow down at the sight of marked police vehicles and unmarked vehicles make it easier for officers to catch speeders and traffic violators. This practice is controversial, with for example, New York State banning this practice in 1996 on the grounds that it endangered motorists who might be pulled over by people impersonating police officers.

When do police often use unmarked cars?

primarily for sting operations or apprehending criminals without alerting them to their presence

What use of unmarked cars is controversial?

for traffic law enforcement

When did New York State ban unmarked cars for traffic cops?

Why did New York State ban unmarked cars for traffic cops?

it endangered motorists who might be pulled over by people impersonating police officers

When do police often use marked cars?

I'm not sure.

What use of unmarked cars isn't controversial?

I'm not sure.

When did New York State ban marked cars for traffic cops?

I'm not sure.

Why did New York State allow unmarked cars for traffic cops?

I'm not sure.

Why did New York State ban marked cars for traffic cops?

I'm not sure.


Motorcycles are also commonly used, particularly in locations that a car may not be able to reach, to control potential public order situations involving meetings of motorcyclists and often in escort duties where motorcycle police officers can quickly clear a path for escorted vehicles. Bicycle patrols are used in some areas because they allow for more open interaction with the public. In addition, their quieter operation can facilitate approaching suspects unawares and can help in pursuing them attempting to escape on foot.

Why do some cops use bicycles to patrol?

they allow for more open interaction with the public

How do bicycles help catch some suspects?

their quieter operation can facilitate approaching suspects unawares and can help in pursuing them attempting to escape on foot

What do police use to control motorcyclist events?

Motorcycles

Why do all cops use bicycles to patrol?

I'm not sure.

Why do some cops use motorcycles to patrol?

I'm not sure.

How do bicycles help catch some police officers?

I'm not sure.

How don't bicycles help catch some suspects?

I'm not sure.

What don't police use to control motorcyclist events?

I'm not sure.


In the United States, August Vollmer introduced other reforms, including education requirements for police officers. O.W. Wilson, a student of Vollmer, helped reduce corruption and introduce professionalism in Wichita, Kansas, and later in the Chicago Police Department. Strategies employed by O.W. Wilson included rotating officers from community to community to reduce their vulnerability to corruption, establishing of a non-partisan police board to help govern the police force, a strict merit system for promotions within the department, and an aggressive recruiting drive with higher police salaries to attract professionally qualified officers. During the professionalism era of policing, law enforcement agencies concentrated on dealing with felonies and other serious crime, rather than broader focus on crime prevention.

Who introduced education requirements for US police?

August Vollmer

Who was O.W. Wilson a student of?

August Vollmer

Where did Wilson reduce police corruption?

Wichita, Kansas, and later in the Chicago Police Department

Why did Wilson rotate officers between communities?

to reduce their vulnerability to corruption

How did Wilson recruit more qualified police?

an aggressive recruiting drive with higher police salaries

Who never introduced education requirements for US police?

I'm not sure.

Who was W.O. Wilson a student of?

I'm not sure.

Where did Wilson increase police corruption?

I'm not sure.

Why did Wilson rotate officers between communities?

I'm not sure.

How did Wilson recruit more unqualified police?

I'm not sure.


In Miranda the court created safeguards against self-incriminating statements made after an arrest. The court held that "The prosecution may not use statements, whether exculpatory or inculpatory, stemming from questioning initiated by law enforcement officers after a person has been taken into custody or otherwise deprived of his freedom of action in any significant way, unless it demonstrates the use of procedural safeguards effective to secure the Fifth Amendment's privilege against self-incrimination"

What does Miranda provide?

safeguards against self-incriminating statements made after an arrest

What does the 5th Amendment protect against?

self-incrimination

Which amendment prevents self-incrimination?

Fifth

What does Miranda not provide?

I'm not sure.

What doesn't Miranda provide?

I'm not sure.

What does the 5th Amendment not protect against?

I'm not sure.

What doesn't the 5th Amendment protect against?

I'm not sure.

Which amendment doesn't prevent self-incrimination?

I'm not sure.


In Terry v. Ohio (1968) the court divided seizure into two parts, the investigatory stop and arrest. The court further held that during an investigatory stop a police officer's search " [is] confined to what [is] minimally necessary to determine whether [a suspect] is armed, and the intrusion, which [is] made for the sole purpose of protecting himself and others nearby, [is] confined to ascertaining the presence of weapons" (U.S. Supreme Court). Before Terry, every police encounter constituted an arrest, giving the police officer the full range of search authority. Search authority during a Terry stop (investigatory stop) is limited to weapons only.

When was the Terry v. Ohio case?

Which two parts did Terry v. Ohio divide seizure into?

investigatory stop and arrest

What is an investigatory stop's search limited to?

what [is] minimally necessary to determine whether [a suspect] is armed

When was the Sherry v. Ohio case?

I'm not sure.

When was the Terry v. New York case?

I'm not sure.

Which two parts didn't Terry v. Ohio divide seizure into?

I'm not sure.

What is an investigatory start's search limited to?

I'm not sure.

What is an investigatory stop's search unlimited to?

I'm not sure.


All police officers in the United Kingdom, whatever their actual rank, are 'constables' in terms of their legal position. This means that a newly appointed constable has the same arrest powers as a Chief Constable or Commissioner. However, certain higher ranks have additional powers to authorize certain aspects of police operations, such as a power to authorize a search of a suspect's house (section 18 PACE in England and Wales) by an officer of the rank of Inspector, or the power to authorize a suspect's detention beyond 24 hours by a Superintendent.

What is the legal status of UK police officers?

constables

What can only Inspector-ranked UK officers do?

authorize a search of a suspect's house

What can only Superintendent-ranked UK officers do?

authorize a suspect's detention beyond 24 hours

What powers of a new UK police officer are the same as a Commissioner's?

arrest

What is the illegal status of UK police officers?

I'm not sure.

What is the legal status of UN police officers?

I'm not sure.

What can all UK officers do?

I'm not sure.

What can't only Superintendent-ranked UK officers do?

I'm not sure.

What powers of an old UK police officer are the same as a Commissioner's?

I'm not sure.


In contrast, the police are entitled to protect private rights in some jurisdictions. To ensure that the police would not interfere in the regular competencies of the courts of law, some police acts require that the police may only interfere in such cases where protection from courts cannot be obtained in time, and where, without interference of the police, the realization of the private right would be impeded. This would, for example, allow police to establish a restaurant guest's identity and forward it to the innkeeper in a case where the guest cannot pay the bill at nighttime because his wallet had just been stolen from the restaurant table.

Why do some police acts limit when police can interfere without court orders?

To ensure that the police would not interfere in the regular competencies of the courts of law

What could be impeded without police interference?

the realization of the private right

How could police help the owner when a restaurant guest doesn't pay because their wallet got stolen?

establish a restaurant guest's identity and forward it to the innkeeper

Why do all police acts limit when police can interfere without court orders?

I'm not sure.

Why do some police acts limit when police can aid without court orders?

I'm not sure.

What could be unimpeded without police interference?

I'm not sure.

What couldn't be impeded without police interference?

I'm not sure.

How couldn't police help the owner when a restaurant guest doesn't pay because their wallet got stolen?

I'm not sure.


Genocide has become an official term used in international relations. The word genocide was not in use before 1944. Before this, in 1941, Winston Churchill described the mass killing of Russian prisoners of war and civilians as "a crime without a name". In that year, a Polish-Jewish lawyer named Raphael Lemkin, described the policies of systematic murder founded by the Nazis as genocide. The word genocide is the combination of the Greek prefix geno- (meaning tribe or race) and caedere (the Latin word for to kill). The word is defined as a specific set of violent crimes that are committed against a certain group with the attempt to remove the entire group from existence or to destroy them.

The word "genocide" was unknown until what year?

In 1941, how did Winston Churchill refer to the mass killings of Russian prisoners of war?

as "a crime without a name"

What was the name of the Polish-Jewish lawyer who first described Nazi atrocities as "genocide?"

Raphael Lemkin

What is the etymological basis of the word "genocide?"

Greek prefix geno- (meaning tribe or race) and caedere (the Latin word for to kill)

As it pertains to violent crimes against targeted groups, what is the ultimate motivation within the actions of genocide?

to remove the entire group from existence or to destroy them

When was the word "genocide" last used?

I'm not sure.

Who never used the term "genocide"?

I'm not sure.

Who referred to acts of genocide in 1945?

I'm not sure.

What year was the word "genocide" known until?

I'm not sure.

What is defined as a specific set of violent crimes that are committed against a certain group with the attempt to remove the entire group from existence or to increase them?

I'm not sure.

When was the phrase "prisoners of war" first used?

I'm not sure.

What is the definition of "prisoners of war"?

I'm not sure.

Who coined the phrase "prisoners of war"?

I'm not sure.

The phrase "prisoners of war" was unknown until what year?

I'm not sure.

In 1941, how did Raphael Lemkin refer to the mass killings of Russian prisoners of war?

I'm not sure.


The word genocide was later included as a descriptive term to the process of indictment, but not yet as a formal legal term According to Lemming, genocide was defined as "a coordinated strategy to destroy a group of people, a process that could be accomplished through total annihilation as well as strategies that eliminate key elements of the group's basic existence, including language, culture, and economic infrastructure.” He created a concept of mobilizing much of the international relations and community, to working together and preventing the occurrence of such events happening within history and the international society. Australian anthropologist Peg LeVine coined the term "ritualcide" to describe the destruction of a group's cultural identity without necessarily destroying its members.

Prior to being a formal legal term, how was the word "genocide" used in an indictment scenario?

as a descriptive term

Who ultimately defined genocide as a series of strategies leading up to the annihilation of an entire group?

Lemming

Lemming's concept of genocide triggered legal action in which realm?

international relations and community

What was the nationality of anthropologist Peg LeVine?

Australian

What relative term did LeVine coin to refer to cultural destruction, without the death of its members?

"ritualcide"

Who ultimately defined genocide as a strategy leading up to the war of an entire group?

I'm not sure.

What term was coined to describe the increase of culture?

I'm not sure.

What kind of scienctist was ignored by Peg LeVine?

I'm not sure.

What elements of group existence, other than people themselves, can never be targets of genocide?

I'm not sure.

How was the word "genocide" forbidden to be used in an indictment scenario?

I'm not sure.

Who ultimately defined genocide as a series of strategies leading up to the annihilation of indictment?

I'm not sure.

Lemming's concept of genocide triggered cultural identity in what realm?

I'm not sure.

Prior to being a formal legal term, how was the word "society" used in an indictment scenario?

I'm not sure.

What was the nationality of anthropologist Lemming?

I'm not sure.

What term was coined to describe the destruction of basic existence?

I'm not sure.


The study of genocide has mainly been focused towards the legal aspect of the term. By formally recognizing the act of genocide as a crime, involves the undergoing prosecution that begins with not only seeing genocide as outrageous past any moral standpoint but also may be a legal liability within international relations. When genocide is looked at in a general aspect it is viewed as the deliberate killing of a certain group. Yet is commonly seen to escape the process of trial and prosecution due to the fact that genocide is more often than not committed by the officials in power of a state or area. In 1648 before the term genocide had been coined, the Peace of Westphalia was established to protect ethnic, national, racial and in some instances religious groups. During the 19th century humanitarian intervention was needed due to the fact of conflict and justification of some of the actions executed by the military.

What has been the primary focus in the study of genocide?

legal aspect of the term

In prosecuting genocide, what must the act be formally acknowledged as?

a crime

In a general aspect, what is genocide viewed as?

the deliberate killing of a certain group

In trials of genocidal crimes, what responsibly party is difficult to prosecute?

officials in power of a state or area

Long before genocide was established as a legal term, what treaty was in place to protect various groups from persecution and mass killings?

the Peace of Westphalia

What has been the lesser focus in the study of genocide?

I'm not sure.

Why is genocide often punished?

I'm not sure.

What year was the Peace of Westphalia signed for the second time?

I'm not sure.

What is genocide not viewed as?

I'm not sure.

Who was the Peace of Westphalia designed to eliminate?

I'm not sure.

In trials of legal crimes, what responsibly party is difficult to prosecute?

I'm not sure.

Long before genocide was established as a legal term, what treaty was in place to protect the military?

I'm not sure.

In prosecuting the military, what must the act be formally acknowledged as?

I'm not sure.

What has been the primary focus in the study of the military?

I'm not sure.

In a general aspect, what is the military viewed as?

I'm not sure.


After the Holocaust, which had been perpetrated by the Nazi Germany and its allies prior to and during World War II, Lemkin successfully campaigned for the universal acceptance of international laws defining and forbidding genocides. In 1946, the first session of the United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution that "affirmed" that genocide was a crime under international law, but did not provide a legal definition of the crime. In 1948, the UN General Assembly adopted the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG) which defined the crime of genocide for the first time.

In which war-era country was the Holocaust immortalized?

Nazi Germany

Following World War II, whose bid was successful in establishing the worldwide acceptance and the nascent legal definition of genocide?

Lemkin

Which group convened officially for the first time in 1946?

United Nations General Assembly

While recognizing genocide, what did the UN General Assembly fail to do in its resolution?

provide a legal definition of the crime

In 1948, what general assembly resolution established genocide as a prosecutable act?

the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

Whose bid was not successful in establishing the worldwide acceptance and the nascent legal definition of genocide?

I'm not sure.

What did the UN General Assembly do in its resolution?

I'm not sure.

What general assembly resolution never established genocide as a prosecutable act?

I'm not sure.

Which war-era country was the Holocaust mortalized?

I'm not sure.

Which group convened officially for the first time in 1948?

I'm not sure.

Following World War II, whose bid was successful in the crime of genocide?

I'm not sure.

While recognizing genocide, what did Nazi Germany fail to do in its resolution?

I'm not sure.

In 1948, what general assembly resolution established universal acceptance as a prosecutable act?

I'm not sure.

In which war-era country was the CPPCG immortalized?

I'm not sure.

Which group eonvene officially for the first time in 1948?

I'm not sure.


The first draft of the Convention included political killings, but these provisions were removed in a political and diplomatic compromise following objections from some countries, including the USSR, a permanent security council member. The USSR argued that the Convention's definition should follow the etymology of the term, and may have feared greater international scrutiny of its own Great Purge. Other nations feared that including political groups in the definition would invite international intervention in domestic politics. However leading genocide scholar William Schabas states: “Rigorous examination of the travaux fails to confirm a popular impression in the literature that the opposition to inclusion of political genocide was some Soviet machination. The Soviet views were also shared by a number of other States for whom it is difficult to establish any geographic or social common denominator: Lebanon, Sweden, Brazil, Peru, Venezuela, the Philippines, the Dominican Republic, Iran, Egypt, Belgium, and Uruguay. The exclusion of political groups was in fact originally promoted by a non-governmental organization, the World Jewish Congress, and it corresponded to Raphael Lemkin’s vision of the nature of the crime of genocide.”

Which provision was initially included in the first write-up of the Convention and then removed?

political killings

What is one of the countries that objected to the inclusion of political killings in the early version of the Convention?

USSR

What atrocity motivated a self-serving USSR to object to the provision of political killings drafted into the Convention?

its own Great Purge

What was the primary concern of other nations who objected to including political groups in the definition of genocide?

international intervention in domestic politics

Which distinguished academic of genocide highlighted several other countries opposed to including political genocide in the Convention?

William Schabas

Which provision was not initially included in the first write-up of the Convention and then removed?

I'm not sure.

What is one of the countries that supported the inclusion of political killings in the early version of the Convention?

I'm not sure.

Which distinguished academic of genocide highlighted several other countries supporting including political genocide in the Convention?

I'm not sure.

What atrocity motivated a self-serving USSR to support the provision of political killings drafted into the Convention?

I'm not sure.

Which provision was initially included in the first write-up of the Jewish Congress and then removed?

I'm not sure.

What is one of the countries that objected to the inclusion of political killings in the early version of the World Jewish Congress?

I'm not sure.

What atrocity motivated a self-serving USSR to object to the provision of machination drafted into the Convention?

I'm not sure.

What was the primary concern of other nations who objected to including political groups in the definition of examination?

I'm not sure.

Which distinguished academic of genocide highlighted several other countries opposed to including examination in the Convention?

I'm not sure.


In 2007 the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR), noted in its judgement on Jorgic v. Germany case that in 1992 the majority of legal scholars took the narrow view that "intent to destroy" in the CPPCG meant the intended physical-biological destruction of the protected group and that this was still the majority opinion. But the ECHR also noted that a minority took a broader view and did not consider biological-physical destruction was necessary as the intent to destroy a national, racial, religious or ethnic group was enough to qualify as genocide.

In 2007 what former case did the European Court of Human Rights draw on to further refine qualifiers of genocide?

Jorgic v. Germany

Which group was accused by the ECHR of having an overly constricted idea of the meaning of destruction in defining genocide?

majority of legal scholars

What form of destruction was considered too limited by a smaller group of experts?

biological-physical

What groups did the ECHR feel should be included as potential victims of genocide?

national, racial, religious or ethnic

What former case did the European Court of Human Rights draw on in 2002 to further refine qualifiers of genocide?

I'm not sure.

Which group was not accused by the ECHR of having an overly constricted idea of the meaning of destruction in defining genocide?

I'm not sure.

What form of destruction was considered  unlimited by a smaller group of experts?

I'm not sure.

What groups did the ECHR feel should not be included as potential victims of genocide?

I'm not sure.

in 2007 what former case did the Euopean Court of Human Rights draw onto further refine qualifiers of CPPCG?

I'm not sure.

Which group was accused by the ECHR of having an overly constricted idea of the meaning of destruction in defining CPPCG?

I'm not sure.

What form of destruction was considered too limited by the Germany?

I'm not sure.

What groups did the ECHR feel should be included as potential victims of CPPCG?

I'm not sure.

When did the majority of legal scholars take a narrow view on genocide?

I'm not sure.


In the same judgement the ECHR reviewed the judgements of several international and municipal courts judgements. It noted that International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia and the International Court of Justice had agreed with the narrow interpretation, that biological-physical destruction was necessary for an act to qualify as genocide. The ECHR also noted that at the time of its judgement, apart from courts in Germany which had taken a broad view, that there had been few cases of genocide under other Convention States municipal laws and that "There are no reported cases in which the courts of these States have defined the type of group destruction the perpetrator must have intended in order to be found guilty of genocide".

In its preparations, what was the source of other considerations by the ECHR?

the judgements of several international and municipal courts

Two bodies of the United Nations agreed with what restricted provision in defining genocide?

that biological-physical destruction was necessary

Which country's courts were noted by the ECHR for taking a wider stance on provisions of genocide laws?

Germany

The ECHR found most states to have largely undefined definitions of group destruction, despite what factor?

Convention States municipal laws

A definition of what, by the States, was necessary to preserve and expand genocidal law?

the type of group destruction

In its preparations, what was the source of other considerations by the International Court of Justice?

I'm not sure.

On what restricted provision in defining municipal laws did two bodies of the United Nations agree?

I'm not sure.

Which country's courts were noted by the ECHR for taking a wider stance on provisions of municipal laws?

I'm not sure.

The ECHR found most states to have largely undefined definitions of courts, despite what factor?

I'm not sure.

A definition of what, by the States, was necessary to preserve and expand municipal law?

I'm not sure.


The phrase "in whole or in part" has been subject to much discussion by scholars of international humanitarian law. The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia found in Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic – Trial Chamber I – Judgment – IT-98-33 (2001) ICTY8 (2 August 2001) that Genocide had been committed. In Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic – Appeals Chamber – Judgment – IT-98-33 (2004) ICTY 7 (19 April 2004) paragraphs 8, 9, 10, and 11 addressed the issue of in part and found that "the part must be a substantial part of that group. The aim of the Genocide Convention is to prevent the intentional destruction of entire human groups, and the part targeted must be significant enough to have an impact on the group as a whole." The Appeals Chamber goes into details of other cases and the opinions of respected commentators on the Genocide Convention to explain how they came to this conclusion.

Which phrase is especially contentious within international humanitarian law?

"in whole or in part"

What 2001 case was declared genocide by the International Criminal Tribune for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY)?

Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic

In the judgement, it is stated that the aim of the Genocide Convention, at its most simplest, is preventing the destruction of which victims?

entire human groups

In addressing the issue of "in part," the Appeals Chamber found that the part must be a substantial part of what?

that group

Who contributed to guiding the Appeals chamber in its conclusion?

opinions of respected commentators

Which phrase is especially contentious within human groups?

I'm not sure.

What 2001 case was declared genocide by humanitarian law?

I'm not sure.

In the judgement, it is stated that the aim of the Genocide Convention, at its most simplest, is preventing the opinions of which victims?

I'm not sure.

What did the ITCY find that the part must be a substantial part of while addressing the issue of "in part"?

I'm not sure.

Who contributed to guiding the ICTY in its conclusion?

I'm not sure.


The judges continue in paragraph 12, "The determination of when the targeted part is substantial enough to meet this requirement may involve a number of considerations. The numeric size of the targeted part of the group is the necessary and important starting point, though not in all cases the ending point of the inquiry. The number of individuals targeted should be evaluated not only in absolute terms, but also in relation to the overall size of the entire group. In addition to the numeric size of the targeted portion, its prominence within the group can be a useful consideration. If a specific part of the group is emblematic of the overall group, or is essential to its survival, that may support a finding that the part qualifies as substantial within the meaning of Article 4 [of the Tribunal's Statute]."

Several considerations were involved in meeting the requirement to determine what?

when the targeted part is substantial enough

What is the key aspect of the targeted part of the group at the starting point of the inquiry?

The numeric size

The number of people targeted in a genocide should not be solely evaluated by what?

absolute terms

In addition to the numeric size of a targeted group, what other consideration was useful to the ICTY?

prominence within the group

What is determined after several individuals are involved in meeting the requirement?

I'm not sure.

What is the key aspect of the targeted part of the group at the absolute term?

I'm not sure.

What should the number of people targeted in Article 4 not be solely evaluated by?

I'm not sure.

What other consideration was useful to the Article 4 in addition to the numeric size of a targeted group?

I'm not sure.

What is the necessary emblematic?

I'm not sure.


In paragraph 13 the judges raise the issue of the perpetrators' access to the victims: "The historical examples of genocide also suggest that the area of the perpetrators’ activity and control, as well as the possible extent of their reach, should be considered. ... The intent to destroy formed by a perpetrator of genocide will always be limited by the opportunity presented to him. While this factor alone will not indicate whether the targeted group is substantial, it can—in combination with other factors—inform the analysis."

The issue of what is raised by judges in Paragraph 13?

perpetrators' access to the victims

What is the basis for suggesting that several factors regarding the activity of the perpetrators be considered?

historical examples of genocide

The extent of what by the perpetrators was considered in an examination of their activity and level of control?

possible extent of their reach

What will always be restricted in terms of a perpetrator's intent to destroy?

the opportunity presented to him

While the factor cannot independently indicate if the targeted group is substantial, it can do what?

inform the analysis

What issue is raised by other factors in Paragraph 13?

I'm not sure.

What is the basis for suggesting that several factors regarding the victims be considered?

I'm not sure.

The extent of what by the perpetrators was considered in an examination of their analysis?

I'm not sure.

What will always be restricted in terms of a victim's intent to destroy?

I'm not sure.

What can historical examples do, even though they cannot independently indicate if the targeted group is substantial?

I'm not sure.


The Convention came into force as international law on 12 January 1951 after the minimum 20 countries became parties. At that time however, only two of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council were parties to the treaty: France and the Republic of China. The Soviet Union ratified in 1954, the United Kingdom in 1970, the People's Republic of China in 1983 (having replaced the Taiwan-based Republic of China on the UNSC in 1971), and the United States in 1988. This long delay in support for the Convention by the world's most powerful nations caused the Convention to languish for over four decades. Only in the 1990s did the international law on the crime of genocide begin to be enforced.

On which date did the Genocide Convention become effective?

12 January 1951

What was the minimum number of countries necessary to form parties?

Of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council, how many were parties to the treaty?

only two

What member ratified in 1970?

the United Kingdom

The delay in support by certain powerful members meant the Convention was largely powerless for over how many decades?

four

On which date did China become effective?

I'm not sure.

What was the minimum number of countries necessary to form laws?

I'm not sure.

How many of the five permanent member s of China were parties to the treaty?

I'm not sure.

What member enforced in 1970?

I'm not sure.

What member enforced in 1983?

I'm not sure.


Writing in 1998 Kurt Jonassohn and Karin Björnson stated that the CPPCG was a legal instrument resulting from a diplomatic compromise. As such the wording of the treaty is not intended to be a definition suitable as a research tool, and although it is used for this purpose, as it has an international legal credibility that others lack, other definitions have also been postulated. Jonassohn and Björnson go on to say that none of these alternative definitions have gained widespread support for various reasons.

In 1998 it was written that the CPPCG was a legal entity resulting in which type of compromise?

a diplomatic compromise

Rather than a definition, the text of the treaty is considered as what type of tool?

a research tool

What does the treaty possess that others lack?

international legal credibility

The writers Jonassohn and Bjornson cite various reasons for the lack of widespread support of what?

alternative definitions

What caused was written Jonassohn and Bjornson to become a legal instrument?

I'm not sure.

What type of tool is the definition considered rather than a definition?

I'm not sure.

What does the definition possess that others lack?

I'm not sure.

What has not gaind widespread support according to the CPPCG?

I'm not sure.

Who stated that the CPPCG was a research tool?

I'm not sure.


Jonassohn and Björnson postulate that the major reason why no single generally accepted genocide definition has emerged is because academics have adjusted their focus to emphasise different periods and have found it expedient to use slightly different definitions to help them interpret events. For example, Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn studied the whole of human history, while Leo Kuper and R. J. Rummel in their more recent works concentrated on the 20th century, and Helen Fein, Barbara Harff and Ted Gurr have looked at post World War II events. Jonassohn and Björnson are critical of some of these studies, arguing that they are too expansive, and conclude that the academic discipline of genocide studies is too young to have a canon of work on which to build an academic paradigm.

What two writers examined the lack of an accepted and singular definition for genocide?

Jonassohn and Björnson

The two writers suggested that academics adjusted what in their different definitions to assist them in interpreting events?

their focus

What writer joined Jonassohn in the study of the whole of human history?

Frank Chalk

With whom was Leo Kuper paired in research that focused on 20th century works?

R. J. Rummel

Two women and what man concentrated on post World War II events?

Ted Gurr

What two writers examined the lack of an accepted and singular definition for academics?

I'm not sure.

The two writers suggested that academics adjusted what in their different definitions to assist them in interpreting paradigms?

I'm not sure.

What writer joined Jonassohn in the study of definitions?

I'm not sure.

With whom was Leo Kuper paired in research that focused on definitions?

I'm not sure.

Two women and what man concentrated on academic paradigms?

I'm not sure.


The exclusion of social and political groups as targets of genocide in the CPPCG legal definition has been criticized by some historians and sociologists, for example M. Hassan Kakar in his book The Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response, 1979–1982 argues that the international definition of genocide is too restricted, and that it should include political groups or any group so defined by the perpetrator and quotes Chalk and Jonassohn: "Genocide is a form of one-sided mass killing in which a state or other authority intends to destroy a group, as that group and membership in it are defined by the perpetrator." While there are various definitions of the term, Adam Jones states that the majority of genocide scholars consider that "intent to destroy" is a requirement for any act to be labelled genocide, and that there is growing agreement on the inclusion of the physical destruction criterion.

Some historians were critical of what exclusion in the definition of victims of genocide?

social and political groups

In what book did Kakar contend that the international definition of genocide was too narrow?

The Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response

Kakar argued that the definition should include any group defined by the perpetrator and which other group?

political groups

In the writing of Chalk and Jonassohn, what is stated to be a form of one-sided mass killing?

Genocide

In further elaborating on the definition, how did Chalk and Jonassohn phrase the intention of the perpetrator?

intends to destroy a group

what exclusion were some historians critical of in the definition of victims of authority?

I'm not sure.

In what book did Kakar contend that the international definition of perpetrator was too narrow?

I'm not sure.

Which other group besides the perpetrator did Kakar argue the definition of criterion should include any group defined by?

I'm not sure.

What is stated to be a form of physical destruction in the writing of Chalk and Jonassohn?

I'm not sure.

How did Chalk and Jonassohn phrase the intention of the sociologists?

I'm not sure.


Barbara Harff and Ted Gurr defined genocide as "the promotion and execution of policies by a state or its agents which result in the deaths of a substantial portion of a group ...[when] the victimized groups are defined primarily in terms of their communal characteristics, i.e., ethnicity, religion or nationality." Harff and Gurr also differentiate between genocides and politicides by the characteristics by which members of a group are identified by the state. In genocides, the victimized groups are defined primarily in terms of their communal characteristics, i.e., ethnicity, religion or nationality. In politicides the victim groups are defined primarily in terms of their hierarchical position or political opposition to the regime and dominant groups. Daniel D. Polsby and Don B. Kates, Jr. state that "... we follow Harff's distinction between genocides and 'pogroms,' which she describes as 'short-lived outbursts by mobs, which, although often condoned by authorities, rarely persist.' If the violence persists for long enough, however, Harff argues, the distinction between condonation and complicity collapses."

Harff and Gurr's definition of genocide included the promotion and execution of what, by a state or its agents?

policies

Harff and Gurr further defined what in terms of ethnicity, religion or nationality?

victimized groups

What was important to Harff and Gurr to distinguish from genocides?

politicides

Along with ethnicity and and religion, what other characteristic defined a member of a victimized group?

nationality

What did Harff define as "short-lived outbursts by mobs...?"

pogroms

Haff and Gurr's definition of opposition included the promotion and execution of what by a state or its agents?

I'm not sure.

What did Harff and Gurr further define in terms of outbursts?

I'm not sure.

What was important to Harff and Gurr to distinguish between opposition?

I'm not sure.

What other characteristic defined a member of a regime along with ethnicity and religion?

I'm not sure.

What did Harff define as "short-lived outbursts by the state?"

I'm not sure.


According to R. J. Rummel, genocide has 3 different meanings. The ordinary meaning is murder by government of people due to their national, ethnic, racial, or religious group membership. The legal meaning of genocide refers to the international treaty, the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. This also includes non-killings that in the end eliminate the group, such as preventing births or forcibly transferring children out of the group to another group. A generalized meaning of genocide is similar to the ordinary meaning but also includes government killings of political opponents or otherwise intentional murder. It is to avoid confusion regarding what meaning is intended that Rummel created the term democide for the third meaning.

In the writings of Rummel, what is the first and ordinary meaning of genocide?

murder by government

Rummel postulates that murder of people of government is due to national, ethnic, racial and which other membership?

religious group

The legal meaning of genocide is contained in which international treaty?

Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

Included in the CPPCG is non-killings that ultimately achieve what end?

eliminate the group

In the interpretation of non-killings, the CPPCG cites the forceful relocation of children along with what other factor?

preventing births

In the writings of Rummel, what is the first and ordinary meaning of opponentsl?

I'm not sure.

Which other membership besides national, ethnic, and racial does Rommul postulate that murder of people by government is due to?

I'm not sure.

In which international treaty is the legal meaning of opponents contained?

I'm not sure.

What end is achieved by non-killings included in the democide?

I'm not sure.

What other factor along with the forceful relocation of political opponents does the the CPPCG cite in the interpretation of non-killings?

I'm not sure.


Highlighting the potential for state and non-state actors to commit genocide in the 21st century, for example, in failed states or as non-state actors acquire weapons of mass destruction, Adrian Gallagher defined genocide as 'When a source of collective power (usually a state) intentionally uses its power base to implement a process of destruction in order to destroy a group (as defined by the perpetrator), in whole or in substantial part, dependent upon relative group size'. The definition upholds the centrality of intent, the multidimensional understanding of destroy, broadens the definition of group identity beyond that of the 1948 definition yet argues that a substantial part of a group has to be destroyed before it can be classified as genocide (dependent on relative group size).

In terms of failed states and non-state actors, the possession of weapons of mass destruction was an issue examined by which writer?

Adrian Gallagher

In Gallagher's definition of genocide, a source of what is malicious in it implementation of the destruction of a group?

collective power

Gallagher's definition upholds the centrality of what?

intent

The centrality of intent broadens what definition, beyond the 1948 one?

group identity

In order for a genocide classification to happen, a major part of a group has to be what?

destroyed

Which writer examined the possession of identity?

I'm not sure.

A source of what uses its power to implement destruction in Gallagher's definition of process?

I'm not sure.

The centrality of what does Gallagher's definition uphold?

I'm not sure.

The centrality of intent broadens what definition beyond the Gallagher one?

I'm not sure.

A major part of a group has to be what in order for the centrality of intent classification to happen?

I'm not sure.


All signatories to the CPPCG are required to prevent and punish acts of genocide, both in peace and wartime, though some barriers make this enforcement difficult. In particular, some of the signatories—namely, Bahrain, Bangladesh, India, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, the United States, Vietnam, Yemen, and former Yugoslavia—signed with the proviso that no claim of genocide could be brought against them at the International Court of Justice without their consent. Despite official protests from other signatories (notably Cyprus and Norway) on the ethics and legal standing of these reservations, the immunity from prosecution they grant has been invoked from time to time, as when the United States refused to allow a charge of genocide brought against it by former Yugoslavia following the 1999 Kosovo War.

Signatories to the CPPC are required to prevent and punish what?

acts of genocide

During which times can a perpetrator of genocide be charged?

both in peace and wartime

In enforcing a charge of genocide, what loophole do many of the signatories possess?

no claim of genocide could be brought against them

What major western power is exempt from charges or claims of genocide against itself?

the United States

Along with Cyprus, what other major signatory official protested the the immunity of others from prosecution of genocide?

Norway

What are Signatories to the Kosovo War are required to prevent and punish what?

I'm not sure.

During which times can a perpetrator of reservations be charged?

I'm not sure.

what loophole  do many of the courts possess in enforcing a charge of genocide?

I'm not sure.

What major western power is exempt from charges or claims of reservation against itself?

I'm not sure.

Along with Cyprus, what other major signatory official protested the immunity of others from the prosecution of reservation?

I'm not sure.


Because the universal acceptance of international laws which in 1948 defined and forbade genocide with the promulgation of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG), those criminals who were prosecuted after the war in international courts for taking part in the Holocaust were found guilty of crimes against humanity and other more specific crimes like murder. Nevertheless, the Holocaust is universally recognized to have been a genocide and the term, that had been coined the year before by Raphael Lemkin, appeared in the indictment of the 24 Nazi leaders, Count 3, which stated that all the defendants had "conducted deliberate and systematic genocide—namely, the extermination of racial and national groups..."

In 1948 the worldwide acceptance of international laws that defined and forbade genocide was promulgated by which treaty?

Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

Perpetrators who were tried after World War II were in general found guilty of crimes against what?

humanity

An example of a more specific genocidal crime of which one could be accused was what?

crimes like murder

After WWII criminals were largely prosecuted under CPPCG for their involvement in what massive genocidal effort?

the Holocaust

Who is notable for coining the term "Holocaust?"

Raphael Lemkin

Which treaty in 1948 defined and forbade promulgation?

I'm not sure.

What were CPPCG who were tried after World War found guilty of?

I'm not sure.

What is an example of a more specific international crime of which one could be accused?

I'm not sure.

What massive genocidal effort were criminals largely prosecuted after count 3 for?

I'm not sure.

Who is notable for coining the term "extermination?"

I'm not sure.


On 12 July 2007, European Court of Human Rights when dismissing the appeal by Nikola Jorgić against his conviction for genocide by a German court (Jorgic v. Germany) noted that the German courts wider interpretation of genocide has since been rejected by international courts considering similar cases. The ECHR also noted that in the 21st century "Amongst scholars, the majority have taken the view that ethnic cleansing, in the way in which it was carried out by the Serb forces in Bosnia and Herzegovina in order to expel Muslims and Croats from their homes, did not constitute genocide. However, there are also a considerable number of scholars who have suggested that these acts did amount to genocide, and the ICTY has found in the Momcilo Krajisnik case that the actus reu, of genocide was met in Prijedor "With regard to the charge of genocide, the Chamber found that in spite of evidence of acts perpetrated in the municipalities which constituted the actus reus of genocide".

Which court dismissed Nikola Jorgic's appeal against his conviction for genocide by a German court?

European Court of Human Rights

In Jorgic v. Germany, what about the German courts was later rejected by international courts hearing similar cases?

wider interpretation of genocide

The ECHR noted that among certain academics, what act carried out by the Serbs agains Bosnian Muslims and Croats did not constitute genocide?

ethnic cleansing

The ethnic cleansing perpetrated by the Serbs against Bosnia-Herzegovina was conducted with what ultimate goal in mind?

expel Muslims and Croats from their homes

Conversely the scholars who did view the Serbs' acts as constituting genocide, were backed up by what Tribunal?

the ICTY

Which court dismissed Nikola Jorgic's appeal against his conviction for cleansing by a German court?

I'm not sure.

In Jorgic v. Germany, what about the European courts was later rejected by international courts hearing similar cases?

I'm not sure.

What act carried about by the ECHR against Bosnian Muslims and Croats did not constitute genocide?

I'm not sure.

What Tribunal backed up scholars who have ethnic cleansing?

I'm not sure.

What was the ultimate goal of the ethnic cleansing perpetuated by the ECHR?

I'm not sure.


About 30 people have been indicted for participating in genocide or complicity in genocide during the early 1990s in Bosnia. To date, after several plea bargains and some convictions that were successfully challenged on appeal two men, Vujadin Popović and Ljubiša Beara, have been found guilty of committing genocide, Zdravko Tolimir has been found guilty of committing genocide and conspiracy to commit genocide, and two others, Radislav Krstić and Drago Nikolić, have been found guilty of aiding and abetting genocide. Three others have been found guilty of participating in genocides in Bosnia by German courts, one of whom Nikola Jorgić lost an appeal against his conviction in the European Court of Human Rights. A further eight men, former members of the Bosnian Serb security forces were found guilty of genocide by the State Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina (See List of Bosnian genocide prosecutions).

In the 1990s, how many people were indicted for war crimes that were officially defined as genocide?

About 30

Convicted perpetrators Popovic and Beara were found guilty of genocide despite what evasive action?

several plea bargains

Tolimir was found guilty of both genocide and what other charge?

conspiracy to commit genocide

Another charge beyond the act of genocide and for which Krstic and Nikolic were found guilty was what?

aiding and abetting genocide

Three others were charged with participating in genocides in Bosnia by which country's courts?

German courts

In the 1990s, how many people were indicted for plea bargins?

I'm not sure.

What evasive action did not keep Tolmir from being found guilty?

I'm not sure.

What other charge besides genocide was Beara found guilty of?

I'm not sure.

What was another charge beyond the act for which Popovic was found guilty?

I'm not sure.

In which country's courts were three others charged with aiding and abbeting?

I'm not sure.


Slobodan Milošević, as the former President of Serbia and of Yugoslavia, was the most senior political figure to stand trial at the ICTY. He died on 11 March 2006 during his trial where he was accused of genocide or complicity in genocide in territories within Bosnia and Herzegovina, so no verdict was returned. In 1995, the ICTY issued a warrant for the arrest of Bosnian Serbs Radovan Karadžić and Ratko Mladić on several charges including genocide. On 21 July 2008, Karadžić was arrested in Belgrade, and he is currently in The Hague on trial accused of genocide among other crimes. Ratko Mladić was arrested on 26 May 2011 by Serbian special police in Lazarevo, Serbia. Karadzic was convicted of ten of the eleven charges laid against him and sentenced to 40 years in prison on March 24 2016.

Which former president was by far the most senior politician to be accused of genocidal crimes by the ICTY?

Slobodan Milošević

What event occurred in March 2006 that essentially ended Milosevic's trial?

He died

Had Milosevic not died, what charges might he have been convicted of?

genocide or complicity in genocide

With Milosevic dead, who did the ICTY next charge with crimes of genocide in 1995?

Radovan Karadžić and Ratko Mladić

Where was Karadzic when he was finally arrested?

Belgrade

What event occurred in 1995 that essentially ended Milosevic's trial?

I'm not sure.

Where was Karadzic when he was sentenced?

I'm not sure.

With Milosevic dead, who did Karadzic next charge with grimes of genocide in 1995?

I'm not sure.

Had Karadzic not died, what charges might he have been convicted of?

I'm not sure.

Which former president was by far the most senior politician to be accused of genocidal crimes by Karadzic?

I'm not sure.


The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) is a court under the auspices of the United Nations for the prosecution of offenses committed in Rwanda during the genocide which occurred there during April 1994, commencing on 6 April. The ICTR was created on 8 November 1994 by the Security Council of the United Nations in order to judge those people responsible for the acts of genocide and other serious violations of the international law performed in the territory of Rwanda, or by Rwandan citizens in nearby states, between 1 January and 31 December 1994.

What court was established under the aegis of the United Nations to prosecute genocidal crimes in Rwanda?

International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR)

The prosecutorial efforts of the ICTR focused on genocidal acts that took place during which time period?

April 1994

the ICTR was created in November 1995 by which branch of the UN?

the Security Council of the United Nations

The ICTR was established for the purpose of convicting those responsible for acts of genocide and what other charges?

serious violations of the international law

The charges of genocide brought up by the ICTR were against what group of people?

Rwandan citizens

What court was established to prosecute genocidal crimes in the United Nations?

I'm not sure.

During which time period did the prosecuratorial efforts of Rwanda focus on genocidal acts?

I'm not sure.

Which branch of the UN created Rwanda in November 1995?

I'm not sure.

What other charges besides genocide was the ITCR convicted of?

I'm not sure.

What group of people were the charges of genocide brought up against in April 1994?

I'm not sure.


There has been much debate over categorizing the situation in Darfur as genocide. The ongoing conflict in Darfur, Sudan, which started in 2003, was declared a "genocide" by United States Secretary of State Colin Powell on 9 September 2004 in testimony before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee. Since that time however, no other permanent member of the UN Security Council followed suit. In fact, in January 2005, an International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur, authorized by UN Security Council Resolution 1564 of 2004, issued a report to the Secretary-General stating that "the Government of the Sudan has not pursued a policy of genocide." Nevertheless, the Commission cautioned that "The conclusion that no genocidal policy has been pursued and implemented in Darfur by the Government authorities, directly or through the militias under their control, should not be taken in any way as detracting from the gravity of the crimes perpetrated in that region. International offences such as the crimes against humanity and war crimes that have been committed in Darfur may be no less serious and heinous than genocide."

What has been widely debated as a possible act of genocide in Sudan?

situation in Darfur

In 2003 what well known U.S. Secretary of State declared the situation in Darfur as an act of genocide?

Colin Powell

In front of which committee did Powell testify?

the Senate Foreign Relations Committee

What did UN Security Council Resolution 1564 authorize in 2004?

an International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur

Despite some concessions, what act did the Commission ultimately state that Sudan had not pursued?

genocidal policy

What has been widely debated as a possible act of genocide in the UN?

I'm not sure.

In 2003 what well known U.S. Secretary of State declared the situation in the UN as an act of genocide?

I'm not sure.

In front of which committee did Darfur testify?

I'm not sure.

What did UN Security Council Resolution 1564 authorize in 2005?

I'm not sure.

Despite some concessions, what act did the Commission ultimately state that the UN had not pursued?

I'm not sure.


In March 2005, the Security Council formally referred the situation in Darfur to the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, taking into account the Commission report but without mentioning any specific crimes. Two permanent members of the Security Council, the United States and China, abstained from the vote on the referral resolution. As of his fourth report to the Security Council, the Prosecutor has found "reasonable grounds to believe that the individuals identified [in the UN Security Council Resolution 1593] have committed crimes against humanity and war crimes," but did not find sufficient evidence to prosecute for genocide.

To whom did the Security Council officially refer the situation in Darfur?

Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court

What was taken into account, without mentioning specific crimes?

the Commission report

China and what other permanent member of the Security Council abstained from the vote on the referral resolution?

the United States

In which number report to the Council did the Prosecutor concede that crimes had been committed but evidence for prosecution was insufficient?

his fourth report

To whom did the Security Council officially refer the situation in China?

I'm not sure.

What was taken into account without mentioning specific councils?

I'm not sure.

China and what other permanent member of the Security Council abstained from the vote on crimes?

I'm not sure.

In which number report to the Council did the Prosecutor concede that crimes had been committed but evidence for prosecution was sufficient?

I'm not sure.

When did the Security Council formally refer the situation in Darfur to China?

I'm not sure.


Other authors have focused on the structural conditions leading up to genocide and the psychological and social processes that create an evolution toward genocide. Ervin Staub showed that economic deterioration and political confusion and disorganization were starting points of increasing discrimination and violence in many instances of genocides and mass killing. They lead to scapegoating a group and ideologies that identified that group as an enemy. A history of devaluation of the group that becomes the victim, past violence against the group that becomes the perpetrator leading to psychological wounds, authoritarian cultures and political systems, and the passivity of internal and external witnesses (bystanders) all contribute to the probability that the violence develops into genocide. Intense conflict between groups that is unresolved, becomes intractable and violent can also lead to genocide. The conditions that lead to genocide provide guidance to early prevention, such as humanizing a devalued group, creating ideologies that embrace all groups, and activating bystander responses. There is substantial research to indicate how this can be done, but information is only slowly transformed into action.

In the build-up to genocide, what have other authors focused on?

structural conditions

What processes are thought to create an evolution toward genocide?

psychological and social

Who revealed the starting points of this evolution to be economic deterioration and political confusion?

Ervin Staub

A history of what is just one factor that contributes to the probability of violence developing into genocide?

devaluation of the group

What is one preventive effort in circumventing conditions that lead to genocide?

humanizing a devalued group

In the build-up to genocide, what have other bystanders focused on?

I'm not sure.

What processees are thought to create an evolution toward conflict?

I'm not sure.

Who revealed the starting points of this evolution to be genocide?

I'm not sure.

A history of what is just one factor that contributes to the probability of political systems developing into genocide?

I'm not sure.

What is one preventive effort in cirumventing conditions that lead to responses?

I'm not sure.


Saint-Barthélemy (French: Saint-Barthélemy, French pronunciation: [sɛ̃baʁtelemi]), officially the Territorial collectivity of Saint-Barthélemy (French: Collectivité territoriale de Saint-Barthélemy), is an overseas collectivity of France. Often abbreviated to Saint-Barth in French, or St. Barts or St. Barths in English, the indigenous people called the island Ouanalao. St. Barthélemy lies about 35 kilometres (22 mi) southeast of St. Martin and north of St. Kitts. Puerto Rico is 240 kilometres (150 mi) to the west in the Greater Antilles.

What country is Saint-Barthélemy a collectivity of?

France

What is the French abbreviation for Saint-Barthélemy?

Saint-Barth

In what language is Saint-Barthélemy abbreviate St. Barts?

English

What did the native peoples of Saint-Barthélemy call the island?

Ouanalao

In which direction is Puerto Rico from the island of Saint-Barthélemy?

west

How far is St. Kitts from St. Martin?

I'm not sure.

How far is Puerto Rico from St. Kitts?

I'm not sure.

How far is Saint-Barthelemy from France?

I'm not sure.

In what direction is France from St. Barts?

I'm not sure.

What did the indigenous people of Puerto Rico call their island?

I'm not sure.


Saint Barthélemy, a volcanic island fully encircled by shallow reefs, has an area of 25 square kilometres (9.7 sq mi) and a population of 9,035 (Jan. 2011 estimate). Its capital is Gustavia[citation needed], which also contains the main harbour to the island. It is the only Caribbean island which was a Swedish colony for any significant length of time; Guadeloupe was under Swedish rule only briefly at the end of the Napoleonic Wars. Symbolism from the Swedish national arms, the Three Crowns, still appears in the island's coat of arms. The language, cuisine, and culture, however, are distinctly French. The island is a popular tourist destination during the winter holiday season, especially for the rich and famous during the Christmas and new year period.

What kind of island is St. Barts?

volcanic

What is the population of St. Barts?

What is the capital of St. Barts?

Gustavia

What country besides France had colonies on the island for a substantial period of time?

Swedish

When is the busiest time for tourism in St. Barts?

the winter holiday season

In what year did Guadeloupe fall under Swedish rule briefly?

I'm not sure.

How many people lived in the Swedish colony?

I'm not sure.

How many tourists visit Saint Barthelemy each year?

I'm not sure.

How many people lived in Gustavia as of 2011?

I'm not sure.

What was France's national arms?

I'm not sure.


Saint Barthélemy was for many years a French commune forming part of Guadeloupe, which is an overseas region and department of France. Through a referendum in 2003, island residents sought separation from the administrative jurisdiction of Guadeloupe, and it was finally accomplished in 2007. The island of Saint Barthélemy became an Overseas Collectivity (COM). A governing territorial council was elected for its administration, which has provided the island with a certain degree of autonomy. The Hotel de Ville, which was the town hall, is now the Hotel de la Collectivité. A senator represents the island in Paris. St. Barthélemy has retained its free port status.

St. Barts was formerly a part of what French commune?

Guadeloupe

When did the residents of St. Barts file for separation from Guadeloupe?

When did St. Barts finally received its independence?

What is the current name of the building in St. Barts that serves as town hall?

Hotel de la Collectivité

Who officially represents St. Barts in French legislation?

A senator

In what year was the French commune forming part of Guadeloupe established?

I'm not sure.

In what year was the Hotel de Ville built?

I'm not sure.

In what city does St. Barthelemy have its main port?

I'm not sure.

How many island residents voted in the 2003 referendum?

I'm not sure.

In what year did the Hotel de Ville become the Hotel de la Collectivite?

I'm not sure.


Located approximately 250 kilometres (160 mi) east of Puerto Rico and the nearer Virgin Islands, St. Barthélemy lies immediately southeast of the islands of Saint Martin and Anguilla. It is one of the Renaissance Islands. St. Barthélemy is separated from Saint Martin by the Saint-Barthélemy Channel. It lies northeast of Saba and St Eustatius, and north of St Kitts. Some small satellite islets belong to St. Barthélemy including Île Chevreau (Île Bonhomme), Île Frégate, Île Toc Vers, Île Tortue and Gros Îlets (Îlots Syndare). A much bigger islet, Île Fourchue, lies on the north of the island, in the Saint-Barthélemy Channel. Other rocky islets which include Coco, the Roques (or little Turtle rocks), the Goat, and the Sugarloaf.

How many Miles East of Puerto Rico is St. Barts?

St. Barts is one of the what group of islands?

the Renaissance

What lies between St. Barts and Saint Martin island?

the Saint-Barthélemy Channel

What is Île Frégate in relation to St Barts?

satellite islets

What does "Roques" mean in English?

little Turtle rocks

How far is St. Bart's from Saint Martin?

I'm not sure.

How far is St. Bart's from Anguilla?

I'm not sure.

In what direction does the Sugarloaf lie from St. Barts?

I'm not sure.

In what direction does Cocol lie from St. Barts?

I'm not sure.

In what direction does the Roques lie from St. Barts?

I'm not sure.


Grande Saline Bay provides temporary anchorage for small vessels while Colombier Bay, to the northwest, has a 4 fathoms patch near mid entrance. In the bight of St. Jean Bay there is a narrow cut through the reef. The north and east sides of the island are fringed, to a short distance from the shore, by a visible coral reef. Reefs are mostly in shallow waters and are clearly visible. The coastal areas abound with beaches and many of these have offshore reefs, some of which are part of a marine reserve.

What is the name of the deepest bay at St Barts?

Colombier Bay

Grande Saline Bay provides docking for what kind of boats?

small

The North and East sides of St. Barts are fringed by what?

visible coral reef

Reefs are almost always in what type of water?

shallow

Some of the offshore reefs of St. Barts are part of what?

a marine reserve

How deep is Grande Saline Bay?

I'm not sure.

How deep is St. Jean Bay?

I'm not sure.

How deep do most of the coral reefs lie?

I'm not sure.

In what direction does St. Jean Bay lie from Colombier Bay?

I'm not sure.

In what direction does Grande Saline Bay lie from St. Jean Bay?

I'm not sure.


There are as many as 22 public beaches (most beaches on St Barthélémy are known as "Anse de..." etc. ) of which 15 are considered suitable for swimming. They are categorized and divided into two groups, the leeward side (calm waters protected by the island itself) and windward side (some of which are protected by hills and reefs). The windward beaches are popular for windsurfing. The beach of St Jean is suitable for water sports and facilities have been created for that purpose. The long beach at Lorient has shade and is a quiet beach as compared to St. Jean.

How many public beaches are there in St. Barts?

How many beaches in St. Barts are suitable to swim in?

What is the portion of the island called that is protected from the sea by the island itself?

leeward

What is the portion of the island called that is open to the storms and high sea winds?

windward

The windward side of St. Barts is popular for what type of activity?

windsurfing

How many leeward side beaches are there?

I'm not sure.

How many windward side beaches are there?

I'm not sure.

What are leeward side beaches popular for?

I'm not sure.

What side of the island is beach of Lorient on?

I'm not sure.

What side of the island is the beach of St. Jean on?

I'm not sure.


The island covers an area of 25 square kilometres (2,500 ha). The eastern side is wetter than the western. Although the climate is essentially arid, the rainfall does average 1000 mm annually, but with considerable variation over the terrain. Summer is from May to November, which is also the rainy season. Winter from December to April is the dry season. Sunshine is very prominent for nearly the entire year and even during the rainy season. Humidity, however, is not very high due to the winds. The average temperature is around 25 °C with day temperatures rising to 32 °C. The average high and low temperatures in January are 28 °C and 22 °C, respectively, while in July they are 30 °C and 24 °C. The lowest night temperature recorded is 13 °C. The Caribbean sea waters in the vicinity generally maintain a temperature of about 27 °C.

What type of climate does St. Barts typically have?

arid

How many hectares does the island have in total?

How much average rainfall does St. Barts get per year?

1000 mm

When does summer end in St. Barts?

November

What is the lowest nighttime temperature recorded at St. Barts?

13 °C

How much water falls on average on the eastern side per year?

I'm not sure.

How much rainfall comes down during the dry season on average?

I'm not sure.

What is the average temperature throughout the dry season?

I'm not sure.

What is the average temperature throughout the rainy season?

I'm not sure.

How much rainfall falls each year on average during the rainy season?

I'm not sure.


Residents of Saint-Barthélemy (Saint-Barthélemoise people) are French citizens and work at establishments on the island. Most of them are descendants of the first settlers, of Breton, Norman, Poitevin, Saintongeais and Angevin lineage. French is the native tongue of the population. English is understood in hotels and restaurants, and a small population of Anglophones have been resident in Gustavia for many years. The St. Barthélemy French patois is spoken by some 500–700 people in the leeward portion of the island and is superficially related to Quebec French, whereas Créole French is limited to the windward side. Unlike other populations in the Caribbean, language preference between the Créole and Patois is geographically, and not racially, determined.[page needed]

What are the people of St. Barts called?

Saint-Barthélemoise

Of what nation do the people of St. Barts claim citizenship?

French

What is the native language of St. Barts?

French

How does the determination between Patois and Creole French usually determined?

racially

About how many people speak Patois French in St. Barts?

How many people speak English on Saint-Barthelemy?

I'm not sure.

How many Anglophones are there on Saint-Barthelemy?

I'm not sure.

How many people comprised the first settlers?

I'm not sure.

How many people speak Creole French?

I'm not sure.

On what side of the island do the Anglophone community live?

I'm not sure.


On 7 February 2007, the French Parliament passed a bill granting COM status to both St. Barthélemy and (separately) to the neighbouring Saint Martin. The new status took effect on 15 July 2007, when the first territorial council was elected, according to the law. The island has a president (elected every five years), a unicameral Territorial Council of nineteen members who are elected by popular vote and serve for five-year terms, and an executive council of seven members. Elections to these councils were first held on 1 July 2007 with the last election in March 2012.

What island besides St. Barts was granted COM status by France in 2007?

Saint Martin

When did the COM status for St. Barts take effect?

15 July 2007

How many years does a president have in office in St. Barts?

five

How many people are on the Territorial Council?

nineteen

When was the last election held for the executive council positions?

in March 2012

What is COM short for?

I'm not sure.

On what date did the first president begin his term?

I'm not sure.

How is the president elected?

I'm not sure.

How are the executive council members elected?

I'm not sure.

What status did St. Barthelemy have prior to 7 February 2007?

I'm not sure.


One senator represents the island in the French Senate. The first election was held on 21 September 2008 with the last election in September 2014. St. Barthélemy became an overseas territory of the European Union on 1 January 2012, but the island's inhabitants remain French citizens with EU status holding EU passports. France is responsible for the defence of the island and as such has stationed a security force on the island comprising six policemen and thirteen gendarmes (posted on two-year term).

How many senators represent St. Barts in France?

One

What year was the first senate election held for the St. Barts?

When was the last senate election in St. Barts?

September 2014

What organization did St. Barts become a part of in 2012?

the European Union

How many policemen does the French government pay for on St. Barts?

thirteen

On what date in September 2014 was the last election held?

I'm not sure.

How long do the policemen terms last?

I'm not sure.

In what year did St. Barthelemy residents become French citizens?

I'm not sure.

How many senators are there in the French Senate?

I'm not sure.


Agricultural production on the island is difficult given the dry and rocky terrain, but the early settlers managed to produce vegetables, cotton, pineapples, salt, bananas and also fishing. Sweet potato is also grown in patches. The islanders developed commerce through the port of Gustavia. Duty-free port attractions, retail trade, high-end tourism (mostly from North America) and its luxury hotels and villas have increased the island's prosperity, reflected in the high standard of living of its citizens.

What is often difficult on the island?

Agricultural production

What type of activity did early settlers use to get food that didn't involve farming?

fishing

What is the name of the main commercial port in St. Barts?

Gustavia

What is grown in patches on the island?

Sweet potato

What seasoning is found naturally on the island?

salt

How is cotton grown?

I'm not sure.

How are pineapples grown?

I'm not sure.

What was the first vegetable grown on the island by early settlers?

I'm not sure.

What's the most popular fruit at luxury hospitals and villas?

I'm not sure.

How are bananas grown?

I'm not sure.


International investment and the wealth generated by wealthy tourists explain the high standard of living on the island. St. Barthélemy is considered a playground of the rich and famous,[citation needed] especially as a winter haven, and is known for its beaches, gourmet dining and high-end designers. Most of the food is imported by airplane or boat from the US or France. Tourism attracts about 200,000 visitors every year. As a result, there is a boom in house building activity catering to the tourists and also to the permanent residents of the island, with prices as high as €61,200,000 for a beachfront villa.

What besides investment is responsible for the high standard of living on the island?

wealth generated by wealthy tourists

St. Barts is considered a playground for whom?

the rich and famous

Besides boats how does St. Barts import most of its food?

by airplane

How many tourists visit St. Barts each year?

What is the highest propoerty value recorded in St. Barts?

How many homes are built each year?

I'm not sure.

What is the average price of a beachfront villa?

I'm not sure.

How much international investment occurs on St. Barthelemy's each year?

I'm not sure.

How much money do wealthy tourists spend each year on St. Barthelemy?

I'm not sure.

What is the value of the food imported into St. Barthelemy's each year?

I'm not sure.