Germany is a federal republic consisting of sixteen federal states (German: Bundesland, or Land).[a] Since today's Germany was formed from an earlier collection of several states, it has a federal constitution, and the constituent states retain a measure of sovereignty. With an emphasis on geographical conditions, Berlin and Hamburg are frequently called Stadtstaaten (city-states), as is the Free Hanseatic City of Bremen, which in fact includes the cities of Bremen and Bremerhaven. The remaining 13 states are called Flächenländer (literally: area states).

How many states are in Germany?

sixteen

What is the German terms for states?

Bundesland, or Land

Which cities are called Stadtstaaten, other than Bremen?

Berlin and Hamburg

How many states are called "Flächenländer"?

The Free Hanseatic City of Bremen includes which cities?

Bremen and Bremerhaven

How many federal states are in Stadtstaaten?

I'm not sure.

What are Bremen and Bremerhaven frequently called?

I'm not sure.

What does Flachenlander still have?

I'm not sure.

What city state contains the cities of Berlin and Hamberg?

I'm not sure.

What were the cities of Berlin and Hamberg formed from?

I'm not sure.

What kind of republic is Switzerland?

I'm not sure.

What is one of the sixteen federal states of Germany?

I'm not sure.

What is one of Germany's constituent states?

I'm not sure.

What is the name of a state in Germany that is not a city-state?

I'm not sure.

Flachenlander is one of how many states in Germany?

I'm not sure.


The creation of the Federal Republic of Germany in 1949 was through the unification of the western states (which were previously under American, British, and French administration) created in the aftermath of World War II. Initially, in 1949, the states of the Federal Republic were Baden, Bavaria (in German: Bayern), Bremen, Hamburg, Hesse (Hessen), Lower Saxony (Niedersachsen), North Rhine Westphalia (Nordrhein-Westfalen), Rhineland-Palatinate (Rheinland-Pfalz), Schleswig-Holstein, Württemberg-Baden, and Württemberg-Hohenzollern. West Berlin, while officially not part of the Federal Republic, was largely integrated and considered as a de facto state.

When was the Federal Republic of Germany created

Which countries administrations was the Federal Republic of Germany previously under?

American, British, and French

Which city was originally not a part of the Federal Republic of Germany?

West Berlin

What was the Federal Republic of Germany created in the aftermath of?

World War II

When was the Federal Republic of France created?

I'm not sure.

After what event was France created in 1949?

I'm not sure.

Which area was not officially a part of Bavaria?

I'm not sure.

Who was in control of West Berlin before WWII?

I'm not sure.

What state was officially not a part of Britain?

I'm not sure.

What was created in 1959 in Germany?

I'm not sure.

What is one of the administrations of the eastern states?

I'm not sure.

What was founded before World War II?

I'm not sure.

What area has always been a part of the Federal Republic of Germany?

I'm not sure.

Which war was the Federal Republic of Germany created before?

I'm not sure.


In 1952, following a referendum, Baden, Württemberg-Baden, and Württemberg-Hohenzollern merged into Baden-Württemberg. In 1957, the Saar Protectorate rejoined the Federal Republic as the Saarland. German reunification in 1990, in which the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) ascended into the Federal Republic, resulted in the addition of the re-established eastern states of Brandenburg, Mecklenburg-West Pomerania (in German Mecklenburg-Vorpommern), Saxony (Sachsen), Saxony-Anhalt (Sachsen-Anhalt), and Thuringia (Thüringen), as well as the reunification of West and East Berlin into Berlin and its establishment as a full and equal state. A regional referendum in 1996 to merge Berlin with surrounding Brandenburg as "Berlin-Brandenburg" failed to reach the necessary majority vote in Brandenburg, while a majority of Berliners voted in favour of the merger.

Which city did Baden, Württemberg-Baden, and Württemberg-Hohenzollern merge into?

Baden-Württemberg

In what year did Baden, Württemberg-Baden, and Württemberg-Hohenzollern merge?

In 1957, the Saar Protectorate rejoined the Federal Republic as which city?

Saarland

When did the German reunification take place?

Why did a regional referendum in 1996 to merge Berlin with surrounding Brandenburg fail?

failed to reach the necessary majority vote in Brandenburg

In 1957 what merged into Baden-Wurttemberg?

I'm not sure.

What did a majority of Berliners vote for in 1957?

I'm not sure.

What happened to the referendum in 1990 to merge East Berlin with Saxony?

I'm not sure.

In what year did the Brandenberg reunification take place?

I'm not sure.

What did the Baden Protectorate rejoin in 1990?

I'm not sure.

Which areas merged together in 1957?

I'm not sure.

When did Saarland leave the Federal Republic?

I'm not sure.

What states became Berlin in 1980?

I'm not sure.

What year did Baden split from Württemberg-Baden, and Württemberg-Hohenzollern

I'm not sure.

In 1980 which country was reunified?

I'm not sure.


Federalism is one of the entrenched constitutional principles of Germany. According to the German constitution (called Grundgesetz or in English Basic Law), some topics, such as foreign affairs and defense, are the exclusive responsibility of the federation (i.e., the federal level), while others fall under the shared authority of the states and the federation; the states retain residual legislative authority for all other areas, including "culture", which in Germany includes not only topics such as financial promotion of arts and sciences, but also most forms of education and job training. Though international relations including international treaties are primarily the responsibility of the federal level, the constituent states have certain limited powers in this area: in matters that affect them directly, the states defend their interests at the federal level through the Bundesrat (literally Federal Council, the upper house of the German Federal Parliament) and in areas where they have legislative authority they have limited powers to conclude international treaties "with the consent of the federal government".

What is an entrenched constitutional principle in Germany?

Federalism

In Germany, foreign affairs is under the exclusive purvey of what?

the federation

What is an example of what states retain authority over?

culture

The states defend their interests at the federal level through what?

the Bundesrat

Whose consent do the states need to make international treaties?

the federal government

What is one of the entrenched legislative authorities of Bundesrat?

I'm not sure.

What is another word for foreign affairs?

I'm not sure.

What do the states have exclusive responsibility of?

I'm not sure.

What does German culture use to defend its interests at the federal level?

I'm not sure.

What areas do international relations also include?

I'm not sure.

Which political system is not used in Germany?

I'm not sure.

What is a topic that is the exclusive responsibility of the state?

I'm not sure.

What is the federal system is defended through?

I'm not sure.

What sole power do the states hold that require no consent of the federal government?

I'm not sure.

What do the states hold the exclusive power to negotiate?

I'm not sure.


The use of the term Länder (Lands) dates back to the Weimar Constitution of 1919. Before this time, the constituent states of the German Empire were called Staaten (States). Today, it is very common to use the term Bundesland (Federal Land). However, this term is not used officially, neither by the constitution of 1919 nor by the Basic Law (Constitution) of 1949. Three Länder call themselves Freistaaten (Free States, which is the old-fashioned German expression for Republic), Bavaria (since 1919), Saxony (originally since 1919 and again since 1990), and Thuringia (since 1994). There is little continuity between the current states and their predecessors of the Weimar Republic with the exception of the three free states, and the two city-states of Hamburg and Bremen.

What does the term Länder date back to?

the Weimar Constitution of 1919

Before 1919 what were the German states called?

Staaten

What does Bavaria refer to itself as?

Freistaaten

How many free states are there in Germany?

three

What are the two city-states in Germany?

Hamburg and Bremen

What term dates back to the Basic Law Constitution of 1990?

I'm not sure.

What were the states of Saxony called before 1919?

I'm not sure.

What term is commonly used today for the Weimar Republic?

I'm not sure.

What two city-states are in Bavaria?

I'm not sure.

What term is the old-fashioned Hamberg term for constitution?

I'm not sure.

What year was the German Constitution written?

I'm not sure.

What were the constituent states of the German Empire called after 1919?

I'm not sure.

What term was used by the Basic Law of 1949?

I'm not sure.

What is the only state that is considered a city-state in Germany?

I'm not sure.

What term is used for the states that are not considered free states?

I'm not sure.


A new delimitation of the federal territory keeps being debated in Germany, though "Some scholars note that there are significant differences among the American states and regional governments in other federations without serious calls for territorial changes ...", as political scientist Arthur B. Gunlicks remarks. He summarizes the main arguments for boundary reform in Germany: "... the German system of dual federalism requires strong Länder that have the administrative and fiscal capacity to implement legislation and pay for it from own source revenues. Too many Länder also make coordination among them and with the federation more complicated ...". But several proposals have failed so far; territorial reform remains a controversial topic in German politics and public perception.

What keeps being debated in Germany?

delimitation of the federal territory

What does Gunlick remark that the German System of  dual federalism requires strong Länder to have other than the capacity to implement legislation?

pay for it from own source revenues

How many proposals have failed so far?

several

What keeps being debated in America?

I'm not sure.

What happens if there are too many regional governments?

I'm not sure.

What has failed so far in America?

I'm not sure.

How is the topic of coordination seen according to the public in America?

I'm not sure.

What does the system of regional government need in America?

I'm not sure.

What is a settled question in Germany?

I'm not sure.

Why are there calls for territorial changes?

I'm not sure.

What was Arthur B. Gunlicks not in favor of?

I'm not sure.

What is one argument for increasing the number of Lander?

I'm not sure.

What changes have been successfully implemented in Germany?

I'm not sure.


Federalism has a long tradition in German history. The Holy Roman Empire comprised many petty states numbering more than 300 around 1796. The number of territories was greatly reduced during the Napoleonic Wars (1796–1814). After the Congress of Vienna (1815), 39 states formed the German Confederation. The Confederation was dissolved after the Austro-Prussian War and replaced by a North German Federation under Prussian hegemony; this war left Prussia dominant in Germany, and German nationalism would compel the remaining independent states to ally with Prussia in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, and then to accede to the crowning of King Wilhelm of Prussia as German Emperor. The new German Empire included 25 states (three of them, Hanseatic cities) and the imperial territory of Alsace-Lorraine. The empire was dominated by Prussia, which controlled 65% of the territory and 62% of the population. After the territorial losses of the Treaty of Versailles, the remaining states continued as republics of a new German federation. These states were gradually de facto abolished and reduced to provinces under the Nazi regime via the Gleichschaltung process, as the states administratively were largely superseded by the Nazi Gau system.

The Holy Roman Empire comprised of how many petty states?

more than 300

The number of territories was greatly reduced during what?

the Napoleonic Wars

A North German Federation under Prussian hegemony replaced what confederation?

the German Confederation

How much of the population did Prussia control?

How much of the land did Prussia control?

What has a long tradition in the history of the Holy Roman Empire?

I'm not sure.

From 1796-1814 how many petty states were part of Germany?

I'm not sure.

After the Napoleonic Wars how many states formed the North German Federation?

I'm not sure.

When was the Holy Roman Empire dissolved?

I'm not sure.

What was the Holy Roman Empire replaced with?

I'm not sure.

What is a recent political tradition in Germany?

I'm not sure.

How many states did Germany have by 1796?

I'm not sure.

What year was the Congress of Rome held?

I'm not sure.

Under who was the German Confederation formed?

I'm not sure.

What kind of cities did the 25 states of the new German Empire have?

I'm not sure.


During the Allied occupation of Germany after World War II, internal borders were redrawn by the Allied military governments. No single state comprised more than 30% of either population or territory; this was intended to prevent any one state from being as dominant within Germany as Prussia had been in the past. Initially, only seven of the pre-War states remained: Baden (in part), Bavaria (reduced in size), Bremen, Hamburg, Hesse (enlarged), Saxony, and Thuringia. The states with hyphenated names, such as Rhineland-Palatinate, North Rhine-Westphalia, and Saxony-Anhalt, owed their existence to the occupation powers and were created out of mergers of former Prussian provinces and smaller states. Former German territory that lie east of the Oder-Neisse Line fell under either Polish or Soviet administration but attempts were made at least symbolically not to abandon sovereignty well into the 1960s. However, no attempts were made to establish new states in these territories as they lay outside the jurisdiction of West Germany at that time.

Who redrew Germany's internal borders after World War II?

Allied military governments

No single state comprised of how much of the population after World War II?

After WWII how many states initially remained in Germany?

seven

Former German territory that lie east of the Oder-Neisse Line went under which countries administration?

Polish or Soviet administration

How many made to establish new states in the territories  lying east of the Oder-Neisse Line?

no attempts

Who was responsible for changing Prussia's internal borders?

I'm not sure.

What did no single Rhineland make up more of in population or territory?

I'm not sure.

In the beginning how many states were left in Prussia after WWII?

I'm not sure.

Under who's administration were the occupation powers east of the Oder-Neisse Line?

I'm not sure.

What was not abandoned in territory east of Prussia until after WWII?

I'm not sure.

What was redrawn during the allied occupation after WW I

I'm not sure.

Who redrew internal borders after WW I?

I'm not sure.

What place comprised 30% of territory after WW II?

I'm not sure.

Who did the territory belong to that was west of the Oder-Neisse Line?

I'm not sure.

When were attempts to abandon sovereignty made?

I'm not sure.


Upon its founding in 1949, West Germany had eleven states. These were reduced to nine in 1952 when three south-western states (South Baden, Württemberg-Hohenzollern, and Württemberg-Baden) merged to form Baden-Württemberg. From 1957, when the French-occupied Saar Protectorate was returned and formed into the Saarland, the Federal Republic consisted of ten states, which are referred to as the "Old States" today. West Berlin was under the sovereignty of the Western Allies and neither a Western German state nor part of one. However, it was in many ways de facto integrated with West Germany under a special status.

How many states did West Germany have at its founding?

eleven

What was West Berlin under the sovereignty of?

Western Allies

Which state was West Berlin apart of?

neither a Western German state nor part of one

When did the Saarland form?

How many states was Germany reduced to in 1952

When South Baden was formed in 1952, how many states were there?

I'm not sure.

What were the number of states reduced to in Saar Protectorate in 1949?

I'm not sure.

What states merged to form Saarland in 1952?

I'm not sure.

Who was South Baden under the authority of?

I'm not sure.

What kind of status did Saarland have when integrated with West Germany?

I'm not sure.

How many states did West Germany add after it's founding in 1952?

I'm not sure.

When was East Germany founded?

I'm not sure.

When was the Saar Protectorate given to the French?

I'm not sure.

What are referred to as the 'new states'?

I'm not sure.

What German state did West Berlin fall under?

I'm not sure.


Later, the constitution was amended to state that the citizens of the 16 states had successfully achieved the unity of Germany in free self-determination and that the Basic Law thus applied to the entire German people. Article 23, which had allowed "any other parts of Germany" to join, was rephrased. It had been used in 1957 to reintegrate the Saar Protectorate as the Saarland into the Federal Republic, and this was used as a model for German reunification in 1990. The amended article now defines the participation of the Federal Council and the 16 German states in matters concerning the European Union.

What was the German constitution later amended to say about the citizens of the 16 states?

had successfully achieved the unity of Germany

Article 23, before it was rephrased allowed what?

"any other parts of Germany" to join

Which state was Article 23 used to reintegrate?

Saar Protectorate

The amended article 23 now defines the participation of the Federal Council and what else?

the 16 German states

What was amended to signify that Basic Law no longer applied to the German people?

I'm not sure.

How was article 23 rephrased to reintegrate the Saar Protectorate?

I'm not sure.

What was used as a model for German Reunification in 1980?

I'm not sure.

Which article does the Federal Council define?

I'm not sure.

How many states are a part of the German Union?

I'm not sure.


A new delimitation of the federal territory has been discussed since the Federal Republic was founded in 1949 and even before. Committees and expert commissions advocated a reduction of the number of states; academics (Rutz, Miegel, Ottnad etc.) and politicians (Döring, Apel, and others) made proposals –  some of them far-reaching –  for redrawing boundaries but hardly anything came of these public discussions. Territorial reform is sometimes propagated by the richer states as a means to avoid or reduce fiscal transfers.

What has been discussed since the Federal Republic was founded in 1949?

new delimitation of the federal territory

What have experts advocated in regards to delimitation?

a reduction of the number of states

What is propagated by the richer states as a means to avoid or reduce fiscal transfers?

Territorial reform

Since when has the delimitation of state territories been discussed?

I'm not sure.

Who advocated an increase in the number of states?

I'm not sure.

Which public discussions had far-reaching appeal?

I'm not sure.

Why do poorer states propagate territorial reform?

I'm not sure.

What advantage is it for richer states if territorial reform is enacted?

I'm not sure.


The debate on a new delimitation of the German territory started in 1919 as part of discussions about the new constitution. Hugo Preuss, the father of the Weimar Constitution, drafted a plan to divide the German Reich into 14 roughly equal-sized states. His proposal was turned down due to opposition of the states and concerns of the government. Article 18 of the constitution enabled a new delimitation of the German territory but set high hurdles: Three fifth of the votes handed in, and at least the majority of the population are necessary to decide on the alteration of territory. In fact, until 1933 there were only four changes in the configuration of the German states: The 7 Thuringian states were merged in 1920, whereby Coburg opted for Bavaria, Pyrmont joined Prussia in 1922, and Waldeck did so in 1929. Any later plans to break up the dominating Prussia into smaller states failed because political circumstances were not favorable to state reforms.

When did the debate on delimitation begin in Germany?

Who was the father of the Weimar Constitution?

Hugo Preuss

How many states was the German Reich to divided into?

Until 1933 how many configurations in the German states occurred?

four

When did Pyrmont join Prussia?

When did the debate on the new constitution began?

I'm not sure.

Who was the father of the German Constitution?

I'm not sure.

Who drafted a plan to divide the German territory into 14 unequal states?

I'm not sure.

What made it impossible to enable new delimitation in article 18?

I'm not sure.

What could be decided with a simple majority of votes?

I'm not sure.


After the Nazi Party seized power in January 1933, the Länder increasingly lost importance. They became administrative regions of a centralised country. Three changes are of particular note: on January 1, 1934, Mecklenburg-Schwerin was united with the neighbouring Mecklenburg-Strelitz; and, by the Greater Hamburg Act (Groß-Hamburg-Gesetz), from April 1, 1937, the area of the city-state was extended, while Lübeck lost its independence and became part of the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein.

When did the Nazi Party seize power?

January 1933

What happened to the Länder as they lost importance during the Nazi regime?

They became administrative regions

on January 1, 1934, Mecklenburg-Schwerin was united with which state?

Mecklenburg-Strelitz

When did the Greater Hamburg Act occur?

April 1, 1937

Which Prussian province did Lübeck become a part of?

Schleswig-Holstein

Who seized power in January of 1934?

I'm not sure.

Why did the Lander increase in power after 1933?

I'm not sure.

What act allowed the reduction of the area for the united Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Strelitz?

I'm not sure.

Who gained their independence in 1937?

I'm not sure.

When did Schleswig-Holstein become a part of the Prussian province?

I'm not sure.


As the premiers did not come to an agreement on this question, the Parliamentary Council was supposed to address this issue. Its provisions are reflected in Article 29. There was a binding provision for a new delimitation of the federal territory: the Federal Territory must be revised ... (paragraph 1). Moreover, in territories or parts of territories whose affiliation with a Land had changed after 8 May 1945 without a referendum, people were allowed to petition for a revision of the current status within a year after the promulgation of the Basic Law (paragraph 2). If at least one tenth of those entitled to vote in Bundestag elections were in favour of a revision, the federal government had to include the proposal into its legislation. Then a referendum was required in each territory or part of a territory whose affiliation was to be changed (paragraph 3). The proposal should not take effect if within any of the affected territories a majority rejected the change. In this case, the bill had to be introduced again and after passing had to be confirmed by referendum in the Federal Republic as a whole (paragraph 4). The reorganization should be completed within three years after the Basic Law had come into force (paragraph 6).

In the revision of Article 29, what was a binding provision for a new delimitation of the federal territory?

the Federal Territory must be revised

How much of the population must have been in favor of the revision?

one tenth

What was required in each territory or part of a territory whose affiliation was to be changed?

a referendum

Which paragraph stated that reorganization should be completed within three years after the Basic Law had come into force?

paragraph 6

Who addressed an issue if the premiers came to an agreement?

I'm not sure.

Which article was used to avoid a provision for new delimitation of territory?

I'm not sure.

People were allowed to petition for a revision as long as they had what?

I'm not sure.

What fraction of people voted in Bundestag elections?

I'm not sure.

Who could introduce a bill even if the affected territories did not vote for a change?

I'm not sure.


In the Paris Agreements of 23 October 1954, France offered to establish an independent "Saarland", under the auspices of the Western European Union (WEU), but on 23 October 1955 in the Saar Statute referendum the Saar electorate rejected this plan by 67.7% to 32.3% (out of a 96.5% turnout: 423,434 against, 201,975 for) despite the public support of Federal German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer for the plan. The rejection of the plan by the Saarlanders was interpreted as support for the Saar to join the Federal Republic of Germany.

In what negotiation did France offer to establish the independent Saarland?

Paris Agreements

In the 23 October 1955 Saar Statute referendum, what percentage opposed the formation of the Saarland?

What was the Saar Statute referendum voter turnout?

Which political figure supported the Saar Statute referendum?

Chancellor Konrad Adenauer

The rejection of the plan by the Saarlanders was interpreted as support for the Saar to do what?

join the Federal Republic of Germany.

What did France offer in the French agreements of 1954?

I'm not sure.

Who was under the auspices of the Eastern European Union?

I'm not sure.

By what percentage did the Saar Statute referendum pass?

I'm not sure.

What referendum was passed by the electorate?

I'm not sure.

Which German Chancellor was against the Saar Statute referendum?

I'm not sure.


Paragraph 6 of Article 29 stated that if a petition was successful a referendum should be held within three years. Since the deadline passed on 5 May 1958 without anything happening the Hesse state government filed a constitutional complaint with the Federal Constitutional Court in October 1958. The complaint was dismissed in July 1961 on the grounds that Article 29 had made the new delimitation of the federal territory an exclusively federal matter. At the same time, the Court reaffirmed the requirement for a territorial revision as a binding order to the relevant constitutional bodies.

Paragraph 6 of Article 29 states that a referendum, in the event of a successful petition should be held within how many years?

three

What did the Hesse state government due when the May 5, 1958 deadline passed?

filed a constitutional complaint

When was the Hesse state government's complaint dismissed?

July 1961

On what grounds was the Hesse state government's complaint dismissed

exclusively federal matter

Which article claimed if a petition was successful there was no need for a referendum?

I'm not sure.

Which government filed a request to change their constitution?

I'm not sure.

By who was the Hesse state government's complaint heard?

I'm not sure.

Why did the constitutional court decide to hear the Hesse State complaint?

I'm not sure.

Who did the court tell they had a requirement to bind territorial revisions?

I'm not sure.


In his investiture address, given on 28 October 1969 in Bonn, Chancellor Willy Brandt proposed that the government would consider Article 29 of the Basic Law as a binding order. An expert commission was established, named after its chairman, the former Secretary of State Professor Werner Ernst. After two years of work, the experts delivered their report in 1973. It provided an alternative proposal for both northern Germany and central and southwestern Germany. In the north, either a single new state consisting of Schleswig-Holstein, Hamburg, Bremen and Lower Saxony should be created (solution A) or two new states, one in the northeast consisting of Schleswig-Holstein, Hamburg and the northern part of Lower Saxony (from Cuxhaven to Lüchow-Dannenberg) and one in the northwest consisting of Bremen and the rest of Lower Saxony (solution B). In the Center and South West either Rhineland-Palatinate (with the exception of the Germersheim district but including the Rhine-Neckar region) should be merged with Hesse and the Saarland (solution C), the district of Germersheim would then become part of Baden-Württemberg.

What did Chancellor Willy Brandt propose in his  28 October 1969 address?

Article 29 of the Basic Law as a binding order

Where did Chancellor Willy Brandt make his  28 October 1969 address?

Bonn

An expert commission was established under which chairman?

Werner Ernst

When did the expert commission deliver its report?

the district of Germersheim

Which state would the district of Germersheim be a part of?

Baden-Württemberg

Which chancellor proposed that article 29 should no longer be a binding order?

I'm not sure.

Who established an expert commission to discuss article 29?

I'm not sure.

When was an expert commission established?

I'm not sure.

What was the proposal for a single new state in the South?

I'm not sure.

What area was suggested should be separated from Hesse?

I'm not sure.


The Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany, the federal constitution, stipulates that the structure of each Federal State's government must "conform to the principles of republican, democratic, and social government, based on the rule of law" (Article 28). Most of the states are governed by a cabinet led by a Ministerpräsident (Minister-President), together with a unicameral legislative body known as the Landtag (State Diet). The states are parliamentary republics and the relationship between their legislative and executive branches mirrors that of the federal system: the legislatures are popularly elected for four or five years (depending on the state), and the Minister-President is then chosen by a majority vote among the Landtag's members. The Minister-President appoints a cabinet to run the state's agencies and to carry out the executive duties of the state's government.

Which article stipulates that the structure of each Federal State's government must "conform to the principles of republican, democratic, and social government, based on the rule of law"?

Article 28

Most states are governed by what figure?

Ministerpräsident

What are most state legislatures called?

Landtag

How is the Minister President chosen?

a majority vote among the Landtag's members

Who does Minister-President choose to run state agencies?

a cabinet

What principles does the basic law suggest that Germany is not required to conform to?

I'm not sure.

Who is the federal government in Germany governed by?

I'm not sure.

What is the name of the federal legislative body?

I'm not sure.

What relationships differ between parliamentary republics and federal systems?

I'm not sure.

Who chooses the cabinet in the Landtag?

I'm not sure.


The governments in Berlin, Bremen and Hamburg are designated by the term Senate. In the three free states of Bavaria, Saxony, and Thuringia the government is referred to as the State Government (Staatsregierung), and in the other ten states the term Land Government (Landesregierung) is used. Before January 1, 2000, Bavaria had a bicameral parliament, with a popularly elected Landtag, and a Senate made up of representatives of the state's major social and economic groups. The Senate was abolished following a referendum in 1998. The states of Berlin, Bremen, and Hamburg are governed slightly differently from the other states. In each of those cities, the executive branch consists of a Senate of approximately eight, selected by the state's parliament; the senators carry out duties equivalent to those of the ministers in the larger states. The equivalent of the Minister-President is the Senatspräsident (President of the Senate) in Bremen, the Erster Bürgermeister (First Mayor) in Hamburg, and the Regierender Bürgermeister (Governing Mayor) in Berlin. The parliament for Berlin is called the Abgeordnetenhaus (House of Representatives), while Bremen and Hamburg both have a Bürgerschaft. The parliaments in the remaining 13 states are referred to as Landtag (State Parliament).

What are the governments in Berlin, Bremen and Hamburg called?

Senate

What is the government called in the three free states of Bavaria, Saxony, and Thuringia?

the State Government

What did Bavaria's government have before 2001?

a bicameral parliament

How many people are in the executive branch senate in Berlin?

eight

The parliament in Berlin is called what?

Abgeordnetenhaus

What kind of government did Bavaria have after 2001?

I'm not sure.

What state has an appointed Landtag?

I'm not sure.

What is the Landtag of Bavaria made up of?

I'm not sure.

How many representatives are on the Senate of the legislative branch in Berlin?

I'm not sure.

What common name are the ministers in Berlin, Bremen and Hamburg called?

I'm not sure.


The Districts of Germany (Kreise) are administrative districts, and every state except the city-states of Berlin, Hamburg, and Bremen consists of "rural districts" (Landkreise), District-free Towns/Cities (Kreisfreie Städte, in Baden-Württemberg also called "urban districts", or Stadtkreise), cities that are districts in their own right, or local associations of a special kind (Kommunalverbände besonderer Art), see below. The state Free Hanseatic City of Bremen consists of two urban districts, while Berlin and Hamburg are states and urban districts at the same time.

What are the districts of Germany considered?

administrative districts

Every state, other than the free states, consist of districts called what?

"rural districts"

How many urban districts are in Bremen?

two

Berlin and Hamburg are states and what else at the same time?

urban districts

What districts do every state, including, Berlin, Hamburg and Bremen have?

I'm not sure.

What are towns and cities with districts called?

I'm not sure.

What are Berlin and Humburg not considered to be, because they are states?

I'm not sure.

How many rural districts are in Bremen?

I'm not sure.

Every state including free states consist of what?

I'm not sure.


Local associations of a special kind are an amalgamation of one or more Landkreise with one or more Kreisfreie Städte to form a replacement of the aforementioned administrative entities at the district level. They are intended to implement simplification of administration at that level. Typically, a district-free city or town and its urban hinterland are grouped into such an association, or Kommunalverband besonderer Art. Such an organization requires the issuing of special laws by the governing state, since they are not covered by the normal administrative structure of the respective states.

Local associations of a special kind are an amalgamation of one or more Landkreise with what?

one or more Kreisfreie Städte

What do local associations replace?

administrative entities at the district level

What are local associations  intended to implement?

simplification of administration

What is the association a district-free city or town and its urban hinterland typically grouped into?

Kommunalverband besonderer Art

What does a Kommunalverband besonderer Art require?

the issuing of special laws

Who created an amalgamation at the state level?

I'm not sure.

What do district level associations replace?

I'm not sure.

Why are district level associations created?

I'm not sure.

To who are special laws by a district issued?

I'm not sure.

What purpose is district level administration?

I'm not sure.


Municipalities (Gemeinden): Every rural district and every Amt is subdivided into municipalities, while every urban district is a municipality in its own right. There are (as of 6 March 2009[update]) 12,141 municipalities, which are the smallest administrative units in Germany. Cities and towns are municipalities as well, also having city rights or town rights (Stadtrechte). Nowadays, this is mostly just the right to be called a city or town. However, in former times there were many other privileges, including the right to impose local taxes or to allow industry only within city limits.

Every rural district is subdivided into what?

municipalities

Every urban district is what in its own right?

municipality

How many municipalities are there?

What is the smallest administrative unit in Germany?

a municipality

What are town rights called?

Stadtrechte

What are only rural districts divided into?

I'm not sure.

What are urban districts not allowed to be?

I'm not sure.

How many districts are there in Germany?

I'm not sure.

What rights do cities and towns give up if they are a municipality?

I'm not sure.

What special rights does a city have nowadays along with the right to be called a city?

I'm not sure.


The municipalities have two major policy responsibilities. First, they administer programs authorized by the federal or state government. Such programs typically relate to youth, schools, public health, and social assistance. Second, Article 28(2) of the Basic Law guarantees the municipalities "the right to regulate on their own responsibility all the affairs of the local community within the limits set by law." Under this broad statement of competence, local governments can justify a wide range of activities. For instance, many municipalities develop and expand the economic infrastructure of their communities through the development of industrial trading estates.

Municipalities have how many major policy responsibilities?

local governments can justify

What article grants the municipalities "the right to regulate on their own responsibility all the affairs of the local community within the limits set by law.

Article 28(2)

Under Article 28(2) local governments can justify what?

a wide range of activities

What is one way municipalities develop the economic infrastructure?

development

Who have three major policy responsibilities?

I'm not sure.

What is federal government responsible for administering?

I'm not sure.

Programs run by the state or federal government typically relate to what?

I'm not sure.

Local governments are limited by which article?

I'm not sure.

What guarantees state and federal governments their rights?

I'm not sure.


In southwestern Germany, territorial revision seemed to be a top priority since the border between the French and American occupation zones was set along the Autobahn Karlsruhe-Stuttgart-Ulm (today the A8). Article 118 stated "The division of the territory comprising Baden, Württemberg-Baden and Württemberg-Hohenzollern into Länder may be revised, without regard to the provisions of Article 29, by agreement between the Länder concerned. If no agreement is reached, the revision shall be effected by a federal law, which shall provide for an advisory referendum." Since no agreement was reached, a referendum was held on 9 December 1951 in four different voting districts, three of which approved the merger (South Baden refused but was overruled as the result of total votes was decisive). On 25 April 1952, the three former states merged to form Baden-Württemberg.

What was territorial revision considered in southeastern Germany?

I'm not sure.

What road is the border between the French and American zones?

I'm not sure.

Which article did not allow the division of territory comprising Baden?

I'm not sure.

What goes into effect if an agreement under article 29 is reached?

I'm not sure.

Which state did not agree, so was not included in the December 1951 referendum?

I'm not sure.


Many applications of silicate glasses derive from their optical transparency, which gives rise to one of silicate glasses' primary uses as window panes. Glass will transmit, reflect and refract light; these qualities can be enhanced by cutting and polishing to make optical lenses, prisms, fine glassware, and optical fibers for high speed data transmission by light. Glass can be colored by adding metallic salts, and can also be painted and printed with vitreous enamels. These qualities have led to the extensive use of glass in the manufacture of art objects and in particular, stained glass windows. Although brittle, silicate glass is extremely durable, and many examples of glass fragments exist from early glass-making cultures. Because glass can be formed or molded into any shape, and also because it is a sterile product, it has been traditionally used for vessels: bowls, vases, bottles, jars and drinking glasses. In its most solid forms it has also been used for paperweights, marbles, and beads. When extruded as glass fiber and matted as glass wool in a way to trap air, it becomes a thermal insulating material, and when these glass fibers are embedded into an organic polymer plastic, they are a key structural reinforcement part of the composite material fiberglass. Some objects historically were so commonly made of silicate glass that they are simply called by the name of the material, such as drinking glasses and reading glasses.

What ingredient makes glass colorful?

metallic salts

What in combination with glass fibers is used to make fiberglass?

organic polymer plastic

What quality of silicate glass allows it to be used for windows?

transparency

What type of glass products can be used for sending information?

optical fibers

In what product are glass fibers used to hold dead air?

thermal insulating material

What ingredient makes glass durable?

I'm not sure.

What in combination with glass fibers is used to make glass wool?

I'm not sure.

What quality of silicate glass allows it to be used for insulating?

I'm not sure.

What type of glass products can be used for reinforcement?

I'm not sure.

In what product are glass fibers used to hold composite material?

I'm not sure.


Most common glass contains other ingredients to change its properties. Lead glass or flint glass is more 'brilliant' because the increased refractive index causes noticeably more specular reflection and increased optical dispersion. Adding barium also increases the refractive index. Thorium oxide gives glass a high refractive index and low dispersion and was formerly used in producing high-quality lenses, but due to its radioactivity has been replaced by lanthanum oxide in modern eyeglasses.[citation needed] Iron can be incorporated into glass to absorb infrared energy, for example in heat absorbing filters for movie projectors, while cerium(IV) oxide can be used for glass that absorbs UV wavelengths.

What element is used in glass to keep it from becoming too hot?

Iron

How does barium affect glass?

increases the refractive index

What property of thorium oxide has caused it to no longer be used in eyeglasses?

radioactivity

What is another name for lead glass?

flint glass

What is the benefit of thorium oxide in addition to its refractive index?

low dispersion

What element is used in glass to help it from becoming more reflective?

I'm not sure.

How does barium affect movie filters?

I'm not sure.

What property of thorium oxide has caused it to no longer be used in projectors?

I'm not sure.

What is another name for cerium oxide?

I'm not sure.

What is the benefit of heat absorbing filters in addition to its refractive index?

I'm not sure.


Fused quartz is a glass made from chemically-pure SiO2 (silica). It has excellent thermal shock characteristics, being able to survive immersion in water while red hot. However, its high melting-temperature (1723 °C) and viscosity make it difficult to work with. Normally, other substances are added to simplify processing. One is sodium carbonate (Na2CO3, "soda"), which lowers the glass transition temperature. The soda makes the glass water-soluble, which is usually undesirable, so lime (calcium oxide [CaO], generally obtained from limestone), some magnesium oxide (MgO) and aluminium oxide (Al2O3) are added to provide for a better chemical durability. The resulting glass contains about 70 to 74% silica by weight and is called a soda-lime glass. Soda-lime glasses account for about 90% of manufactured glass.

What causes glass to dissolve in water?

soda

Why is lime often added to glass?

better chemical durability

What percentage of soda-lime glass is silica?

70 to 74

What is a benefit of fused quartz?

excellent thermal shock characteristics

What besides viscosity is a drawback of fused quartz?

high melting-temperature

What causes glass to dissolve in Na2CO3?

I'm not sure.

Why is lime often added to magnesium?

I'm not sure.

What percentage of soda-lime glass is obtained from limestone?

I'm not sure.

What is a benefit of chemical durability?

I'm not sure.

What besides viscosity is a drawback of soda-lime glasses?

I'm not sure.


Following the glass batch preparation and mixing, the raw materials are transported to the furnace. Soda-lime glass for mass production is melted in gas fired units. Smaller scale furnaces for specialty glasses include electric melters, pot furnaces, and day tanks. After melting, homogenization and refining (removal of bubbles), the glass is formed. Flat glass for windows and similar applications is formed by the float glass process, developed between 1953 and 1957 by Sir Alastair Pilkington and Kenneth Bickerstaff of the UK's Pilkington Brothers, who created a continuous ribbon of glass using a molten tin bath on which the molten glass flows unhindered under the influence of gravity. The top surface of the glass is subjected to nitrogen under pressure to obtain a polished finish. Container glass for common bottles and jars is formed by blowing and pressing methods. This glass is often slightly modified chemically (with more alumina and calcium oxide) for greater water resistance. Further glass forming techniques are summarized in the table Glass forming techniques.

What happens during refining?

removal of bubbles

What method is used for making windows?

float glass process

What is used on the surface of window glass to make it smooth?

nitrogen

What is added to the glass of jars to improve water resistance?

alumina and calcium oxide

Who were the inventors of the float glass process?

Alastair Pilkington and Kenneth Bickerstaff

What happens during forming techniques?

I'm not sure.

What method is used for making raw materials?

I'm not sure.

What is used on the surface of jar glasses to make them smooth?

I'm not sure.

What is added to the glass of windows to improve water resistance?

I'm not sure.

Who were the inventors of molten glass flows?

I'm not sure.


Glass has the ability to refract, reflect, and transmit light following geometrical optics, without scattering it. It is used in the manufacture of lenses and windows. Common glass has a refraction index around 1.5. This may be modified by adding low-density materials such as boron, which lowers the index of refraction (see crown glass), or increased (to as much as 1.8) with high-density materials such as (classically) lead oxide (see flint glass and lead glass), or in modern uses, less toxic oxides of zirconium, titanium, or barium. These high-index glasses (inaccurately known as "crystal" when used in glass vessels) cause more chromatic dispersion of light, and are prized for their diamond-like optical properties.

What can be used to make glass less refractive?

boron

What is the refraction index of typical glass?

What is a toxic additive that increases refraction?

lead oxide

What are high-index glasses erroneously called?

crystal

Why are high-index glasses valued?

for their diamond-like optical properties

What can be used to make glass less dense?

I'm not sure.

What is the refraction index of diamond?

I'm not sure.

What is a toxic additive that increases optics?

I'm not sure.

What is another name for chromatic dispersions?

I'm not sure.

Why are high-index glasses modified?

I'm not sure.


The most familiar, and historically the oldest, types of glass are "silicate glasses" based on the chemical compound silica (silicon dioxide, or quartz), the primary constituent of sand. The term glass, in popular usage, is often used to refer only to this type of material, which is familiar from use as window glass and in glass bottles. Of the many silica-based glasses that exist, ordinary glazing and container glass is formed from a specific type called soda-lime glass, composed of approximately 75% silicon dioxide (SiO2), sodium oxide (Na2O) from sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), calcium oxide, also called lime (CaO), and several minor additives. A very clear and durable quartz glass can be made from pure silica, but the high melting point and very narrow glass transition of quartz make glassblowing and hot working difficult. In glasses like soda lime, the compounds added to quartz are used to lower the melting temperature and improve workability, at a cost in the toughness, thermal stability, and optical transmittance.

Which kinds of glass existed the furthest in the past?

silicate glasses

What kind of glass are containers made from?

soda-lime glass

What is sand mostly made of?

silica

What can a very strong and transparent glass be made from?

pure silica

What types of glass is the word commonly used to mean?

silicate glasses

Which kinds of containers existed furthest in the past?

I'm not sure.

What kind of glass are windows made from?

I'm not sure.

What is calcium oxide mostly made of?

I'm not sure.

What can a very strong and transparent transmittance be made from?

I'm not sure.

What types of workability is the word commonly used to mean?

I'm not sure.


Glass is in widespread use largely due to the production of glass compositions that are transparent to visible light. In contrast, polycrystalline materials do not generally transmit visible light. The individual crystallites may be transparent, but their facets (grain boundaries) reflect or scatter light resulting in diffuse reflection. Glass does not contain the internal subdivisions associated with grain boundaries in polycrystals and hence does not scatter light in the same manner as a polycrystalline material. The surface of a glass is often smooth since during glass formation the molecules of the supercooled liquid are not forced to dispose in rigid crystal geometries and can follow surface tension, which imposes a microscopically smooth surface. These properties, which give glass its clearness, can be retained even if glass is partially light-absorbing—i.e., colored.

What does glass lack, allowing it to be transparent?

internal subdivisions

What force gives glass its surface texture?

surface tension

What, in contrast to glass, doesn't let light pass through?

polycrystalline materials

What type of glass absorbs some light?

colored

What does glass lack, allowing it to be polycrystalline?

I'm not sure.

What force gives glass its rigid crystal geometries?

I'm not sure.

What, in contrast to glass, doesn't absorb light?

I'm not sure.

What type of glass absorbs molecules of supercooled liquid?

I'm not sure.

What do individual crystallites not contain?

I'm not sure.


Naturally occurring glass, especially the volcanic glass obsidian, has been used by many Stone Age societies across the globe for the production of sharp cutting tools and, due to its limited source areas, was extensively traded. But in general, archaeological evidence suggests that the first true glass was made in coastal north Syria, Mesopotamia or ancient Egypt. The earliest known glass objects, of the mid third millennium BCE, were beads, perhaps initially created as accidental by-products of metal-working (slags) or during the production of faience, a pre-glass vitreous material made by a process similar to glazing.

What kind of glass exists in nature?

obsidian

Obsidian is what type of glass?

volcanic

What was obsidian used to make in prehistoric times?

cutting tools

When are the oldest beads thought to have been made?

mid third millennium BCE

What glass-like material is made with a method related to glazing?

faience

What kind of glass exists in Egypt?

I'm not sure.

Obsidian is what type of slag?

I'm not sure.

What was obsidian used to make in falence processes?

I'm not sure.

What glass-like material is made with a method related to sharp cutting?

I'm not sure.

What suggests that the first true glass was accidental?

I'm not sure.


Color in glass may be obtained by addition of electrically charged ions (or color centers) that are homogeneously distributed, and by precipitation of finely dispersed particles (such as in photochromic glasses). Ordinary soda-lime glass appears colorless to the naked eye when it is thin, although iron(II) oxide (FeO) impurities of up to 0.1 wt% produce a green tint, which can be viewed in thick pieces or with the aid of scientific instruments. Further FeO and Cr2O3 additions may be used for the production of green bottles. Sulfur, together with carbon and iron salts, is used to form iron polysulfides and produce amber glass ranging from yellowish to almost black. A glass melt can also acquire an amber color from a reducing combustion atmosphere. Manganese dioxide can be added in small amounts to remove the green tint given by iron(II) oxide. When used in art glass or studio glass is colored using closely guarded recipes that involve specific combinations of metal oxides, melting temperatures and 'cook' times. Most colored glass used in the art market is manufactured in volume by vendors who serve this market although there are some glassmakers with the ability to make their own color from raw materials.

What can give glass a faint green tinge?

iron(II) oxide

What can prevent a green color in glass?

Manganese dioxide

What other than additives can give glass a yellow color?

reducing combustion atmosphere

What chemical compounds can make glass nearly black?

iron polysulfides

Charged ions can be used to produce what in glass?

Color

What can give glass a metal?

I'm not sure.

What can prevent an amber color in glass?

I'm not sure.

What other additives can give glass a sulfur tint?

I'm not sure.

What chemical compounds can make glass thin?

I'm not sure.

Charged ions can be used to produce what in precipitates?

I'm not sure.


Glass remained a luxury material, and the disasters that overtook Late Bronze Age civilizations seem to have brought glass-making to a halt. Indigenous development of glass technology in South Asia may have begun in 1730 BCE. In ancient China, though, glassmaking seems to have a late start, compared to ceramics and metal work. The term glass developed in the late Roman Empire. It was in the Roman glassmaking center at Trier, now in modern Germany, that the late-Latin term glesum originated, probably from a Germanic word for a transparent, lustrous substance. Glass objects have been recovered across the Roman empire in domestic, industrial and funerary contexts.[citation needed]

What word does "glass" come from?

glesum

Where did glasswork begin relatively late?

China

In what year did glassmaking begin in Asia?

1730 BCE

What city was a center of glass production for the Romans?

Trier

In what current country is Trier located?

Germany

What word does "domestic" come from?

I'm not sure.

Where did ceramics begin in Asia?

I'm not sure.

In what year did glassmaking begin in Germany?

I'm not sure.

What city was a center of metal work for the Romans?

I'm not sure.

In what current country were Late Bronze Age civilizations located?

I'm not sure.


Glass was used extensively during the Middle Ages. Anglo-Saxon glass has been found across England during archaeological excavations of both settlement and cemetery sites. Glass in the Anglo-Saxon period was used in the manufacture of a range of objects including vessels, beads, windows and was also used in jewelry. From the 10th-century onwards, glass was employed in stained glass windows of churches and cathedrals, with famous examples at Chartres Cathedral and the Basilica of Saint Denis. By the 14th-century, architects were designing buildings with walls of stained glass such as Sainte-Chapelle, Paris, (1203–1248) and the East end of Gloucester Cathedral. Stained glass had a major revival with Gothic Revival architecture in the 19th-century. With the Renaissance, and a change in architectural style, the use of large stained glass windows became less prevalent. The use of domestic stained glass increased until most substantial houses had glass windows. These were initially small panes leaded together, but with the changes in technology, glass could be manufactured relatively cheaply in increasingly larger sheets. This led to larger window panes, and, in the 20th-century, to much larger windows in ordinary domestic and commercial buildings.

When did stained glass make a big comeback?

When did stained glass begin to be used for places of worship?

When did big windows of stained glass become less common?

the Renaissance

What 13th-century building is an example of stained glass walls?

Sainte-Chapelle

What did technological changes allow regular homes to have?

larger windows

When did larger sheets make a big comeback?

I'm not sure.

When did stained glass begin to be used for vessels?

I'm not sure.

When did big windows of stained glass become ordinary?

I'm not sure.

What 20th-century building is an example of stained glass walls?

I'm not sure.

What did archaeological excavations allow regular homes to have?

I'm not sure.


In the 20th century, new types of glass such as laminated glass, reinforced glass and glass bricks have increased the use of glass as a building material and resulted in new applications of glass. Multi-storey buildings are frequently constructed with curtain walls made almost entirely of glass. Similarly, laminated glass has been widely applied to vehicles for windscreens. While glass containers have always been used for storage and are valued for their hygienic properties, glass has been utilized increasingly in industry. Optical glass for spectacles has been used since the late Middle Ages. The production of lenses has become increasingly proficient, aiding astronomers as well as having other application in medicine and science. Glass is also employed as the aperture cover in many solar energy systems.

What type of glass is used in cars?

laminated

When did eyeglasses originate?

late Middle Ages

The walls of skyscrapers are often made of what material?

glass

What type of power systems use glass?

solar

What type of scientists rely on glass for distant observations?

astronomers

What type of glass is used in aperture covers?

I'm not sure.

When did multi-storey buildings originate?

I'm not sure.

Walls used for storage are often made of what material?

I'm not sure.

What type of power systems use curtains?

I'm not sure.

What type of scientists rely on windscreens for distant observations?

I'm not sure.


From the 19th century, there was a revival in many ancient glass-making techniques including cameo glass, achieved for the first time since the Roman Empire and initially mostly used for pieces in a neo-classical style. The Art Nouveau movement made great use of glass, with René Lalique, Émile Gallé, and Daum of Nancy producing colored vases and similar pieces, often in cameo glass, and also using luster techniques. Louis Comfort Tiffany in America specialized in stained glass, both secular and religious, and his famous lamps. The early 20th-century saw the large-scale factory production of glass art by firms such as Waterford and Lalique. From about 1960 onwards there have been an increasing number of small studios hand-producing glass artworks, and glass artists began to class themselves as in effect sculptors working in glass, and their works as part fine arts.

What famous lampmaker used glass?

Louis Comfort Tiffany

When did glassworkers begin to consider their products fine art?

What type of glass did many Art Nouveau artists use?

cameo glass

When did mass production of glass art begin?

early 20th-century

What early civilization made cameo glass?

Roman Empire

What famous lampmaker used factory production?

I'm not sure.

When did glassworkers begin to consider their products neo-classical?

I'm not sure.

What type of glass did many specialists use?

I'm not sure.

When did mass production of lamps begin?

I'm not sure.

What early civilization made colored vases?

I'm not sure.


Addition of lead(II) oxide lowers melting point, lowers viscosity of the melt, and increases refractive index. Lead oxide also facilitates solubility of other metal oxides and is used in colored glasses. The viscosity decrease of lead glass melt is very significant (roughly 100 times in comparison with soda glasses); this allows easier removal of bubbles and working at lower temperatures, hence its frequent use as an additive in vitreous enamels and glass solders. The high ionic radius of the Pb2+ ion renders it highly immobile in the matrix and hinders the movement of other ions; lead glasses therefore have high electrical resistance, about two orders of magnitude higher than soda-lime glass (108.5 vs 106.5 Ohm·cm, DC at 250 °C). For more details, see lead glass.

What makes glass melt at a lower temperature?

lead(II) oxide

How much less viscous is lead glass compared with soda glass?

100 times

Pb2+ causes lead glass to have what?

high electrical resistance

Lead oxide makes it easier to dissolve what?

other metal oxides

What makes glass melt higher than soda?

I'm not sure.

How much less viscous is lead glass compared with lead?

I'm not sure.

Pb2+ causes bubbles to have what?

I'm not sure.

Lead oxide makes it easier to decrease viscosity in what?

I'm not sure.

What makes the Pb2+ ion vitreous?

I'm not sure.


There are three classes of components for oxide glasses: network formers, intermediates, and modifiers. The network formers (silicon, boron, germanium) form a highly cross-linked network of chemical bonds. The intermediates (titanium, aluminium, zirconium, beryllium, magnesium, zinc) can act as both network formers and modifiers, according to the glass composition. The modifiers (calcium, lead, lithium, sodium, potassium) alter the network structure; they are usually present as ions, compensated by nearby non-bridging oxygen atoms, bound by one covalent bond to the glass network and holding one negative charge to compensate for the positive ion nearby. Some elements can play multiple roles; e.g. lead can act both as a network former (Pb4+ replacing Si4+), or as a modifier.

What components of glass for networks?

silicon, boron, germanium

What type of components change the network's shape?

modifiers

What type of component can both make and change networks?

intermediates

What type of chemical attachment connects ions to the network?

covalent bond

What components of modifiers is used for networks?

I'm not sure.

What type of components change the oxygen atoms?

I'm not sure.

What type of component can both make and change ions?

I'm not sure.

What type of chemical attachment connects cross-linked networks?

I'm not sure.

What compensates for the bonds nearby?

I'm not sure.


The alkali metal ions are small and mobile; their presence in glass allows a degree of electrical conductivity, especially in molten state or at high temperature. Their mobility decreases the chemical resistance of the glass, allowing leaching by water and facilitating corrosion. Alkaline earth ions, with their two positive charges and requirement for two non-bridging oxygen ions to compensate for their charge, are much less mobile themselves and also hinder diffusion of other ions, especially the alkalis. The most common commercial glasses contain both alkali and alkaline earth ions (usually sodium and calcium), for easier processing and satisfying corrosion resistance. Corrosion resistance of glass can be achieved by dealkalization, removal of the alkali ions from the glass surface by reaction with e.g. sulfur or fluorine compounds. Presence of alkaline metal ions has also detrimental effect to the loss tangent of the glass, and to its electrical resistance; glasses for electronics (sealing, vacuum tubes, lamps...) have to take this in account.

What component gives glass the ability to conduct electricity?

alkali metal ions

How can glass be prevented from corroding?

dealkalization

What types of ions does typical glass have?

alkali and alkaline earth ions

Reaction with what causes dealkalization?

sulfur or fluorine compounds

What can alkaline ions in glass harm, in addition to electrical resistance?

loss tangent

What component gives glass the ability to bridge oxygen atoms?

I'm not sure.

How can glass be prevented from diffusing?

I'm not sure.

What types of compunds does typical glass have?

I'm not sure.

Reaction with what causes oxygen ions to compensate for their charge?

I'm not sure.

What can alkaline ions in oxygen harm?

I'm not sure.


New chemical glass compositions or new treatment techniques can be initially investigated in small-scale laboratory experiments. The raw materials for laboratory-scale glass melts are often different from those used in mass production because the cost factor has a low priority. In the laboratory mostly pure chemicals are used. Care must be taken that the raw materials have not reacted with moisture or other chemicals in the environment (such as alkali or alkaline earth metal oxides and hydroxides, or boron oxide), or that the impurities are quantified (loss on ignition). Evaporation losses during glass melting should be considered during the selection of the raw materials, e.g., sodium selenite may be preferred over easily evaporating SeO2. Also, more readily reacting raw materials may be preferred over relatively inert ones, such as Al(OH)3 over Al2O3. Usually, the melts are carried out in platinum crucibles to reduce contamination from the crucible material. Glass homogeneity is achieved by homogenizing the raw materials mixture (glass batch), by stirring the melt, and by crushing and re-melting the first melt. The obtained glass is usually annealed to prevent breakage during processing.

What material is useful in glassmaking because of its slow evaporation?

sodium selenite

What containers are used for melting?

platinum crucibles

Why are different materials used in a lab than are used in factory production?

the cost factor has a low priority

What is the reason for crushing the glass and melting it again?

homogeneity

Why is glass annealed?

to prevent breakage

What meterial is useful in glassmaking because of its hydroxides?

I'm not sure.

What containers are used for evaporation?

I'm not sure.

Why are different materials used in a lab than are used in the environment?

I'm not sure.

What is the reason for crushing the glass by chemicals?

I'm not sure.

Why is glass evaporated?

I'm not sure.


In the past, small batches of amorphous metals with high surface area configurations (ribbons, wires, films, etc.) have been produced through the implementation of extremely rapid rates of cooling. This was initially termed "splat cooling" by doctoral student W. Klement at Caltech, who showed that cooling rates on the order of millions of degrees per second is sufficient to impede the formation of crystals, and the metallic atoms become "locked into" a glassy state. Amorphous metal wires have been produced by sputtering molten metal onto a spinning metal disk. More recently a number of alloys have been produced in layers with thickness exceeding 1 millimeter. These are known as bulk metallic glasses (BMG). Liquidmetal Technologies sell a number of zirconium-based BMGs. Batches of amorphous steel have also been produced that demonstrate mechanical properties far exceeding those found in conventional steel alloys.

Who coined the term "splat cooling"?

W. Klement

What are thick alloys made in layers called?

bulk metallic glasses

What does Liquidmetal Technologies use for their alloys?

zirconium

What type of metal makes better alloys than traditional steel?

amorphous steel

At what university was Klement a student?

Caltech

Who coined the term alloys?

I'm not sure.

What are thick alloys made in crystals called?

I'm not sure.

What does Liquidmetal Technologies use for their cooling?

I'm not sure.

What type of metal makes better alloys than Caltech?

I'm not sure.

At what university did Klement produce BMGs?

I'm not sure.


In 2004, NIST researchers presented evidence that an isotropic non-crystalline metallic phase (dubbed "q-glass") could be grown from the melt. This phase is the first phase, or "primary phase," to form in the Al-Fe-Si system during rapid cooling. Interestingly, experimental evidence indicates that this phase forms by a first-order transition. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images show that the q-glass nucleates from the melt as discrete particles, which grow spherically with a uniform growth rate in all directions. The diffraction pattern shows it to be an isotropic glassy phase. Yet there is a nucleation barrier, which implies an interfacial discontinuity (or internal surface) between the glass and the melt.

Who showed that q-glass could be produced from a melt?

NIST researchers

What shows that there is an inner surface between glass and melt?

nucleation barrier

What is q-glass?

an isotropic non-crystalline metallic phase

What kind of microscope shows that q-glass grows as separate particles?

Transmission electron

Who showed that q-glass could be produced from a nucleation barrier?

I'm not sure.

What shows that there is an inner surface between glass and metal?

I'm not sure.

What is diffraction?

I'm not sure.

What kind of microscope shows that q-glass grows as first-order transition?

I'm not sure.

What forms in the AL-Fe-Si system during an isotropic glassy phase?

I'm not sure.


Glass-ceramic materials share many properties with both non-crystalline glass and crystalline ceramics. They are formed as a glass, and then partially crystallized by heat treatment. For example, the microstructure of whiteware ceramics frequently contains both amorphous and crystalline phases. Crystalline grains are often embedded within a non-crystalline intergranular phase of grain boundaries. When applied to whiteware ceramics, vitreous means the material has an extremely low permeability to liquids, often but not always water, when determined by a specified test regime.

What word means that ceramics don't absorb liquids?

vitreous

What hardens glass-ceramics?

heat treatment

What materials do glass ceramics have a lot in common with?

non-crystalline glass and crystalline ceramics

What word means that ceramics don't absorb crystalline?

I'm not sure.

What hardens liquids?

I'm not sure.

What materials do test regimes have a lot in common with?

I'm not sure.

What is water often embedded within?

I'm not sure.

What are permeability materials formed as?

I'm not sure.


The term mainly refers to a mix of lithium and aluminosilicates that yields an array of materials with interesting thermomechanical properties. The most commercially important of these have the distinction of being impervious to thermal shock. Thus, glass-ceramics have become extremely useful for countertop cooking. The negative thermal expansion coefficient (CTE) of the crystalline ceramic phase can be balanced with the positive CTE of the glassy phase. At a certain point (~70% crystalline) the glass-ceramic has a net CTE near zero. This type of glass-ceramic exhibits excellent mechanical properties and can sustain repeated and quick temperature changes up to 1000 °C.

How high of a temperature change can glass-ceramics handle?

1000 °C

Because of their heat resistance, glass-ceramics are especially suitable for what?

countertop cooking

What is the most economically significant property of glass-ceramics?

impervious to thermal shock

What ingredients give glass-ceramics its useful heat tolerance?

lithium and aluminosilicates

What proportion of crystalline ceramics yields a product with a CTE of around 0?

How high of a temperature change can CTEs handle?

I'm not sure.

Because of their heat resistance, arrays are especially suitable for what?

I'm not sure.

What is the most economically significant property of countertops?

I'm not sure.

What ingredients give glass-ceramics its useful thermal expansion?

I'm not sure.

What proportion of crystalline ceramics yields a product with a CTE of around 1000?

I'm not sure.


Mass production of glass window panes in the early twentieth century caused a similar effect. In glass factories, molten glass was poured onto a large cooling table and allowed to spread. The resulting glass is thicker at the location of the pour, located at the center of the large sheet. These sheets were cut into smaller window panes with nonuniform thickness, typically with the location of the pour centered in one of the panes (known as "bull's-eyes") for decorative effect. Modern glass intended for windows is produced as float glass and is very uniform in thickness.

What were the areas at the center of an old sheet of glass called?

bull's-eyes

In early 20th century glass production, the glass was thickest at what part of the sheet?

the center

Currently window glass is made as what?

float glass

How was the bull's-eye used?

for decorative effect

What were the areas at the center of window panes called?

I'm not sure.

In early 20th century glass production, the glass was poured at what part of the sheet?

I'm not sure.

Currently large sheets are made as what?

I'm not sure.

How was the table used?

I'm not sure.

What was poured onto a large window pane?

I'm not sure.


The observation that old windows are sometimes found to be thicker at the bottom than at the top is often offered as supporting evidence for the view that glass flows over a timescale of centuries, the assumption being that the glass has exhibited the liquid property of flowing from one shape to another. This assumption is incorrect, as once solidified, glass stops flowing. The reason for the observation is that in the past, when panes of glass were commonly made by glassblowers, the technique used was to spin molten glass so as to create a round, mostly flat and even plate (the crown glass process, described above). This plate was then cut to fit a window. The pieces were not absolutely flat; the edges of the disk became a different thickness as the glass spun. When installed in a window frame, the glass would be placed with the thicker side down both for the sake of stability and to prevent water accumulating in the lead cames at the bottom of the window. Occasionally such glass has been found installed with the thicker side at the top, left or right.

What was the benefit of installing glass with the thick side at the bottom, in addition to avoiding water accumulation?

stability

Who used to make window panes?

glassblowers

What is the name for the glassmaking method that involved spinning it into sheets?

crown glass process

The thickness at the bottom of glass panes was once taken as evidence that glass had features of what state of matter?

liquid

When does glass stop moving like a liquid?

once solidified

What was the benefit of installing glass with the thick side at the top?

I'm not sure.

Who used to make water?

I'm not sure.

What is the name for the glassmaking method that involved centuries?

I'm not sure.

The crown glass process was once taken as evidence that glass had features of what state of matter?

I'm not sure.

When does glass stop moving like the bottom of the window?

I'm not sure.


In physics, the standard definition of a glass (or vitreous solid) is a solid formed by rapid melt quenching. The term glass is often used to describe any amorphous solid that exhibits a glass transition temperature Tg. If the cooling is sufficiently rapid (relative to the characteristic crystallization time) then crystallization is prevented and instead the disordered atomic configuration of the supercooled liquid is frozen into the solid state at Tg. The tendency for a material to form a glass while quenched is called glass-forming ability. This ability can be predicted by the rigidity theory. Generally, the structure of a glass exists in a metastable state with respect to its crystalline form, although in certain circumstances, for example in atactic polymers, there is no crystalline analogue of the amorphous phase.

How is "glass" defined in physics?

a solid formed by rapid melt quenching

What is the tendency to make a glass when cooled called?

glass-forming ability

What must happen quickly for glass to form?

cooling

What predicts glass-forming ability?

rigidity theory

How is "glass" defines in the amorphous phase?

I'm not sure.

What is the tendency to make a glass from atactic polymers called?

I'm not sure.

What must happen quickly for polymers to form?

I'm not sure.

What predicts amorphous phases?

I'm not sure.

What happens when metastable states are prevented?

I'm not sure.


Some people consider glass to be a liquid due to its lack of a first-order phase transition where certain thermodynamic variables such as volume, entropy and enthalpy are discontinuous through the glass transition range. The glass transition may be described as analogous to a second-order phase transition where the intensive thermodynamic variables such as the thermal expansivity and heat capacity are discontinuous. Nonetheless, the equilibrium theory of phase transformations does not entirely hold for glass, and hence the glass transition cannot be classed as one of the classical equilibrium phase transformations in solids.

What does glass not have, leading some to think it is a liquid?

first-order phase transition

What theory isn't completely valid for glass?

equilibrium theory of phase transformations

Transition in glass is comparable to what?

a second-order phase transition

What does glass not have, leading some to think it is a classic equilibrium?

I'm not sure.

What theory isn't completely valid for thermodynamic variables?

I'm not sure.

Transition in heat is comparable to what?

I'm not sure.

What variables are intensive through the glass transition range?

I'm not sure.

What do some consider to be a transformation?

I'm not sure.


Although the atomic structure of glass shares characteristics of the structure in a supercooled liquid, glass tends to behave as a solid below its glass transition temperature. A supercooled liquid behaves as a liquid, but it is below the freezing point of the material, and in some cases will crystallize almost instantly if a crystal is added as a core. The change in heat capacity at a glass transition and a melting transition of comparable materials are typically of the same order of magnitude, indicating that the change in active degrees of freedom is comparable as well. Both in a glass and in a crystal it is mostly only the vibrational degrees of freedom that remain active, whereas rotational and translational motion is arrested. This helps to explain why both crystalline and non-crystalline solids exhibit rigidity on most experimental time scales.

Atomically, glass is similar to what?

a supercooled liquid

What acts like a liquid but is under the freezing temperature?

A supercooled liquid

Despite its atomic structure, cooled glass acts like what?

a solid

In cooled glass, what types of movement stop?

rotational and translational

Atomically, crystal is similar to what?

I'm not sure.

What acts like a liquid but is under the experimental scales?

I'm not sure.

Despite its atomic structure, crystals act like what?

I'm not sure.

In traditional motion, what types of movement stop?

I'm not sure.

What behaves as a solid?

I'm not sure.


First recognized in 1900 by Max Planck, it was originally the proportionality constant between the minimal increment of energy, E, of a hypothetical electrically charged oscillator in a cavity that contained black body radiation, and the frequency, f, of its associated electromagnetic wave. In 1905 the value E, the minimal energy increment of a hypothetical oscillator, was theoretically associated by Einstein with a "quantum" or minimal element of the energy of the electromagnetic wave itself. The light quantum behaved in some respects as an electrically neutral particle, as opposed to an electromagnetic wave. It was eventually called the photon.

What is energy abbreviated to in science?

E

What is frequency also known as in science?

f

What term describes a small amount of element?

quantum

What did the light quantum, in some ways, behave as?

an electrically neutral particle

What was later termed the photon?

The light quantum

When did Max Planck first recognize the value of the Planck constant?

Which scientist associated the Planck constant with a quantum five years after Planck's recognition?

Einstein

Instead of an electromagnetic wave, what did the light quantum behave as in some regards?

an electrically neutral particle

What is the simple name given to the light quantum today?

the photon

In what year was the value G associated by Einstein with quantum theories of energy?

I'm not sure.

Who discovered an association between the value G and quantum energy?

I'm not sure.

What type of charge did a particle have that behaved similarly to dark quantum energy?

I'm not sure.

What term describes a large amount of element?

I'm not sure.

What is the simple name given to the dark quantum today?

I'm not sure.


Classical statistical mechanics requires the existence of h (but does not define its value). Eventually, following upon Planck's discovery, it was recognized that physical action cannot take on an arbitrary value. Instead, it must be some multiple of a very small quantity, the "quantum of action", now called the Planck constant. Classical physics cannot explain this fact. In many cases, such as for monochromatic light or for atoms, this quantum of action also implies that only certain energy levels are allowed, and values in between are forbidden.

Classical statistical mechanics requires the existence of what?

h

What was realized after Planck's discovery?

that physical action cannot take on an arbitrary value

What is the Planck constant formerly known as?

quantum of action

Regarding atoms, what does the Planck constant imply?

that only certain energy levels are allowed

Regarding atoms, what are values in between certain energy levels considered by the Planck constant?

forbidden

Following Planck's discovery, what was realized about values of physical action?

physical action cannot take on an arbitrary value

The Planck constant initially was given what name?

the "quantum of action"

How is the proportional nature of the Planck constant explained?

Classical physics cannot explain this fact

For certain cases of light or atoms, what does the quantum of action yield?

only certain energy levels are allowed, and values in between are forbidden.

What does modern statistics mechanics not define the value of?

I'm not sure.

What is not required to exist in modern statistics mechanics?

I'm not sure.

What does the Planck Constant negate?

I'm not sure.

What is the Planck constant incorrectly known as?

I'm not sure.

Which science is the proportional nature of the Planck constant fact?

I'm not sure.


Equivalently, the smallness of the Planck constant reflects the fact that everyday objects and systems are made of a large number of particles. For example, green light with a wavelength of 555 nanometres (the approximate wavelength to which human eyes are most sensitive) has a frequency of 7014540000000000000♠540 THz (7014540000000000000♠540×1012 Hz). Each photon has an energy E = hf = 6981358000000000000♠3.58×10−19 J. That is a very small amount of energy in terms of everyday experience, but everyday experience is not concerned with individual photons any more than with individual atoms or molecules. An amount of light compatible with everyday experience is the energy of one mole of photons; its energy can be computed by multiplying the photon energy by the Avogadro constant, NA ≈ 7023602200000000000♠6.022×1023 mol−1. The result is that green light of wavelength 555 nm has an energy of 7005216000000000000♠216 kJ/mol, a typical energy of everyday life.

What does the smallness of the Planck constant show?

the fact that everyday objects and systems are made of a large number of particles

At about what wavelength of light are human eyes most sensitive?

555 nanometres

What frequency does green light with a wavelength of 555 nanmetres have?

7014540000000000000♠540 THz

How is the energy from one mole of photos computed?

by multiplying the photon energy by the Avogadro constant

How much energy does a green light of wavelength 555 nm contain?

7005216000000000000♠216 kJ/mol

What is the wavelength of light to which human eyes are most sensitive?

555 nanometres

What is the frequency of the light to which the human eye is most sensitive?

7014540000000000000♠540 THz

What is the energy of a photon?

6981358000000000000♠3.58×10−19 J

How much energy is contained in the light to which human eyes are most sensitive?

7005216000000000000♠216 kJ/mol

What are common things like furniture and stationary objects never made of?

I'm not sure.

Which light wavelength is the human eye no longer able to see?

I'm not sure.

What color of light is the human eye blind to?

I'm not sure.

What does the smallness of the Planck constant ignore?

I'm not sure.


In the last years of the nineteenth century, Planck was investigating the problem of black-body radiation first posed by Kirchhoff some forty years earlier. It is well known that hot objects glow, and that hotter objects glow brighter than cooler ones. The electromagnetic field obeys laws of motion similarly to a mass on a spring, and can come to thermal equilibrium with hot atoms. The hot object in equilibrium with light absorbs just as much light as it emits. If the object is black, meaning it absorbs all the light that hits it, then its thermal light emission is maximized.

What was Planck studying in the last part of the nineteenth century?

the problem of black-body radiation

Who posed the problem of black-body radiation?

Kirchhoff

Cooler objects glow less than objects that are what?

hotter

What does a black object do to any of the light that hits it?

it absorbs all the light

What is maximized as a result of a black object absorbing all the light that hits it?

thermal light emission

Planck studied what problem posed originally by Kirchhoff?

black-body radiation

If an object is black, what is known about its thermal light emission?

its thermal light emission is maximized.

What is known about the light absorption of a hot object in equilibrium with light?

absorbs just as much light as it emits

Electromagnetic fields obey what laws?

laws of motion

What type of radiation was Planck studying in the late 18th century?

I'm not sure.

How many years prior to Planck's study had the scientific community first avoided black body radiation?

I'm not sure.

What scientist never studied black body radiation?

I'm not sure.

What is required for the electromagnetic field to come to thermal differences?

I'm not sure.

What does a hot object in equilibrium reflect as much as it emits?

I'm not sure.


The assumption that black-body radiation is thermal leads to an accurate prediction: the total amount of emitted energy goes up with the temperature according to a definite rule, the Stefan–Boltzmann law (1879–84). But it was also known that the colour of the light given off by a hot object changes with the temperature, so that "white hot" is hotter than "red hot". Nevertheless, Wilhelm Wien discovered the mathematical relationship between the peaks of the curves at different temperatures, by using the principle of adiabatic invariance. At each different temperature, the curve is moved over by Wien's displacement law (1893). Wien also proposed an approximation for the spectrum of the object, which was correct at high frequencies (short wavelength) but not at low frequencies (long wavelength). It still was not clear why the spectrum of a hot object had the form that it has (see diagram).

What assumption that black-body radiation is what leads to an accurate prediction?

thermal

What does the Stefan-Boltzmann law state?

the total amount of emitted energy goes up with the temperature according to a definite rule

What about a hot object changes with the temperature?

the colour of the light

What color is hotter than "red hot"?

white hot

What did Wilhelm Wien discover?

the mathematical relationship between the peaks of the curves at different temperatures

What rule predicts that emitted energy increases with temperature?

the Stefan–Boltzmann law

What characteristic of the light emitted by a hot object changes with temperature?

the colour of the light given off

Who discovered the mathematical relationship between peaks and curves of light at different temperatures?

Wilhelm Wien

The rule that adjust the curve at different temperatures is known as what?

Wien's displacement law

Wien's spectrum model could not predict accurate at what end of the spectrum?

at low frequencies (long wavelength)

What do scientists assume black body radiation is never made from?

I'm not sure.

What law describes the changes in light emitted by a frozen object?

I'm not sure.

What about a frozen object changes with the temperature?

I'm not sure.

What rule predicts that emitted energy decreases with temperature?

I'm not sure.

What law adjusts the curve at the same temperatures?

I'm not sure.


Prior to Planck's work, it had been assumed that the energy of a body could take on any value whatsoever – that it was a continuous variable. The Rayleigh–Jeans law makes close predictions for a narrow range of values at one limit of temperatures, but the results diverge more and more strongly as temperatures increase. To make Planck's law, which correctly predicts blackbody emissions, it was necessary to multiply the classical expression by a complex factor that involves h in both the numerator and the denominator. The influence of h in this complex factor would not disappear if it were set to zero or to any other value. Making an equation out of Planck's law that would reproduce the Rayleigh–Jeans law could not be done by changing the values of h, of the Boltzmann constant, or of any other constant or variable in the equation. In this case the picture given by classical physics is not duplicated by a range of results in the quantum picture.

Before Planck, it was assumed that the energy of a body could take on what value?

any

The Rayleigh-Jeans law makes close predictions for what amount of values?

a narrow range

What does Planck's law correctly predict?

blackbody emissions

In making Planck's law, what was in both the numerator and denominator of the formula that was used?

h

Planck's work disproved what assumption?

that the energy of a body could take on any value whatsoever

What rule predicted narrow range of energy values at lower temperatures?

The Rayleigh–Jeans

Planck's law involved what necessary mathematical step to correctly predict blackbody emission?

multiply the classical expression by a complex factor that involves h in both the numerator and the denominator

Changing values of n, the Boltzmann constant, or other variables resulted in learning what about Planck's law?

Making an equation out of Planck's law that would reproduce the Rayleigh–Jeans law could not be done

The disparity between Planck's law and the Rayleigh-Jeans law led to what conclusion?

the picture given by classical physics is not duplicated by a range of results in the quantum picture

What was assumed that the energy of a body could never take on before Planck?

I'm not sure.

What does the Rayleigh-Jeans law avoid predictions for in terms of values?

I'm not sure.

What does Planck's law incorrectly predict?

I'm not sure.

What in making Planck's law was in neither the numerator and denominator of the formula that was used?

I'm not sure.

What assumption was confirmed based on Planck's work?

I'm not sure.


The black-body problem was revisited in 1905, when Rayleigh and Jeans (on the one hand) and Einstein (on the other hand) independently proved that classical electromagnetism could never account for the observed spectrum. These proofs are commonly known as the "ultraviolet catastrophe", a name coined by Paul Ehrenfest in 1911. They contributed greatly (along with Einstein's work on the photoelectric effect) to convincing physicists that Planck's postulate of quantized energy levels was more than a mere mathematical formalism. The very first Solvay Conference in 1911 was devoted to "the theory of radiation and quanta". Max Planck received the 1918 Nobel Prize in Physics "in recognition of the services he rendered to the advancement of Physics by his discovery of energy quanta".

Einstein and what other two individuals revisited the black-body problem in 1905?

Rayleigh and Jeans

Who came up with the term, "ultraviolet catastrophe"?

Paul Ehrenfest

When did Paul Ehrenfest come up with the name "ultraviolet catastrophe"?

When was the first Solvay Conference held?

Who received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1918?

Max Planck

What did Rayleigh & Jeans and Einstein prove independently in 1905?

classical electromagnetism could never account for the observed spectrum

What name did Paul Ehrenfest give to the proofs from Einstein and Rayleigh & Jeans?

the "ultraviolet catastrophe"

When was the first Solvay Conference held?

What was the topic of the first Solvay Conference?

"the theory of radiation and quanta"

In what year did Planck receive the Nobel Prize in Physics for his discovery of energy quanta?

What other two individuals aside from Einstein revisited the black-body problem in 1945?

I'm not sure.

Who never used the term, "ultraviolet catastrophe"?

I'm not sure.

When was the last Solvay Conference held?

I'm not sure.

Who refused the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1918?

I'm not sure.

Who received the Nobel Prize in Physics based on the destruction of energy quanta?

I'm not sure.


The photoelectric effect is the emission of electrons (called "photoelectrons") from a surface when light is shone on it. It was first observed by Alexandre Edmond Becquerel in 1839, although credit is usually reserved for Heinrich Hertz, who published the first thorough investigation in 1887. Another particularly thorough investigation was published by Philipp Lenard in 1902. Einstein's 1905 paper discussing the effect in terms of light quanta would earn him the Nobel Prize in 1921, when his predictions had been confirmed by the experimental work of Robert Andrews Millikan. The Nobel committee awarded the prize for his work on the photo-electric effect, rather than relativity, both because of a bias against purely theoretical physics not grounded in discovery or experiment, and dissent amongst its members as to the actual proof that relativity was real.

Who first observed the photoelectric effect?

Alexandre Edmond Becquerel

When was the photoelectric effect first observed?

Who published the first thorough investigation of the photoelectric effect?

Heinrich Hertz

Who received the Nobel Prize in 1921 for his work on the photoelectric effect?

Einstein

What did Einstein with the 1921 Nobel Prize for?

his work on the photo-electric effect

What is the photoelectric effect?

the emission of electrons (called "photoelectrons") from a surface when light is shone on it

Who first observed the photoelectric effect?

Alexandre Edmond Becquerel

Einstein's paper on the photoelectric effect earned him the Nobel Prize in what year?

Einstein's photoelectric effect work was rewards as opposed to his work on what other topic?

relativity

Who last observed the photoelectric effect?

I'm not sure.

When was the photoelectric effect last observed?

I'm not sure.

Who published the first thorough investigation of the photosynthesis effect?

I'm not sure.

What did Einstein win the 1924 Nobel Prize for?

I'm not sure.

What is the photoneutral effect?

I'm not sure.


Prior to Einstein's paper, electromagnetic radiation such as visible light was considered to behave as a wave: hence the use of the terms "frequency" and "wavelength" to characterise different types of radiation. The energy transferred by a wave in a given time is called its intensity. The light from a theatre spotlight is more intense than the light from a domestic lightbulb; that is to say that the spotlight gives out more energy per unit time and per unit space(and hence consumes more electricity) than the ordinary bulb, even though the colour of the light might be very similar. Other waves, such as sound or the waves crashing against a seafront, also have their own intensity. However, the energy account of the photoelectric effect didn't seem to agree with the wave description of light.

Before Einstein, electromagnetic radiation was considered to behave as what?

a wave

What terms describe different types of radiation?

"frequency" and "wavelength"

What is the energy transferred by a wave in a given time called?

intensity

What other types of wave besides light has its own intensity?

sound

Prior to Einstein's work, light behavior was modeled as what?

a wave

What is the name for the amount of energy transfered by a wave in a given time?

intensity

What portion of the photoelectric effect was in disagreement with the believed description of light behavior?

the energy account

What does it mean for a light source to be more intense than another?

gives out more energy per unit time and per unit space

What terms describe the same types of radiation?

I'm not sure.

What is the energy lost by a wave in a long time called?

I'm not sure.

What other types of wave besides light doesn't have its own intensity?

I'm not sure.

What is the name for the amount of energy disappearing by a wave in a given time?

I'm not sure.

What does it mean for a light source to be equally intense?

I'm not sure.