Leading up to the American Civil War, Baptists became embroiled in the controversy over slavery in the United States. Whereas in the First Great Awakening, Methodist and Baptist preachers had opposed slavery and urged manumission, over the decades they made more of an accommodation with the institution. They worked with slaveholders in the South to urge a paternalistic institution. Both denominations made direct appeals to slaves and free blacks for conversion. The Baptists particularly allowed them active roles in congregations. By the mid-19th century, northern Baptists tended to oppose slavery. As tensions increased, in 1844 the Home Mission Society refused to appoint a slaveholder as a missionary who had been proposed by Georgia. It noted that missionaries could not take servants with them, and also that the Board did not want to appear to condone slavery.

When did Baptists become embroiled in the controversy over slavery in the United States?

Leading up to the American Civil War

When did Methodist and Baptist preachers oppose slavery and urge manumission?

the First Great Awakening

They worked with slaveholders in the South to urge what?

paternalistic institution

What denomination allowed blacks active roles in the congregation?

The Baptists

What refused to appoint a slaveholder as a missionary?

the Home Mission Society

When did Baptists become excluded from the controversy over slavery in the United States?

I'm not sure.

When did Methodist and Baptist preachers promote slavery and urge manumission?

I'm not sure.

What was urged by Baptists working with slaveholders in the North?

I'm not sure.

What denomination disallowed blacks active roles in the congregation?

I'm not sure.

In what year did Home Mission Society appoint a slaveholder as a missionary?

I'm not sure.


As early as the late 18th century, black Baptists began to organize separate churches, associations and mission agencies, especially in the northern states. Not only did blacks set up some independent congregations in the South before the American Civil War, freedmen quickly separated from white congregations and associations after the war. They wanted to be free of white supervision. In 1866 the Consolidated American Baptist Convention, formed from black Baptists of the South and West, helped southern associations set up black state conventions, which they did in Alabama, Arkansas, Virginia, North Carolina, and Kentucky. In 1880 black state conventions united in the national Foreign Mission Convention, to support black Baptist missionary work. Two other national black conventions were formed, and in 1895 they united as the National Baptist Convention. This organization later went through its own changes, spinning off other conventions. It is the largest black religious organization and the second largest Baptist organization in the world. Baptists are numerically most dominant in the Southeast. In 2007, the Pew Research Center's Religious Landscape Survey found that 45% of all African-Americans identify with Baptist denominations, with the vast majority of those being within the historically black tradition.

When did black Baptists began to organize separate churches, associations and mission agencies?

As early as the late 18th century

Who separated from white congregations and associations after the war?

freedmen

Who wanted to be free from white submission?

freedmen

What states setup black conventions?

Alabama, Arkansas, Virginia, North Carolina, and Kentucky

What percentage of all African-Americans identify with Baptist denominations?

When did black Baptists began to organize combined churches, associations and mission agencies?

I'm not sure.

Who separated from black congregations and associations after the war?

I'm not sure.

Who wanted to be free from black supervision?

I'm not sure.

What states setup white conventions?

I'm not sure.

What percentage of all Americans identify with Baptist denominations?

I'm not sure.


Elsewhere in the Americas, in the Caribbean in particular, Baptist missionaries took an active role in the anti-slavery movement. In Jamaica, for example, William Knibb, a prominent British Baptist missionary, worked toward the emancipation of slaves in the British West Indies (which took place in 1838). Knibb also protagonised the creation of "Free Villages"; rural communities centred around a Baptist church where emancipated slaves could farm their own land. Baptists were likewise active in promoting the education of former slaves; for example, Jamaica's Calabar High School, named after the slave port of Calabar, was formed by Baptist missionaries. At the same time, during and after slavery, slaves and free formed their own Spiritual Baptist movements - breakaway spiritual movements which often expressed resistance to oppression.

Where did Baptist missionaries take an active role in the anti-slavery movement?

the Caribbean

Who was a prominent British Baptist missionary in Jamaica?

William Knibb

Where did William Knibb work toward the emancipation of slaves?

the British West Indies

Knibb also protagonised the creation of what?

Free Villages

What was named after the slave port of Calabar?

Jamaica's Calabar High School

Where did Baptist missionaries not take a role in the anti-slavery movement?

I'm not sure.

Who was a prominent British Baptist missionary in America?

I'm not sure.

What was the slave port of Calabar named after?

I'm not sure.

William Knibb protagonised the destruction of what?

I'm not sure.


On 20 June 1995, the Southern Baptist Convention voted to adopt a resolution renouncing its racist roots and apologizing for its past defense of slavery. More than 20,000 Southern Baptists registered for the meeting in Atlanta. The resolution declared that messengers, as SBC delegates are called, "unwaveringly denounce racism, in all its forms, as deplorable sin" and "lament and repudiate historic acts of evil such as slavery from which we continue to reap a bitter harvest." It offered an apology to all African-Americans for "condoning and/or perpetuating individual and systemic racism in our lifetime" and repentance for "racism of which we have been guilty, whether consciously or unconsciously." Although Southern Baptists have condemned racism in the past, this was the first time the predominantly white convention had dealt specifically with the issue of slavery.

When did the Southern Baptist Convention vote to adopt a resolution renouncing its racist roots?

20 June 1995

How many Baptists registered for the meeting in Atlanta?

More than 20,000

SBC delegates are called what?

messengers

When did the Southern Baptist Convention vote to adopt a resolution announcing its racist roots?

I'm not sure.

How many Baptists unregistered for the meeting in Atlanta?

I'm not sure.

SBC delegates are never called what?

I'm not sure.

Who had not condemned racism in the past?

I'm not sure.


Southern Baptist Landmarkism sought to reset the ecclesiastical separation which had characterized the old Baptist churches, in an era when inter-denominational union meetings were the order of the day. James Robinson Graves was an influential Baptist of the 19th century and the primary leader of this movement. While some Landmarkers eventually separated from the Southern Baptist Convention, the influence of the movement on the Convention continued into the 20th century. Its influence continues to affect convention policies. In 2005, the Southern Baptist International Mission Board forbade its missionaries to receive alien immersions for baptism.

What sought to reset the ecclesiastical separation which had characterized the old Baptist churches?

Southern Baptist Landmarkism

Who was an influential Baptist of the 19th century and the primary leader of this movement?

James Robinson Graves

When did the Southern Baptist International Mission Board forbade its missionaries to receive alien immersions for baptism?

In 2005

What sought to include the ecclesiastical separation which had characterized the old Baptist churches?

I'm not sure.

Who was an influential Baptist of the 18th century and the primary leader of this movement?

I'm not sure.

When did the Southern Baptist International Mission Board encourage its missionaries to receive alien immersions for baptism?

I'm not sure.

What influence no longer continues to affect convention policies?

I'm not sure.


Following similar conflicts over modernism, the Southern Baptist Convention adhered to conservative theology as its official position. Two new Baptist groups were formed by moderate Southern Baptists who disagreed with the direction in which the Southern Baptist Convention was heading: the Alliance of Baptists in 1987 and the Cooperative Baptist Fellowship in 1991. Members of both groups originally identified as Southern Baptist, but over time the groups "became permanent new families of Baptists."

The Southern Baptist Convention adhered to what as its official position?

conservative theology

What groups were formed by moderate Southern Baptists?

the Alliance of Baptists in 1987 and the Cooperative Baptist Fellowship in 1991

When was the Alliance of Baptists formed?

When was the Cooperative Baptist Fellowship formed?

Conservative theology was the official position of what?

Southern Baptist Convention

The Southern Baptist Convention never adhered to what as its official position?

I'm not sure.

When did the Alliance of Baptists end?

I'm not sure.

When was the Cooperative Baptist Fellowship destroyed?

I'm not sure.

Conservative theology was never the official position of what?

I'm not sure.

Which Baptist group embraced modernism?

I'm not sure.


Child labour refers to the employment of children in any work that deprives children of their childhood, interferes with their ability to attend regular school, and that is mentally, physically, socially or morally dangerous and harmful. This practice is considered exploitative by many international organisations. Legislation across the world prohibit child labour. These laws do not consider all work by children as child labour; exceptions include work by child artists, family duties, supervised training, certain categories of work such as those by Amish children, some forms of child work common among indigenous American children, and others.

What does child labour deprive children of?

deprives children of their childhood

Are child artists an exception to the laws with regards to child labour?

exceptions include work by child artists

Is work done by Amish children an exception?

work such as those by Amish children

Where is there legislation that prohibits child labour?

Legislation across the world

Is all work done by children considered to be child labour?

These laws do not consider all work by children as child labour


In developing countries, with high poverty and poor schooling opportunities, child labour is still prevalent. In 2010, sub-saharan Africa had the highest incidence rates of child labour, with several African nations witnessing over 50 percent of children aged 5–14 working. Worldwide agriculture is the largest employer of child labour. Vast majority of child labour is found in rural settings and informal urban economy; children are predominantly employed by their parents, rather than factories. Poverty and lack of schools are considered as the primary cause of child labour.

What year did sub-saharan Africa have the highest rates of child labour?

What is the largest employer of child labour?

agriculture

Who are children predominantly employed by?

their parents

Lack of school and this are the primary causes of child labour

Poverty


The work of children was important in pre-industrial societies, as children needed to provide their labour for their survival and that of their group. Pre-industrial societies were characterised by low productivity and short life expectancy, preventing children from participating in productive work would be more harmful to their welfare and that of their group in the long run. In pre-industrial societies, there was little need for children to attend school. This is especially the case in non literate societies. Most pre-industrial skill and knowledge were amenable to being passed down through direct mentoring or apprenticing by competent adults.

Was there a period when child labour was essential?

pre-industrial societies

Was there a great need for childhood education in a pre-industrial society?

little need for children to attend school

Who taught the skills needed for the children to work?

competent adults

Were peopel in pre-industrial societies considered to have long or short lifespans?

short life expectancy


The Victorian era in particular became notorious for the conditions under which children were employed. Children as young as four were employed in production factories and mines working long hours in dangerous, often fatal, working conditions. In coal mines, children would crawl through tunnels too narrow and low for adults. Children also worked as errand boys, crossing sweepers, shoe blacks, or selling matches, flowers and other cheap goods. Some children undertook work as apprentices to respectable trades, such as building or as domestic servants (there were over 120,000 domestic servants in London in the mid-18th century). Working hours were long: builders worked 64 hours a week in summer and 52 in winter, while domestic servants worked 80 hour weeks.

On average how many weekly hours did a domestic servant put in?

Mid-18th century London had how many domestic servants?

over 120,000

What was the youngest age of a child working in a factory?

four

How many hours did builders work in the winter?

Were children able to take on apprenticeships?

Some children undertook work as apprentices to respectable trades


Child labour played an important role in the Industrial Revolution from its outset, often brought about by economic hardship. The children of the poor were expected to contribute to their family income. In 19th-century Great Britain, one-third of poor families were without a breadwinner, as a result of death or abandonment, obliging many children to work from a young age. In England and Scotland in 1788, two-thirds of the workers in 143 water-powered cotton mills were described as children. A high number of children also worked as prostitutes. The author Charles Dickens worked at the age of 12 in a blacking factory, with his family in debtor's prison.

How many families were without a bread winner?

one-third

How many water-powered cotton mills used child labour in 1788 England and Scotland?

Was it a low amount or high amount of children that also worked in prostitution?

high number

Where was Charles Dickens employed as a child?

blacking factory

During the Industrial Revolution what was the main driving force behind child labour?

economic hardship


Throughout the second half of the 19th century, child labour began to decline in industrialised societies due to regulation and economic factors. The regulation of child labour began from the earliest days of the Industrial revolution. The first act to regulate child labour in Britain was passed in 1803. As early as 1802 and 1819 Factory Acts were passed to regulate the working hours of workhouse children in factories and cotton mills to 12 hours per day. These acts were largely ineffective and after radical agitation, by for example the "Short Time Committees" in 1831, a Royal Commission recommended in 1833 that children aged 11–18 should work a maximum of 12 hours per day, children aged 9–11 a maximum of eight hours, and children under the age of nine were no longer permitted to work. This act however only applied to the textile industry, and further agitation led to another act in 1847 limiting both adults and children to 10-hour working days. Lord Shaftesbury was an outspoken advocate of regulating child labour.

During the 19th century was there any advocates for the working children?

Lord Shaftesbury

In 1833 at what age was the limit to working in a textile industry factory?

children under the age of nine

What year were both adults and children only able to work 10 hours a day?

In the 19th century was there an increase or decreased need to child labour?

child labour began to decline

What year did Britain first inact legislation with regards to child labour?


In the early 20th century, thousands of boys were employed in glass making industries. Glass making was a dangerous and tough job especially without the current technologies. The process of making glass includes intense heat to melt glass (3133 °F). When the boys are at work, they are exposed to this heat. This could cause eye trouble, lung ailments, heat exhaustion, cut, and burns. Since workers were paid by the piece, they had to work productively for hours without a break. Since furnaces had to be constantly burning, there were night shifts from 5:00 pm to 3:00 am. Many factory owners preferred boys under 16 years of age.

When were young boys employed in the glass making industries?

early 20th century

Under glass making conditions were the children exposed to any heating elements?

they are exposed to this heat

Were the boys in glass making industry paid by the hour?

paid by the piece

Did the glass industry have a preference for older working boys?

factory owners preferred boys under 16 years of age


In 1910, over 2 million children in the same age group were employed in the United States. This included children who rolled cigarettes, engaged in factory work, worked as bobbin doffers in textile mills, worked in coal mines and were employed in canneries. Lewis Hine's photographs of child labourers in the 1910s powerfully evoked the plight of working children in the American south. Hines took these photographs between 1908 and 1917 as the staff photographer for the National Child Labor Committee.

Where was photographer Lewis Hine employed?

National Child Labor Committee

What year were over 2 million children employed in the US?

What did children roll in a factory?

cigarettes

What did child do in textile mills in the US?

bobbin doffers


Factories and mines were not the only places where child labour was prevalent in the early 20th century. Home-based manufacturing across the United States and Europe employed children as well. Governments and reformers argued that labour in factories must be regulated and the state had an obligation to provide welfare for poor. Legislation that followed had the effect of moving work out of factories into urban homes. Families and women, in particular, preferred it because it allowed them to generate income while taking care of household duties.

Why would families perfer labour done at the home as opposed to the factory?

because it allowed them to generate income while taking care of household duties.

Early 20th century states began to have a responsiblity to take care of whom?

poor

Children were employed in the home, factories and were else in the 20th century?

mines


Home-based manufacturing operations were active year round. Families willingly deployed their children in these income generating home enterprises. In many cases, men worked from home. In France, over 58 percent of garment workers operated out of their homes; in Germany, the number of full-time home operations nearly doubled between 1882 and 1907; and in the United States, millions of families operated out of home seven days a week, year round to produce garments, shoes, artificial flowers, feathers, match boxes, toys, umbrellas and other products. Children aged 5–14 worked alongside the parents. Home-based operations and child labour in Australia, Britain, Austria and other parts of the world was common. Rural areas similarly saw families deploying their children in agriculture. In 1946, Frieda Miller - then Director of United States Department of Labour - told the International Labour Organisation that these home-based operations offered, "low wages, long hours, child labour, unhealthy and insanitary working conditions."

What time were home manufactoring activities for children taking place?

year round

Who did the children work beside?

parents

Where were rural children employed?

agriculture

What were the working conditions described as for the children employed at home?

unhealthy and insanitary

In 1946 who was the Director of the United States Department of Labour?

Frieda Miller


Child labour is still common in many parts of the world. Estimates for child labour vary. It ranges between 250 and 304 million, if children aged 5–17 involved in any economic activity are counted. If light occasional work is excluded, ILO estimates there were 153 million child labourers aged 5–14 worldwide in 2008. This is about 20 million less than ILO estimate for child labourers in 2004. Some 60 percent of the child labour was involved in agricultural activities such as farming, dairy, fisheries and forestry. Another 25 percent of child labourers were in service activities such as retail, hawking goods, restaurants, load and transfer of goods, storage, picking and recycling trash, polishing shoes, domestic help, and other services. The remaining 15 percent laboured in assembly and manufacturing in informal economy, home-based enterprises, factories, mines, packaging salt, operating machinery, and such operations. Two out of three child workers work alongside their parents, in unpaid family work situations. Some children work as guides for tourists, sometimes combined with bringing in business for shops and restaurants. Child labour predominantly occurs in the rural areas (70%) and informal urban sector (26%).

Does child labour exist in the 21st century?

Child labour is still common

Where does child labour currently occur the most?

rural areas

How many children in today's world work beside their parents?

Two out of three child

Some child work as guides for whom?

tourists


Child labour accounts for 22% of the workforce in Asia, 32% in Africa, 17% in Latin America, 1% in the US, Canada, Europe and other wealthy nations. The proportion of child labourers varies greatly among countries and even regions inside those countries. Africa has the highest percentage of children aged 5–17 employed as child labour, and a total of over 65 million. Asia, with its larger population, has the largest number of children employed as child labour at about 114 million. Latin America and Caribbean region have lower overall population density, but at 14 million child labourers has high incidence rates too.

What country has the highest percentage of child labour?

Africa

In Asia how many millions of children are employed?

Right now what percentage of children are employed in the US?

Caribean and where else is there a low population of child workers?

Latin America


Accurate present day child labour information is difficult to obtain because of disagreements between data sources as to what constitutes child labour. In some countries, government policy contributes to this difficulty. For example, the overall extent of child labour in China is unclear due to the government categorizing child labour data as “highly secret”. China has enacted regulations to prevent child labour; still, the practice of child labour is reported to be a persistent problem within China, generally in agriculture and low-skill service sectors as well as small workshops and manufacturing enterprises.
In 2014, the U.S. Department of Labor issued a List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor where China was attributed 12 goods the majority of which were produced by both underage children and indentured labourers. The report listed electronics, garments, toys and coal among other goods.

Where is present day child labour stats unclear?

China

When did the U.S. produce a list of goods primarily made by child labour in China?

What is the cause of diagreements in child labour numbers for present day?

data sources

Chinese children have been known to make electronics, toys and what else?

garments


Maplecroft Child Labour Index 2012 survey reports 76 countries pose extreme child labour complicity risks for companies operating worldwide. The ten highest risk countries in 2012, ranked in decreasing order, were: Myanmar, North Korea, Somalia, Sudan, DR Congo, Zimbabwe, Afghanistan, Burundi, Pakistan and Ethiopia. Of the major growth economies, Maplecroft ranked Philippines 25th riskiest, India 27th, China 36th, Viet Nam 37th, Indonesia 46th, and Brazil 54th - all of them rated to involve extreme risks of child labour uncertainties, to corporations seeking to invest in developing world and import products from emerging markets.

According to the Maplecroft Child Labour Index how many countries post risks for child labour?

What country is the second on the list for child labour in accordance to the Maplecroft Child Labour Index?

North Korea

What was the Phillipines ranked as?

Was Brazil on the list?

Brazil 54th


Lack of meaningful alternatives, such as affordable schools and quality education, according to ILO, is another major factor driving children to harmful labour. Children work because they have nothing better to do. Many communities, particularly rural areas where between 60–70% of child labour is prevalent, do not possess adequate school facilities. Even when schools are sometimes available, they are too far away, difficult to reach, unaffordable or the quality of education is so poor that parents wonder if going to school is really worth it.

What is the main reason for children today to be in the work force?

nothing better to do

Do the poor families put a value on education?

parents wonder if going to school is really worth it.

What community has the most prevalency for child labour?

rural areas


In European history when child labour was common, as well as in contemporary child labour of modern world, certain cultural beliefs have rationalised child labour and thereby encouraged it. Some view that work is good for the character-building and skill development of children. In many cultures, particular where the informal economy and small household businesses thrive, the cultural tradition is that children follow in their parents' footsteps; child labour then is a means to learn and practice that trade from a very early age. Similarly, in many cultures the education of girls is less valued or girls are simply not expected to need formal schooling, and these girls pushed into child labour such as providing domestic services.

Throughout European history was child labour seen as a positive?

Some view that work is good for the character-building and skill development of children

Are boys or girls more likely in some cultures to be thrown into child labour?

girls

For working parents what is the value of having their children work by their side?

learn and practice that trade from a very early age

Do many cultures place value of the education of a young girl?

education of girls is less valued


Biggeri and Mehrotra have studied the macroeconomic factors that encourage child labour. They focus their study on five Asian nations including India, Pakistan, Indonesia, Thailand and Philippines. They suggest that child labour is a serious problem in all five, but it is not a new problem. Macroeconomic causes encouraged widespread child labour across the world, over most of human history. They suggest that the causes for child labour include both the demand and the supply side. While poverty and unavailability of good schools explain the child labour supply side, they suggest that the growth of low-paying informal economy rather than higher paying formal economy is amongst the causes of the demand side. Other scholars too suggest that inflexible labour market, sise of informal economy, inability of industries to scale up and lack of modern manufacturing technologies are major macroeconomic factors affecting demand and acceptability of child labour.

Biggeri and Mehrotra studied primarily Asia nations including India, Pakistan, Indonesia, Philippines and what other country?

Thailand

Is child labour a new issue in these Asian countries?

not a new problem

Supply and what else causes child labour to still exist today?

demand

What encourages child labour across the globe?

Macroeconomic


Systematic use of child labour was common place in the colonies of European powers between 1650 and 1950. In Africa, colonial administrators encouraged traditional kin-ordered modes of production, that is hiring a household for work not just the adults. Millions of children worked in colonial agricultural plantations, mines and domestic service industries. Sophisticated schemes were promulgated where children in these colonies between the ages of 5–14 were hired as an apprentice without pay in exchange for learning a craft. A system of Pauper Apprenticeship came into practice in the 19th century where the colonial master neither needed the native parents' nor child's approval to assign a child to labour, away from parents, at a distant farm owned by a different colonial master. Other schemes included 'earn-and-learn' programs where children would work and thereby learn. Britain for example passed a law, the so-called Masters and Servants Act of 1899, followed by Tax and Pass Law, to encourage child labour in colonies particularly in Africa. These laws offered the native people the legal ownership to some of the native land in exchange for making labour of wife and children available to colonial government's needs such as in farms and as picannins.

How many children were employed on colonial plantations?

Millions

Were young apprentices hired for pay?

without pay

Was child labour common in European colonies?

child labour was common place in the colonies of European

What was the age range of colonial child workers?

What century did apprenticeships begin to take place?


In southeast Asian colonies, such as Hong Kong, child labour such as the Mui Tsai (妹仔), was rationalised as a cultural tradition and ignored by British authorities. The Dutch East India Company officials rationalised their child labour abuses with, "it is a way to save these children from a worse fate." Christian mission schools in regions stretching from Zambia to Nigeria too required work from children, and in exchange provided religious education, not secular education. Elsewhere, the Canadian Dominion Statutes in form of so-called Breaches of Contract Act, stipulated jail terms for uncooperative child workers.

Where did the British turn a blind eye to child labour?

Hong Kong

What schools required child labour?

Christian mission schools

Did the child workers receive anything from the christian mission schools?

provided religious education

What did the Canadians do to children that did not wish to work?

stipulated jail terms


Children working at a young age has been a consistent theme throughout Africa. Many children began first working in the home to help their parents run the family farm. Children in Africa today are often forced into exploitative labour due to family debt and other financial factors, leading to ongoing poverty. Other types of domestic child labour include working in commercial plantations, begging, and other sales such as boot shining. In total, there is an estimated five million children who are currently working in the field of agriculture which steadily increases during the time of harvest. Along with 30 percent of children who are picking coffee, there are an estimated 25,000 school age children who work year round.

Where do African children find their first jobs?

home

What do African children do primarily while working at home?

help their parents run the family farm

How many children in Africa are working in the arigucultural sector?

estimated five million

How many children in Africa pick coffee?

30 percent

How many children work year round in Africa?

estimated 25,000


What industries children work in depends on if they grew up in a rural area or an urban area. Children who were born in urban areas often found themselves working for street vendors, washing cars, helping in construction sites, weaving clothing, and sometimes even working as exotic dancers. While children who grew up in rural areas would work on farms doing physical labour, working with animals, and selling crops. Of all the child workers, the most serious cases involved street children and trafficked children due to the physical and emotional abuse they endured by their employers. To address the issue of child labour, the United Nations Conventions on the Rights of the Child Act was implemented in 1959. Yet due to poverty, lack of education and ignorance, the legal actions were not/are not wholly enforced or accepted in Africa.

Where did children from urban areas primarily work?

street vendors, washing cars, helping in construction sites, weaving clothing, and sometimes even working as exotic dancers

Where did children from rural areas work?

farms

When was the United Nations Conventions on the Rights of the Child Act implemented?

What was the most serious aftereffects of child labour?

physical and emotional abuse


Other legal factors that have been implemented to end and reduce child labour includes the global response that came into force in 1979 by the declaration of the International Year of the Child. Along with the Human Rights Committee of the United Nations, these two declarations worked on many levels to eliminate child labour. Although many actions have been taken to end this epidemic, child labour in Africa is still an issue today due to the unclear definition of adolescence and how much time is needed for children to engage in activities that are crucial for their development. Another issue that often comes into play is the link between what constitutes as child labour within the household due to the cultural acceptance of children helping run the family business. In the end, there is a consistent challenge for the national government to strengthen its grip politically on child labour, and to increase education and awareness on the issue of children working below the legal age limit. With children playing an important role in the African economy, child labour still plays an important role for many in the 20th century.

What country is still an issue today with regards to child labour?

Africa

What is an issue in Africa with child labour definitions?

unclear definition of adolescence

In Africa what is a cultural acceptance with regards to child labour?

children helping run the family business.


From European settlement in 1888, child convicts were occasionally sent to Australia where they were made to work. Child labour was not as excessive in Australia as in Britain. With a low population, agricultural productivity was higher and families did not face starvation as in established industrialised countries. Australia also did not have significant industry until the later part of the 20th century when child labour laws, and compulsory schooling had developed under the influence of Britain. From the 1870s Child labour was restricted by compulsorry schooling.

In 1888 what country were child convicts sent to the most?

Australia

What restricted the 1870s Child labour in Australia?

compulsorry schooling

Was child labour rampagnt in Australia?

Child labour was not as excessive in Australia

When did industrailization take off in Australia?

20th century


Child labour has been a consistent struggle for children in Brazil ever since the country was colonized on April 22, 1550 by Pedro Álvares Cabral. Work that many children took part in was not always visible, legal, or paid. Free or slave labour was a common occurrence for many youths and was a part of their everyday lives as they grew into adulthood. Yet due to there being no clear definition of how to classify what a child or youth is, there has been little historical documentation of child labour during the colonial period. Due to this lack of documentation, it is hard to determine just how many children were used for what kinds of work before the nineteenth century. The first documentation of child labour in Brazil occurred during the time of indigenous societies and slave labour where it was found that children were forcibly working on tasks that exceeded their emotional and physical limits. Armando Dias, for example, died in November 1913 whilst still very young, a victim of an electric shock when entering the textile industry where he worked. Boys and girls were victims of industrial accidents on a daily basis.

When was Brazil colonized?

April 22, 1550

Who colonized Brazil?

Pedro Álvares Cabral

Who were the victims of industrial accidents?

Boys and girls

When was child labour first documented in Brazil?

during the time of indigenous societies

How did Armando Dias die?

electric shock


In Brazil, the minimum working age has been identified as fourteen due to continuous constitutional amendments that occurred in 1934, 1937, and 1946. Yet due to a change in the dictatorship by the military in the 80’s, the minimum age restriction was reduced to the age of twelve but was reviewed due to reports of dangerous and hazardous working conditions in 1988. This led to the minimum age being raised once again to 14. Another set of restrictions was passed in 1998 that restricted the kinds of work youth could partake in, such as work that was considered hazardous like running construction equipment, or certain kinds of factory work. Although many steps were taken to reduce the risk and occurrence of child labour, there is still a high number of children and adolescents working under the age of fourteen in Brazil. It was not until recently in the 80’s that it was discovered that almost nine million children in Brazil were working illegally and not partaking in traditional childhood activities that help to develop important life experiences.

What is the min working age in Brazil?

fourteen

What year was hazardous working conditions limited to children in Brazil?

Is there underage children working in Brazil?

there is still a high number of children and adolescents working under the age of fourteen in Brazil

In the 80's how many children were working illegally in Brazil?

almost nine million


Brazilian census data (PNAD, 1999) indicate that 2.55 million 10-14 year-olds were illegally holding jobs. They were joined by 3.7 million 15-17 year-olds and about 375,000 5-9 year-olds. Due to the raised age restriction of 14, at least half of the recorded young workers had been employed illegally which lead to many not being protect by important labour laws. Although substantial time has passed since the time of regulated child labour, there is still a large number of children working illegally in Brazil. Many children are used by drug cartels to sell and carry drugs, guns, and other illegal substances because of their perception of innocence. This type of work that youth are taking part in is very dangerous due to the physical and psychological implications that come with these jobs. Yet despite the hazards that come with working with drug dealers, there has been an increase in this area of employment throughout the country.

In 1999 how many children were working illegally in Brazil?

2.55 million

What do drug cartels do with child workers?

sell and carry drugs, guns, and other illegal substances

What are the risks of child labour in drug cartels?

physical and psychological implications

Has these dangers caused and increase or decrease in child labour with drug cartels?

an increase


Many factors played a role in Britain’s long-term economic growth, such as the industrial revolution in the late 1700s and the prominent presence of child labour during the industrial age. Children who worked at an early age were often not forced; but did so because they needed to help their family survive financially. Due to poor employment opportunities for many parents, sending their children to work on farms and in factories was a way to help feed and support the family. Child Labour first started to occur in England when household businesses were turned into local labour markets that mass-produced the once homemade goods. Because children often helped produce the goods out of their homes, working in a factory to make those same goods was a simple change for many of these youths. Although there are many counts of children under the age of ten working for factories, the majority of children workers were between the ages of ten and fourteen. This age range was an important time for many youths as they were first helping to provide for their families; while also transitioning to save for their own future families.

If not forced why did children work?

to help feed and support the family

What was the age of the majority of child workers in Britain?

between the ages of ten and fourteen

Why was this age range important?

they were first helping to provide for their families; while also transitioning to save for their own future families

How were the work oppurtunies for parents during this time period?

poor


Besides the obligation, many children had to help support their families financially; another factor that influenced child labour was the demographic changes that occurred in the eighteenth century. By the end of the eighteenth century, 20 percent of the population was made up of children between the ages of 5 and 14. Due to this substantial shift in available workers, and the development of the industrial revolution, children began to work earlier in life in companies outside of the home. Yet, even though there was an increase of child labour in factories such as cotton textiles, there consistently was large numbers of children working in the field of agriculture and domestic production.

What type of support did child give to their families by working?

financially

What type of factories saw an increased need for child labour?

cotton textiles

Was there an increase or decrease in the field of agriculture?

large numbers of children working in the field of agriculture


With such a high percentage of children working, the rising of illiteracy, and the lack of a formal education became a widespread issue for many children who worked to provide for their families. Due to this problematic trend, many parents developed a change of opinion when deciding whether or not to send their children to work. Other factors that lead to the decline of child labour included financial changes in the economy, changes in the development of technology, raised wages, and continuous regulations on factory legislation.

What became an issue for the working child?

illiteracy

Was illiteracy a factor in changing the minds of parents of child labourers?

many parents developed a change of opinion

What are the reasons that lead to a decline of child labour?

financial changes in the economy, changes in the development of technology, raised wages, and continuous regulations on factory legislation


The first legal steps taken to end the occurrence of child labour was enacted more than fifty years ago. In 1966, the nation adopted the UN General Assembly of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. This act legally limited the minimum age for when children could start work at the age of 14. But 23 years later in 1989 the Convention on the Rights of Children was adopted and helped to reduce the exploitation of children and demanded safe working environments. They all worked towards the goal of ending the most problematic forms of child labour.

When was the UN General Assembly of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights enacted?

What did this act due?

legally limited the minimum age for when children could start work at the age of 14

When were safe working environments legislation adopted for child labourers?

What did it help do to?

helped to reduce the exploitation of children


On 23 June 1757, the English East India Company defeated Siraj-ud-Daula, the Nawab of Bengal, in the Battle of Plassey. The British thus became masters of east India (Bengal, Bihar, Orissa) – a prosperous region with a flourishing agriculture, industry and trade. This led to a large amount of children being forced into labour due to the increasing need of cheap labour to produce large numbers of goods. Many multinationals often employed children because that they can be recruited for less pay, and have more endurance to utilise in factory environments. Another reason many Indian children were hired was because they lack knowledge of their basic rights, they did not cause trouble or complain, and they were often more trustworthy. The innocence that comes with childhood was utilised to make a profit by many and was encouraged by the need for family income.

When did the English East India Company defeat Siraj-ud-Daula?

23 June 1757

Who was the master of the east of India?

British

Why were many children employed?

increasing need of cheap labour

What was the primary reason for India children being employed?

lack knowledge of their basic rights

How did India child workers act?

they did not cause trouble or complain


A variety of Indian social scientists as well as the Non-Governmental Organization (NGOs) have done extensive research on the numeric figures of child labour found in India and determined that India contributes to one-third of Asia’s child labour and one-fourth of the world's child labour. Due to a large number of children being illegally employed, the Indian government began to take extensive actions to reduce the number of children working, and to focus on the importance of facilitating the proper growth and development of children.

How much of the world's child labour does India's workers contribute to?

one-fourth

How many Asian child workers are from India?

one-third

Did the India goverment take any actions against child labour?

extensive actions to reduce the number of children working, and to focus on the importance of facilitating the proper growth and development of children.


International influences help to encourage legal actions to be taken in India, such as the Geneva Declaration of the Right of Children Act was passed in 1924. This act was followed by The Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 to which incorporated the basic human rights and needs of children for proper progression and growth in their younger years. These international acts encouraged major changes to the workforce in India which occurred in 1986 when the Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act was put into place. This act prohibited hiring children younger than the age of 14, and from working in hazardous conditions.

When did the Geneva Declaration of the Right of Children Act pass?

What did the international acts do?

encouraged major changes to the workforce

What is the age limit now in India for child workers?

What child working conditions are they protected from?

hazardous conditions


From the 1950s on, the students were also used for unpaid work at schools, where they cleaned and performed repairs. This practice has continued in the Russian Federation, where up to 21 days of the summer holidays is sometimes set aside for school works. By law, this is only allowed as part of specialized occupational training and with the students' and parents' permission, but those provisions are widely ignored. In 2012 there was an accident near city of Nalchik where a car killed several pupils cleaning up a highway shoulder during their "holiday work" as well as their teacher who was supervising them.

When were students used as workers?

For Russian student workers how many summer days were devoted to work?

21 days

Did they need parental consent?

this is only allowed as part of specialized occupational training and with the students' and parents' permission

What year were students killed as part of a road cleanup project?


Out of former Soviet Union republics Uzbekistan continued and expanded the program of child labour on industrial scale to increase profits on the main source of Islam Karimov's income, cotton harvesting. In September, when school normally starts, the classes are suspended and children are sent to cotton fields for work, where they are assigned daily quotas of 20 to 60 kg of raw cotton they have to collect. This process is repeated in spring, when collected cotton needs to be hoed and weeded. In 2006 it is estimated that 2.7 million children were forced to work this way.

What former Soviet Union continued child labour programs?

Uzbekistan

What was the main source of income for Islam Karimov?

cotton harvesting

Did they have daily quotas for cotton?

daily quotas of 20 to 60 kg of raw cotton

What are the 2016 estimates for child labour in regards to cotton picking?

2.7 million


As in many other countries, child labour in Switzerland affected among the so-called Kaminfegerkinder ("chimney sweep children") and chidren working p.e. in spinning mills, factories and in agriculture in 19th-century Switzerland, but also to the 1960s so-called Verdingkinder (literally: "contract children" or "indentured child laborers") were children who were taken from their parents, often due to poverty or moral reasons – usually mothers being unmarried, very poor citizens, of Gypsy–Yeniche origin, so-called Kinder der Landstrasse, etc. – and sent to live with new families, often poor farmers who needed cheap labour.

What is Kaminfegerkinder?

chimney sweep children

What types of child labour did Switzerland employ?

spinning mills, factories and in agriculture

Where did the children go to work primarily in Switzerland?

poor farmers who needed cheap labour


There were even Verdingkinder auctions where children were handed over to the farmer asking the least amount of money from the authorities, thus securing cheap labour for his farm and relieving the authority from the financial burden of looking after the children. In the 1930s 20% of all agricultural labourers in the Canton of Bern were children below the age of 15. Swiss municipality guardianship authorities acted so, commonly tolerated by federal authorities, to the 1960s, not all of them of course, but usually communities affected of low taxes in some Swiss cantons Swiss historian Marco Leuenberger investigated, that in 1930 there were some 35,000 indentured children, and between 1920 and 1970 more than 100,000 are believed to have been placed with families or homes. 10,000 Verdingkinder are still alive. Therefore, the so-called Wiedergutmachungsinitiative was started in April 2014. In April 2014 the collection of targeted at least authenticated 100,000 signatures of Swiss citizens has started, and still have to be collected to October 2015.

What happened at Verdingkinder auctions?

children were handed over to the farmer asking the least amount of money

In 1930s how many indentured children were there?

How many Swiss citizen signatures were collected?


In 1999, ILO helped lead the Worst Forms Convention 182 (C182), which has so far been signed upon and domestically ratified by 151 countries including the United States. This international law prohibits worst forms of child labour, defined as all forms of slavery and slavery-like practices, such as child trafficking, debt bondage, and forced labour, including forced recruitment of children into armed conflict. The law also prohibits the use of a child for prostitution or the production of pornography, child labour in illicit activities such as drug production and trafficking; and in hazardous work. Both the Worst Forms Convention (C182) and the Minimum Age Convention (C138) are examples of international labour standards implemented through the ILO that deal with child labour.

How many countries have signed the Worst Forms Convention 183 (C182)?

What types of child labour does this prohibit?

all forms of slavery

What other international laws deal with child labour?

Minimum Age Convention (C138)


In addition to setting the international law, the United Nations initiated International Program on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC) in 1992. This initiative aims to progressively eliminate child labour through strengthening national capacities to address some of the causes of child labour. Amongst the key initiative is the so-called time-bounded programme countries, where child labour is most prevalent and schooling opportunities lacking. The initiative seeks to achieve amongst other things, universal primary school availability. The IPEC has expanded to at least the following target countries: Bangladesh, Brazil, China, Egypt, India, Indonesia, Mexico, Nigeria, Pakistan, Democratic Republic of Congo, El Salvador, Nepal, Tanzania, Dominican Republic, Costa Rica, Philippines, Senegal, South Africa and Turkey.

What did the United Nations take charge of with regards to child labour?

International Program on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC)

What is the aim of this?

progressively eliminate child labour

What are some of the target countries?

Bangladesh, Brazil, China, Egypt

What do they want to do with regards to schooling of young children?

universal primary school


In 2004, the United States passed an amendment to the Fair Labour Standards Act of 1938. The amendment allows certain children aged 14–18 to work in or outside a business where machinery is used to process wood. The law aims to respect the religious and cultural needs of the Amish community of the United States. The Amish believe that one effective way to educate children is on the job. The new law allows Amish children the ability to work with their families, once they are passed eighth grade in school.

What did the United States pass in 2004?

amendment to the Fair Labour Standards Act of 1938

What is the age of US children allowed to work outside of the home?

aged 14–18

What culture in the US benefits from this Act?

Amish

What grade do Amish children need to pass in order to be able to work for their families?

eighth grade


Similarly, in 1996, member countries of the European Union, per Directive 94/33/EC, agreed to a number of exceptions for young people in its child labour laws. Under these rules, children of various ages may work in cultural, artistic, sporting or advertising activities if authorised by the competent authority. Children above the age of 13 may perform light work for a limited number of hours per week in other economic activities as defined at the discretion of each country. Additionally, the European law exception allows children aged 14 years or over to work as part of a work/training scheme. The EU Directive clarified that these exceptions do not allow child labour where the children may experience harmful exposure to dangerous substances. Nonetheless, many children under the age of 13 do work, even in the most developed countries of the EU. For instance, a recent study showed over a third of Dutch twelve-year-old kids had a job, the most common being babysitting.

What happened in the European Union in 1996?

agreed to a number of exceptions for young people in its child labour laws

What age were children allowed to do light labour?

What age were children able to take part in European training programs?

aged 14 years or over

What is the most common occupation for Dutch youth to have?

babysitting


Some scholars[who?] suggest any labour by children aged 18 years or less is wrong since this encourages illiteracy, inhumane work and lower investment in human capital. Child labour, claim these activists, also leads to poor labour standards for adults, depresses the wages of adults in developing countries as well as the developed countries, and dooms the third world economies to low-skill jobs only capable of producing poor quality cheap exports. More children that work in poor countries, the fewer and worse-paid are the jobs for adults in these countries. In other words, there are moral and economic reasons that justify a blanket ban on labour from children aged 18 years or less, everywhere in the world.

What does child labour do for adults?

leads to poor labour standards

What happens to the wages of adults?

depresses the wages of adults in developing countries as well as the developed countries

What are the implications for third world countries with regards to child labour?

low-skill jobs only capable of producing poor quality cheap exports

Does ending child labour have a global value?

there are moral and economic reasons that justify a blanket ban on labour


Other scholars[who?] suggest that these arguments are flawed, ignores history and more laws will do more harm than good. According to them, child labour is merely the symptom of a greater disease named poverty. If laws ban all lawful work that enables the poor to survive, informal economy, illicit operations and underground businesses will thrive. These will increase abuse of the children. In poor countries with very high incidence rates of child labour - such as Ethiopia, Chad, Niger and Nepal - schools are not available, and the few schools that exist offer poor quality education or are unaffordable. The alternatives for children who currently work, claim these studies, are worse: grinding subsistence farming, militia or prostitution. Child labour is not a choice, it is a necessity, the only option for survival. It is currently the least undesirable of a set of very bad choices.

What do some scholars agress is the "disease" of child labour?

poverty

Do these scholars argue for or against ending child labour?

These will increase abuse of the children. In poor countries with very high incidence rates of child labour

What do these scholars argue for keeping child labour as a practice?

only option for survival


These scholars suggest, from their studies of economic and social data, that early 20th-century child labour in Europe and the United States ended in large part as a result of the economic development of the formal regulated economy, technology development and general prosperity. Child labour laws and ILO conventions came later. Edmonds suggests, even in contemporary times, the incidence of child labour in Vietnam has rapidly reduced following economic reforms and GDP growth. These scholars suggest economic engagement, emphasis on opening quality schools rather than more laws and expanding economically relevant skill development opportunities in the third world. International legal actions, such as trade sanctions increase child labour.

What caused child labour to decrease in the 20th century?

economic development

What caused child labour to decrease in Vietnam?

economic reforms

What do these scholars suggest with regards to child labour reductions?

emphasis on opening quality schools rather than more laws and expanding economically relevant skill development opportunities in the third world

What do international actions do according to these scholars?

increase child labour


In 1998, UNICEF reported that Ivory Coast farmers used enslaved children – many from surrounding countries. In late 2000 a BBC documentary reported the use of enslaved children in the production of cocoa—the main ingredient in chocolate— in West Africa. Other media followed by reporting widespread child slavery and child trafficking in the production of cocoa. In 2001, the US State Department estimated there were 15,000 child slaves cocoa, cotton and coffee farms in the Ivory Coast, and the Chocolate Manufacturers Association acknowledged that child slavery is used in the cocoa harvest.[not in citation given][better source needed]

Who reported Ivory Coast farmers usage of child labour?

UNICEF

What do child labourers work on in West Africa?

production of cocoa

How many child slaves were reported in cocoa, coffee and cotton farms?


Malian migrants have long worked on cocoa farms in the Ivory Coast, but in 2000 cocoa prices had dropped to a 10-year low and some farmers stopped paying their employees. The Malian counsel had to rescue some boys who had not been paid for five years and who were beaten if they tried to run away. Malian officials believed that 15,000 children, some as young as 11 years old, were working in the Ivory Coast in 2001. These children were often from poor families or the slums and were sold to work in other countries. Parents were told the children would find work and send money home, but once the children left home, they often worked in conditions resembling slavery. In other cases, children begging for food were lured from bus stations and sold as slaves. In 2002, the Ivory Coast had 12,000 children with no relatives nearby, which suggested they were trafficked, likely from neighboring Mali, Burkina Faso and Togo.

What migrants worked on the Ivory Coast?

Malian

After a 10 year low in prices what did some farmers resort to?

stopped paying their employees

Where did the children mainly come from?

slums

Where were begging children often targeted for being sold into slavery?

bus stations


The cocoa industry was accused of profiting from child slavery and trafficking. The European Cocoa Association dismissed these accusations as "false and excessive" and the industry said the reports were not representative of all areas. Later the industry acknowledged the working conditions for children were unsatisfactory and children's rights were sometimes violated and acknowledged the claims could not be ignored. In a BBC interview, the ambassador for Ivory Coast to the United Kingdom called these reports of widespread use of slave child labour by 700,000 cocoa farmers as absurd and inaccurate.

What industry was accused of profiting from child labour?

cocoa industry

Who dismissed the allegations?

European Cocoa Association

What are the figures for cocoa farmers using child labour?

Who claimed these reports as being inaccurate?

ambassador for Ivory Coast to the United Kingdom


In 2001, a voluntary agreement called the Harkin-Engel Protocol, was accepted by the international cocoa and chocolate industry to eliminate the worst forms of child labour, as defined by ILO's Convention 182, in West Africa. This agreement created a foundation named International Cocoa Initiative in 2002. The foundation claims it has, as of 2011, active programs in 290 cocoa growing communities in Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana, reaching a total population of 689,000 people to help eliminate the worst forms of child labour in cocoa industry. Other organisations claim progress has been made, but the protocol's 2005 deadlines have not yet been met.

What type of agreement was the 2001 Harkin-Engel Protocol?

voluntary

What was the foundation that was the direct result of the agreement?

International Cocoa Initiative

How many active programs does the foundation have?

What happened to the 2005 deadlines?

have not yet been met


In 2008, Bloomberg claimed child labour in copper and cobalt mines that supplied Chinese companies in Congo. The children are creuseurs, that is they dig the ore by hand, carry sacks of ores on their backs, and these are then purchased by these companies. Over 60 of Katanga's 75 processing plants are owned by Chinese companies and 90 percent of the region's minerals go to China. An African NGO report claimed 80,000 child labourers under the age of 15, or about 40% of all miners, were supplying ore to Chinese companies in this African region. Amnesty International alleged in 2016 that some cobalt sold by Congo Dongfang Mining was produced by child labor, and that it was being used in lithium-ion batteries powering electric cars and mobile devices worldwide.

Who was the supplier of copper and cobalt to China?

Congo

What are child creuseurs?

they dig the ore by hand, carry sacks of ores on their backs

What percent of materials go to China?

90 percent

What is the cobalt used for?

lithium-ion batteries powering electric cars and mobile devices worldwide


BBC, in 2012, accused Glencore of using child labour in its mining and smelting operations of Africa. Glencore denied it used child labour, and said it has strict policy of not using child labour. The company claimed it has a strict policy whereby all copper was mined correctly, placed in bags with numbered seals and then sent to the smelter. Glencore mentioned being aware of child miners who were part of a group of artisanal miners who had without authorisation raided the concession awarded to the company since 2010; Glencore has been pleading with the government to remove the artisanal miners from the concession.

What did the BBC say that Glencore used child labour for in 2012?

mining and smelting operations of Africa

What did Glencore say in regards to the allegations?

denied

What did Glencore admit to with regards to child labor?

being aware of child miners


Small-scale artisanal mining of gold is another source of dangerous child labour in poor rural areas in certain parts of the world. This form of mining uses labour-intensive and low-tech methods. It is informal sector of the economy. Human Rights Watch group estimates that about 12 percent of global gold production comes from artisanal mines. In west Africa, in countries such as Mali - the third largest exporter of gold in Africa - between 20,000 and 40,000 children work in artisanal mining. Locally known as orpaillage, children as young as 6 years old work with their families. These children and families suffer chronic exposure to toxic chemicals including mercury, and do hazardous work such as digging shafts and working underground, pulling up, carrying and crushing the ore. The poor work practices harm the long term health of children, as well as release hundreds of tons of mercury every year into local rivers, ground water and lakes. Gold is important to the economy of Mali and Ghana. For Mali, it is the second largest earner of its export revenue. For many poor families with children, it is the primary and sometimes the only source of income.

What is another source of mining dangerous to children workers?

gold

What is the third largest exporter of gold in Africa?

Mali

Why is gold vital to the people of Mali?

it is the second largest earner of its export revenue

What is the gold production income of poor families in Mali?

primary and sometimes the only source of income


In early August 2008, Iowa Labour Commissioner David Neil announced that his department had found that Agriprocessors, a kosher meatpacking company in Postville which had recently been raided by Immigration and Customs Enforcement, had employed 57 minors, some as young as 14, in violation of state law prohibiting anyone under 18 from working in a meatpacking plant. Neil announced that he was turning the case over to the state Attorney General for prosecution, claiming that his department's inquiry had discovered "egregious violations of virtually every aspect of Iowa's child labour laws." Agriprocessors claimed that it was at a loss to understand the allegations. Agriprocessors' CEO went to trial on these charges in state court on 4 May 2010. After a five-week trial he was found not guilty of all 57 charges of child labour violations by the Black Hawk County District Court jury in Waterloo, Iowa, on 7 June 2010.

How many minors did Agriprocessors employ?

What did Agriprocessors say in regards to the allegations?

claimed that it was at a loss to understand the allegations

When did the CEO go on trial?

4 May 2010

What was the verdict?

not guilty of all 57 charges of child labour violations by the Black Hawk County District Court jury in Waterloo, Iowa, on 7 June 2010.


In December 2009, campaigners in the UK called on two leading high street retailers to stop selling clothes made with cotton which may have been picked by children. Anti-Slavery International and the Environmental Justice Foundation (EJF) accused H&M and Zara of using cotton suppliers in Bangladesh. It is also suspected that many of their raw materials originates from Uzbekistan, where children aged 10 are forced to work in the fields. The activists were calling to ban the use of Uzbek cotton and implement a "track and trace" systems to guarantee an ethical responsible source of the material.

Who accused H&M of using products made by child labours?

Anti-Slavery International and the Environmental Justice Foundation (EJF)

Who else did they accuse of using child labor products?

Zara

What country did the cotton come from that was picked by children?

Bangladesh

What are activists trying to get implemented?

"track and trace" systems


In 2008, the BBC reported that the company Primark was using child labor in the manufacture of clothing. In particular, a £4 hand-embroidered shirt was the starting point of a documentary produced by BBC's Panorama programme. The programme asks consumers to ask themselves, "Why am I only paying £4 for a hand embroidered top? This item looks handmade. Who made it for such little cost?", in addition to exposing the violent side of the child labour industry in countries where child exploitation is prevalent.

Who did the BBC in 2008 report as using child labor?

Primark

What does Primark produce?

clothing

What did the BBC program make their viewers question?

"Why am I only paying £4 for a hand embroidered top?

What else did the BBC expose?

the violent side of the child labour industry


Primark continued to investigate the allegations for three years, concluding that BBC report was a fake. In 2011, following an investigation by the BBC Trust’s Editorial Standards Committee, the BBC announced, "Having carefully scrutinised all of the relevant evidence, the committee concluded that, on the balance of probabilities, it was more likely than not that the Bangalore footage was not authentic." BBC subsequently apologised for faking footage, and returned the television award for investigative reporting.

How many years was Primark investigated for?

three years

What did they claim about the BBC report?

fake

What did the BBC do?

apologised for faking footage

What happened to the reward the BBC received?

returned the television award


Concerns have often been raised over the buying public's moral complicity in purchasing products assembled or otherwise manufactured in developing countries with child labour. However, others have raised concerns that boycotting products manufactured through child labour may force these children to turn to more dangerous or strenuous professions, such as prostitution or agriculture. For example, a UNICEF study found that after the Child Labour Deterrence Act was introduced in the US, an estimated 50,000 children were dismissed from their garment industry jobs in Bangladesh, leaving many to resort to jobs such as "stone-crushing, street hustling, and prostitution", jobs that are "more hazardous and exploitative than garment production". The study suggests that boycotts are "blunt instruments with long-term consequences, that can actually harm rather than help the children involved."

What do some feel may happen if child labour products were completely rejected by society as a whole?

may force these children to turn to more dangerous or strenuous professions, such as prostitution

What happened to the 50,000 children in the UNICEF study?

stone-crushing, street hustling, and prostitution"

What does the study say in regards to boycotts?

that can actually harm rather than help the children involved."


According to Milton Friedman, before the Industrial Revolution virtually all children worked in agriculture. During the Industrial Revolution many of these children moved from farm work to factory work. Over time, as real wages rose, parents became able to afford to send their children to school instead of work and as a result child labour declined, both before and after legislation. Austrian School economist Murray Rothbard said that British and American children of the pre- and post-Industrial Revolution lived and suffered in infinitely worse conditions where jobs were not available for them and went "voluntarily and gladly" to work in factories.

Where did children work prior to the Industrial Revolution?

agriculture

How many children worked?

virtually all

Where did children go to work after doing farm work for so long?

factory work

What did parents do when the wages were finally raised?

send their children to school instead of work


According to Thomas DeGregori, an economics professor at the University of Houston, in an article published by the Cato Institute, a libertarian think-tank operating in Washington D.C., "it is clear that technological and economic change are vital ingredients in getting children out of the workplace and into schools. Then they can grow to become productive adults and live longer, healthier lives. However, in poor countries like Bangladesh, working children are essential for survival in many families, as they were in our own heritage until the late 19th century. So, while the struggle to end child labour is necessary, getting there often requires taking different routes—and, sadly, there are many political obstacles.

Where is Thomas DeGregori from?

University of Houston

What country does he argue needs child labor to survive?

Bangladesh

What are the obstacles he claims are to ending child labor?

political obstacles


The term child labour can be misleading when it confuses harmful work with employment that may be beneficial to children. It can also ignore harmful work outside employment and any benefits children normally derive from their work. Domestic work is an example: all families but the rich must work at cleaning, cooking, caring, and more to maintain their homes. In most families in the world, this process extends to productive activities, especially herding and various types of agriculture, and to a variety of small family businesses. Where trading is a significant feature of social life, children can start trading in small items at an early age, often in the company of family members or of peers.

What is benefical work for children?

Domestic work

What can children do in countries were trading is involved?

children can start trading in small items at an early age, often in the company of family members or of peers

All but what type of children must learn to clean?

rich


Work is undertaken from an early age by vast numbers of children in the world and may have a natural place in growing up. Work can contribute to the well-being of children in a variety of ways; children often choose to work to improve their lives, both in the short- and long-term. At the material level, children’s work often contributes to producing food or earning income that benefits themselves and their families; and such income is especially important when the families are poor. Work can provide an escape from debilitating poverty, sometimes by allowing a young person to move away from an impoverished environment. Young people often enjoy their work, especially paid work, or when work involves the company of peers. Even when work is intensive and enforced, children often find ways to combine their work with play.

What is a natural process of child development?

Work

What is an escape for the young that live in poverty?

Work

What are children able to do during intense work situations?

children often find ways to combine their work with play


While full-time work hinders schooling, empirical evidence is varied on the relationship between part-time work and school. Sometimes even part-time work may hinder school attendance or performance. On the other hand, many poor children work for resources to attend school. Children who are not doing well at school sometimes seek more satisfactory experience in work. Good relations with a supervisor at work can provide relief from tensions that children feel at school and home. In the modern world, school education has become so central to society that schoolwork has become the dominant work for most children, often replacing participation in productive work. If school curricula or quality do not provide children with appropriate skills for available jobs or if children do nor have the aptitude for schoolwork, school may impede the learning of skills, such as agriculture, which will become necessary for future livelihood.

What hinders schooling for child labourers?

full-time work

What can relieve tension for children at work?

Good relations with a supervisor

What can schools do to help children led to better work lives?

school may impede the learning of skills


North Carolina consists of three main geographic sections: the Atlantic Coastal Plain, which occupies the eastern 45% of the state; the Piedmont region, which contains the middle 35%; and the Appalachian Mountains and foothills. The extreme eastern section of the state contains the Outer Banks, a string of sandy, narrow barrier islands between the Atlantic Ocean and two inland waterways or "sounds": Albemarle Sound in the north and Pamlico Sound in the south. They are the two largest landlocked sounds in the United States.

How many main geographical sections make up North Carolina?

three

What section of North carolina makes up 45% of the state?

Atlantic Coastal Plain

What is the section in the middle 35% of North Carolina called?

the Piedmont region

Tha Appalacian mountains and foothills make up a region of what state?

North Carolina

The extreme eastern section of North Carolina is called what?

Outer Banks


The coastal plain transitions to the Piedmont region along the Atlantic Seaboard fall line, a line which marks the elevation at which waterfalls first appear on streams and rivers. The Piedmont region of central North Carolina is the state's most urbanized and densely populated section. It consists of gently rolling countryside frequently broken by hills or low mountain ridges. Small, isolated, and deeply eroded mountain ranges and peaks are located in the Piedmont, including the Sauratown Mountains, Pilot Mountain, the Uwharrie Mountains, Crowder's Mountain, King's Pinnacle, the Brushy Mountains, and the South Mountains. The Piedmont ranges from about 300 to 400 feet (91 to 122 m) in elevation in the east to over 1,000 feet (300 m) in the west. Because of the rapid population growth in the Piedmont, a significant part of the rural area in this region is being transformed into suburbs with shopping centers, housing, and corporate offices. Agriculture is steadily declining in importance. The major rivers of the Piedmont, such as the Yadkin and Catawba, tend to be fast-flowing, shallow, and narrow.

What do you call the line that marks the elevation that waterfalls first appear on rivers?

Atlantic Seaboard fall line

At what point does the coastal plin transition to the Piedmont region?

along the Atlantic Seaboard fall line

What section of Central North Carolina has the most dense population?

The Piedmont region

Pilot Mountain and South Mountains are located in what region of North Carolina?

Piedmont

What is the average elevation in the west Piedmont region?

1,000 feet


The western section of the state is part of the Appalachian Mountain range. Among the subranges of the Appalachians located in the state are the Great Smoky Mountains, Blue Ridge Mountains, Great Balsam Mountains, and Black Mountains. The Black Mountains are the highest in the eastern United States, and culminate in Mount Mitchell at 6,684 feet (2,037 m) the highest point east of the Mississippi River. Although agriculture still remains important, tourism has become a dominant industry in the mountains. Growing Christmas trees has recently become an important industry as well. Because of the higher altitude, the climate in the mountains often differs markedly from that of the rest of the state. Winter in western North Carolina typically features high snowfall and subfreezing temperatures more akin to those of a midwestern state than of a southern state.

The weatern part of North Carolina is part of what mountain range?

Appalachian Mountain range

The Great Smokey Mountains and the Black Moutains are subranges of what mountains?

Appalachians

What mountains are the highest in the eastern United States?

The Black Mountains

What is the name of the highest point east of the Mississippi river?

Mount Mitchell

How high is Mt. Mitchell?

6,684 feet


The climate of the coastal plain is influenced by the Atlantic Ocean, which keeps conditions mild in winter and moderate, although humid, in summer. The highest coastal, daytime temperature averages less than 89 °F (32 °C) during summer months. The coast has mild temperatures in winter, with daytime highs rarely below 40 °F (4 °C). The average daytime temperature in the coastal plain is usually in the mid-50s °F (11–14 °C) in winter. Temperatures in the coastal plain only occasionally drop below the freezing point at night. The coastal plain averages only around 1 inch (2.5 cm) of snow or ice annually, and in many years, there may be no snow or ice at all.

What ocean influinces the climate of North Carolinas coastal plain?

Atlantic

What is the climate of the coastal plain in the winter?

mild

What is the climate of North Carolinas coastal plain in the summer?

moderate, although humid

What is the average high North Carolina coastal temperature on the plains in the summer?

89 °F

How often do temperatures on the coastal plain of NC drop below freezing at night?

occasionally


The Atlantic Ocean has less influence on the climate of the Piedmont region, which has hotter summers and colder winters than in the coast. Daytime highs in the Piedmont often reach over 90 °F (32 °C) in the summer. While it is not common for the temperature to reach over 100 °F (38 °C) in the state, such temperatures, when they occur, typically are found only in the lower-elevation areas of the Piedmont and far-inland areas of the coastal plain. The weaker influence of the Atlantic Ocean also means that temperatures in the Piedmont often fluctuate more widely than in the coast.

What region of North Carolina has hotter summers and colder winters than the coast?

Piedmont

In summer, daytime highs often reach what temperature in the Piedmont region?

90 °F

Temperatures over 100 degrees will typically be found in what elevation of the Piedmont?

What type of influence of the Atlantic Ocean makes the temperatures fluctuate more than on the coast?

weaker


In winter, the Piedmont is colder than the coast, with temperatures usually averaging in the upper 40s–lower 50s °F (8–12 °C) during the day and often dropping below the freezing point at night. The region averages around 3–5 in (8–13 cm) of snowfall annually in the Charlotte area, and slightly more north toward the Virginia border. The Piedmont is especially notorious for sleet and freezing rain. Freezing rain can be heavy enough to snarl traffic and break down trees and power lines. Annual precipitation and humidity are lower in the Piedmont than in the mountains or the coast, but even at its lowest, the average is 40 in (1,020 mm) per year.

The Piedmont is colder than the coast in what season?

winter

What is the average winter daytime temperature in the Piedmont?

upper 40s–lower 50s °F

What do the temperatures often drop to at night in the piedmont region in the winter?

below the freezing point

What is the average snowfall per year in Charlotte?

3–5 in

What type of precipitation is the Piedmont known for?

sleet and freezing rain


The Appalachian Mountains are the coolest area of the state, with temperatures averaging in the low 40s and upper 30s °F (6–3 °C) for highs in the winter and falling into the low 20s °F (−5 °C) or lower on winter nights. Relatively cool summers have temperatures rarely rising above 80 °F (27 °C). Average snowfall in many areas exceeds 30 in (76 cm) per year, and can be heavy at the higher elevations; for example, during the Blizzard of 1993 more than 60 in (152 cm) of snow fell on Mount Mitchell over a period of three days. Mount Mitchell has received snow in every month of the year.

What mountain range makes up the coolest part of North Carolina?

The Appalachian Mountains

What are the average high winter temperatures in the Appalachians?

low 40s and upper 30s °F

What are the low winter temperatures in the Appalachians?

low 20s °F (−5 °C) or lower

Temperatures rarely go higher than what temperature in the Appalachians?

80 °F

Average snowfall in the Appalachians can exceed how many inches?


Severe weather occurs regularly in North Carolina. On the average, a hurricane hits the state once a decade. Destructive hurricanes that have struck the state include Hurricane Fran, Hurricane Floyd, and Hurricane Hazel, the strongest storm to make landfall in the state, as a Category 4 in 1954. Hurricane Isabel stands out as the most damaging of the 21st century. Tropical storms arrive every 3 or 4 years. In addition, many hurricanes and tropical storms graze the state. In some years, several hurricanes or tropical storms can directly strike the state or brush across the coastal areas. Only Florida and Louisiana are hit by hurricanes more often. Although many people believe that hurricanes menace only coastal areas, the rare hurricane which moves inland quickly enough can cause severe damage; for example, in 1989, Hurricane Hugo caused heavy damage in Charlotte and even as far inland as the Blue Ridge Mountains in the northwestern part of the state. On the average, North Carolina has 50 days of thunderstorm activity per year, with some storms becoming severe enough to produce hail, flash floods, and damaging winds.

Hoe often do hurricanes hit North Carolina?

once a decade

Floyd, Fran, and Hazel are examples of what that hit the state of North Carolina?

hurricanes

What was the strongest storm to make landfall in North Carolina?

Hurricane Hazel

What category of hurricane was Hazel?

What year did Hurrican Hazel hit North Carolina?


North Carolina averages fewer than 20 tornadoes per year, many of them produced by hurricanes or tropical storms along the coastal plain. Tornadoes from thunderstorms are a risk, especially in the eastern part of the state. The western Piedmont is often protected by the mountains, which tend to break up storms as they try to cross over; the storms will often re-form farther east. Also a weather phenomenon known as "cold air damming" often occurs in the northwestern part of the state, which can also weaken storms but can also lead to major ice events in winter.

How many tornadoes does North Carolina have per year?

fewer than 20

Houuricanes and tropical stors can produce what across the coastal plain?

tornadoes

What part of the state holds the highest risk for tornadoes?

eastern

What protects the western piedmont from tornadoes?

mountains

What weather phenomenom can weaken storms but cause major ice events in NW North Carolina?

cold air damming


Before A.D. 200, residents were building earthwork mounds, which were used for ceremonial and religious purposes. Succeeding peoples, including those of the ancient Mississippian culture established by A.D. 1000 in the Piedmont, continued to build or add onto such mounds. In the 500–700 years preceding European contact, the Mississippian culture built large, complex cities and maintained far-flung regional trading networks. Historically documented tribes in the North Carolina region included the Carolina Algonquian-speaking tribes of the coastal areas, such as the Chowanoke, Roanoke, Pamlico, Machapunga, Coree, Cape Fear Indians, and others, who were the first to encounter the English; Iroquoian-speaking Meherrin, Cherokee and Tuscarora of the interior; and Southeastern Siouan tribes, such as the Cheraw, Waxhaw, Saponi, Waccamaw, and Catawba.[citation needed]

During what time period did people buid earth mounds used for religious and ceremonial purposes?

Before A.D. 200

By 1000 AD, what culture of people settled in the Piedmont?

ancient Mississippian culture

About how many years before European contact did ancient Mississippian culture build large cities?

500–700 years

Pamlico and Cape fear indians are examples of what?

Algonquian-speaking tribes

Where did the Algonquin speaking tribes of North Carolina live?

the coastal areas


In June 1718 Blackbeard, aka Edward Teach, ran his flagship, the Queen Anne's Revenge, aground at Beaufort Inlet, North Carolina, in present-day Carteret County. After the grounding her crew and supplies were transferred to smaller ships. In 1996 Intersal, Inc., a private firm, discovered the remains of a vessel likely to be the Queen Anne's Revenge, which was added to the US National Register of Historic Places. In November, after losing his ship and appealing to the governor of North Carolina who promised safe-haven and a pardon, the notorious pirate, Blackbeard (Edward Teach) was killed in an ambush by troops from Virginia.

What was another name for Blackbeard?

Edward Teach

What was the name of blackbeards ship?

the Queen Anne's Revenge

Where in North Carolina did Blackbeards ship crash?

Beaufort Inlet

What year did Blackbeard run his ship aground in North Carolina?

What year were the remains of the Queen Anne's Revenge discovered?


North Carolina became one of the English Thirteen Colonies and with the territory of South Carolina was originally known as the Province of Carolina. The northern and southern parts of the original province separated in 1729. Originally settled by small farmers, sometimes having a few slaves, who were oriented toward subsistence agriculture, the colony lacked cities or towns. Pirates menaced the coastal settlements, but by 1718 the pirates had been captured and killed. Growth was strong in the middle of the 18th century, as the economy attracted Scots-Irish, Quaker, English and German immigrants. The colonists generally supported the American Revolution, as the number of Loyalists was smaller than in some other colonies.

North carolina and Sounth Carolina together were known as what?

the Province of Carolina

What year were the northern and southern carolinas seperated?

What was the profession of most of the settlers in the Province of Carolina?

small farmers

What people were a menace to the coastal areas of the Province of carolina?

Pirates

By what year had all of the pirates in the NC Province been captured or killed?


During colonial times, Edenton served as the state capital beginning in 1722, and New Bern was selected as the capital in 1766. Construction of Tryon Palace, which served as the residence and offices of the provincial governor William Tryon, began in 1767 and was completed in 1771. In 1788 Raleigh was chosen as the site of the new capital, as its central location protected it from attacks from the coast. Officially established in 1792 as both county seat and state capital, the city was named after Sir Walter Raleigh, sponsor of Roanoke, the "lost colony" on Roanoke Island.

What was the state capital of North Carolina in 1722?

Edenton

What city became the capital of North Carolina in 1766?

New Bern

Who was the governor of North carolina in 1767?

William Tryon

What was the name of the offices and residence built for William Tryon?

Tryon Palace

What central North carolina cuty was chosen for the capital in 1788?

Raleigh


North Carolina made the smallest per-capita contribution to the war of any state, as only 7,800 men joined the Continental Army under General George Washington; an additional 10,000 served in local militia units under such leaders as General Nathanael Greene. There was some military action, especially in 1780–81. Many Carolinian frontiersmen had moved west over the mountains, into the Washington District (later known as Tennessee), but in 1789, following the Revolution, the state was persuaded to relinquish its claim to the western lands. It ceded them to the national government so that the Northwest Territory could be organized and managed nationally.

What state made the smallest contribution to the revolutionary war of any state?

North Carolina

How many men from NC joined the continental army?

Who led the continental army?

General George Washington

What years were the highest concentration of military action in NC during the revolutionary war?

Frontiersmen from the Carolinas moved west into what area that is now known as Tennessee?

Washington District


After 1800, cotton and tobacco became important export crops. The eastern half of the state, especially the Tidewater region, developed a slave society based on a plantation system and slave labor. Many free people of color migrated to the frontier along with their European-American neighbors, where the social system was looser. By 1810, nearly 3 percent of the free population consisted of free people of color, who numbered slightly more than 10,000. The western areas were dominated by white families, especially Scots-Irish, who operated small subsistence farms. In the early national period, the state became a center of Jeffersonian and Jacksonian democracy, with a strong Whig presence, especially in the West. After Nat Turner's slave uprising in 1831, North Carolina and other southern states reduced the rights of free blacks. In 1835 the legislature withdrew their right to vote.

After what year did cotton and tobacco become important crops in North Carolina?

After 1800

The Tidewater region was in what half of North Carolina?

eastern

What region of North Carolina used slave labor and developed a slave society?

the Tidewater region

Where did free black people migrate to because of the looser social system?

the frontier

By 1810, what percentage of the free population was black?


With the defeat of the Confederacy in 1865, the Reconstruction Era began. The United States abolished slavery without compensation to slaveholders or reparations to freedmen. A Republican Party coalition of black freedmen, northern carpetbaggers and local scalawags controlled state government for three years. The white conservative Democrats regained control of the state legislature in 1870, in part by Ku Klux Klan violence and terrorism at the polls, to suppress black voting. Republicans were elected to the governorship until 1876, when the Red Shirts, a paramilitary organization that arose in 1874 and was allied with the Democratic Party, helped suppress black voting. More than 150 black Americans were murdered in electoral violence in 1876.

What year was the confederacy defeated?

What Era began following the defeat of the confederacy?

Reconstruction Era

The US abolished slavery without giving what to slave owners?

compensation

When did white Democrats regain control of the state legislature?

What did the KKK target with violence and terrorism at the polls?

black voting


Democrats were elected to the legislature and governor's office, but the Populists attracted voters displeased with them. In 1896 a biracial, Populist-Republican Fusionist coalition gained the governor's office. The Democrats regained control of the legislature in 1896 and passed laws to impose Jim Crow and racial segregation of public facilities. Voters of North Carolina's 2nd congressional district elected a total of four African-American congressmen through these years of the late 19th century.

What political party was elected to the legislature and Governors office?

Democrats

What political group attracted voters displeased with Democrats?

Populists

What year did a biracial Populist fusion gain the Governors office?

What year did the Democrats regain control of the governors office from the biracial Populists?

In the 19th century, how many african american congressmen were elected?

four


In 1899 the state legislature passed a new constitution, with requirements for poll taxes and literacy tests for voter registration which disfranchised most black Americans in the state. Exclusion from voting had wide effects: it meant that black Americans could not serve on juries or in any local office. After a decade of white supremacy, many people forgot that North Carolina had ever had thriving middle-class black Americans. Black citizens had no political voice in the state until after the federal Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965 were passed to enforce their constitutional rights. It was not until 1992 that another African American was elected as a US Representative from North Carolina.

What did the NC state legislature pass in 1899?

a new constitution

What type of taxes were required by the new NC constitution?

poll taxes

What did the new constitution require for voter registration?

literacy tests

Being excluded from doing what, made it so that black people could not serve on juries or in public office?

voting

What year was the Federal Civil Rights Act?


As in the rest of the former Confederacy, North Carolina had become a one-party state, dominated by the Democratic Party. Impoverished by the Civil War, the state continued with an economy based on tobacco, cotton and agriculture. Towns and cities remained few in the east. A major industrial base emerged in the late 19th century in the western counties of the Piedmont, based on cotton mills established at the fall line. Railroads were built to connect the new industrializing cities. The state was the site of the first successful controlled, powered and sustained heavier-than-air flight, by the Wright brothers, near Kitty Hawk on December 17, 1903. In the first half of the 20th century, many African Americans left the state to go North for better opportunities, in the Great Migration. Their departure changed the demographic characteristics of many areas.

What political party Dominated NC after the confederacy?

Democratic

What was the economy of North Carolina based on after the confederacy?

tobacco, cotton and agriculture

When did a major industrial base appear in North Carolina?

late 19th century

Where did the major industrial base appear in North Carolina?

western counties of the Piedmont

What was the emergence of the industrial base of North carolina based on?

cotton mills


North Carolina was hard hit by the Great Depression, but the New Deal programs of Franklin D. Roosevelt for cotton and tobacco significantly helped the farmers. After World War II, the state's economy grew rapidly, highlighted by the growth of such cities as Charlotte, Raleigh, and Durham in the Piedmont. Raleigh, Durham, and Chapel Hill form the Research Triangle, a major area of universities and advanced scientific and technical research. In the 1990s, Charlotte became a major regional and national banking center. Tourism has also been a boon for the North Carolina economy as people flock to the Outer Banks coastal area and the Appalachian Mountains anchored by Asheville.

What programs created by FDR helped North Carolina during the Great Depression?

New Deal programs

Who did the new deal programs benefit?

farmers

What crops was the New Deal Program made for?

cotton and tobacco

After what war did the states economy improve?

World War II

In the 1990's what NC city became a national banking center?

Charlotte