Chinese political philosophy dates back to the Spring and Autumn Period, specifically with Confucius in the 6th century BC. Chinese political philosophy was developed as a response to the social and political breakdown of the country characteristic of the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States period. The major philosophies during the period, Confucianism, Legalism, Mohism, Agrarianism and Taoism, each had a political aspect to their philosophical schools. Philosophers such as Confucius, Mencius, and Mozi, focused on political unity and political stability as the basis of their political philosophies. Confucianism advocated a hierarchical, meritocratic government based on empathy, loyalty, and interpersonal relationships. Legalism advocated a highly authoritarian government based on draconian punishments and laws. Mohism advocated a communal, decentralized government centered on frugality and ascetism. The Agrarians advocated a peasant utopian communalism and egalitarianism. Taoism advocated a proto-anarchism. Legalism was the dominant political philosophy of the Qin Dynasty, but was replaced by State Confucianism in the Han Dynasty. Prior to China's adoption of communism, State Confucianism remained the dominant political philosophy of China up to the 20th century.

What specifically dates back with Confucius in the 6th century BC?

Chinese political philosophy

Chinese political philosophy dates back to what century?

6th century BC

Chinese political philosophy was developed as a response to what?

the social and political breakdown of the country

What advocated a communal, decentralized government centered on frugality and ascetism?

Mohism

What dates back to the 6th century AD?

I'm not sure.

What was a response to increased social and political awareness in China?

I'm not sure.

What advocated a communal, centralized government centered on frugality and accetism?

I'm not sure.

Who advocated a government based on empathy, loyalty and personal relationships?

I'm not sure.

Who advocated a peasant uprising and egalitarianism?

I'm not sure.

When did Agrarianism begin?

I'm not sure.

What is attributed to Mencius in the 6th Century BC?

I'm not sure.

What attribute did all of the philosophies share?

I'm not sure.

In what Spring and Autumn period was Legalism dominant?

I'm not sure.

In the Qin Dynasty, what replaced Legalism?

I'm not sure.


Western political philosophy originates in the philosophy of ancient Greece, where political philosophy dates back to at least Plato. Ancient Greece was dominated by city-states, which experimented with various forms of political organization, grouped by Plato into four categories: timocracy, tyranny, democracy and oligarchy. One of the first, extremely important classical works of political philosophy is Plato's Republic, which was followed by Aristotle's Nichomachean Ethics and Politics. Roman political philosophy was influenced by the Stoics, including the Roman statesman Cicero.

Western political philosophy originates in what philosophy?

ancient Greece

What philosophy has dates back to at least Plato?

philosophy of ancient Greece

Ancient Greece was dominated by what?

city-states

What originated with Western  philosophy?

I'm not sure.

What philosophy dates back to sme time after Plato?

I'm not sure.

What civilization was dominated by independent towns that experimented with different governments?

I'm not sure.

What Roman statesman was influenced by Plato?

I'm not sure.

What 4 catagories did Aristotle divide greek political organizations into?

I'm not sure.

What is the first important work of political organization?

I'm not sure.

What example of Stoic influence followed Plato's?

I'm not sure.

What was the western political philosophy dominated by?

I'm not sure.

How was ancient Greece's government grouped by Cicero?

I'm not sure.

What was influenced by timocracy in Rome?

I'm not sure.


Indian political philosophy evolved in ancient times and demarcated a clear distinction between (1) nation and state (2) religion and state. The constitutions of Hindu states evolved over time and were based on political and legal treatises and prevalent social institutions. The institutions of state were broadly divided into governance, administration, defense, law and order. Mantranga, the principal governing body of these states, consisted of the King, Prime Minister, Commander in chief of army, Chief Priest of the King. The Prime Minister headed the committee of ministers along with head of executive (Maha Amatya).

What demarcates a clear distinction between nation and state, as well as religion and state?

Indian political philosophy

What was divided into governance, administration, defense, law and  order?

The institutions of state

What was the governing body of the Hindu states?

Mantranga

What political philosophy does not make a clear distinction between nation and state or religion state

I'm not sure.

What evolved over time and is based on legal treaties and obscure social institutions?

I'm not sure.

Who state institutions were divided into narrow well-defined entities?

I'm not sure.

What governing body of the states listed of the Prime Minister and civil servants?

I'm not sure.

What did political and legal treatisies consist of in Indian government?

I'm not sure.

What were the constitutions of Maha states based on?

I'm not sure.

How was the committee of ministers divided?

I'm not sure.

What prevalant social institution made a clear line between nation and religion?

I'm not sure.

What was the governing body of the head of executive?

I'm not sure.


Chanakya, 4th Century BC Indian political philosopher. The Arthashastra provides an account of the science of politics for a wise ruler, policies for foreign affairs and wars, the system of a spy state and surveillance and economic stability of the state. Chanakya quotes several authorities including Bruhaspati, Ushanas, Prachetasa Manu, Parasara, and Ambi, and described himself as a descendant of a lineage of political philosophers, with his father Chanaka being his immediate predecessor. Another influential extant Indian treatise on political philosophy is the Sukra Neeti. An example of a code of law in ancient India is the Manusmṛti or Laws of Manu.

Who was the 4th Century BC Indian political philosopher?

Chanakya

What provides an account of the science of politics for a wise ruler?

The Arthashastra

What is an example of a code of law in ancient India?

the Manusmṛti or Laws of Manu

Who was the Indian political philosopher in the fourth century A.D.?

I'm not sure.

What provides an account of the science of economics for a wise ruler?

I'm not sure.

"What authorities does Ambi quote?

I'm not sure.

Who is a predecessor of Chanaka?

I'm not sure.

Where is Sukra Neeti an example of a code of law?

I'm not sure.

Who was the 4th BC Indian Arthashastra?

I'm not sure.

What are a few examples the Bruhaspati gives for governance?

I'm not sure.

Who are the authorities Ambi quotes?

I'm not sure.

Who is Prachetasa a descendant of?

I'm not sure.

Who is the father of Ushanas?

I'm not sure.


The early Christian philosophy of Augustine of Hippo was heavily influenced by Plato. A key change brought about by Christian thought was the moderatation of the Stoicism and theory of justice of the Roman world, as well emphasis on the role of the state in applying mercy as a moral example. Augustine also preached that one was not a member of his or her city, but was either a citizen of the City of God (Civitas Dei) or the City of Man (Civitas Terrena). Augustine's City of God is an influential work of this period that attacked the thesis, held by many Christian Romans, that the Christian view could be realized on Earth.

Who heavily influenced the early Christian philosophy of Augustine of Hippo?

Plato

What was a key change brought about by Christian thought?

the moderatation of the Stoicism

Who also preached that one was not a member of his or her city?

Augustine

What does Civitas terrena mean?

City of Man

What does Civitas Dei mean?

City of God

Who influenced the Christian philosophy of Hippo of Augustine?

I'm not sure.

What philosophy modernized Christian thought?

I'm not sure.

What mean city of mankind?

I'm not sure.

What Christian belief was challenged by Augustine's city of man?

I'm not sure.

Who taught that one was a member of their city?

I'm not sure.

Who influenced Terrena's view of the moderation of the Stoicism?

I'm not sure.

What was one change brought about by Augustine?

I'm not sure.

What did Plato mention people were a member of?

I'm not sure.

What does Hippo's view attack regarding what Christians believed?

I'm not sure.

What is one thing that Plato changed in the Roman world?

I'm not sure.


The rise of Islam, based on both the Qur'an and Muhammad strongly altered the power balances and perceptions of origin of power in the Mediterranean region. Early Islamic philosophy emphasized an inexorable link between science and religion, and the process of ijtihad to find truth—in effect all philosophy was "political" as it had real implications for governance. This view was challenged by the "rationalist" Mutazilite philosophers, who held a more Hellenic view, reason above revelation, and as such are known to modern scholars as the first speculative theologians of Islam; they were supported by a secular aristocracy who sought freedom of action independent of the Caliphate. By the late ancient period, however, the "traditionalist" Asharite view of Islam had in general triumphed. According to the Asharites, reason must be subordinate to the Quran and the Sunna.

What strongly altered the power balances and perceptions of origin of power in the Mediterranean region?

The rise of Islam

What emphasized an inexorable link between science and religion?

Early Islamic philosophy

Who challenged the early Islamic philosophy's views?

the "rationalist" Mutazilite philosophers

What type of views did the "rationalist" Mutaziite philosophers hold?

Hellenic view

What help to balance the power in the Mediterranean region?

I'm not sure.

What early philosophy emphasize a separation between science and religion?

I'm not sure.

What philosophers placed revelation above reason?

I'm not sure.

Who were the first theologies of Islam?

I'm not sure.

Who said the Koran must be subordinate to reason?

I'm not sure.

What focused on a link between reason and freedom of action?

I'm not sure.

The rise of what was based on modern scholars views and science?

I'm not sure.

What group challenged the Hellenic view of Islam?

I'm not sure.

What must reason be subordinate to according to Mutazilite philosophers?

I'm not sure.

What process did speculative theologians use to find truth?

I'm not sure.


Islamic political philosophy, was, indeed, rooted in the very sources of Islam—i.e., the Qur'an and the Sunnah, the words and practices of Muhammad—thus making it essentially theocratic. However, in the Western thought, it is generally supposed that it was a specific area peculiar merely to the great philosophers of Islam: al-Kindi (Alkindus), al-Farabi (Abunaser), İbn Sina (Avicenna), Ibn Bajjah (Avempace), Ibn Rushd (Averroes), and Ibn Khaldun. The political conceptions of Islam such as kudrah (power), sultan, ummah, cemaa (obligation)-and even the "core" terms of the Qur'an—i.e., ibadah (worship), din (religion), rab (master) and ilah (deity)—is taken as the basis of an analysis. Hence, not only the ideas of the Muslim political philosophers but also many other jurists and ulama posed political ideas and theories. For example, the ideas of the Khawarij in the very early years of Islamic history on Khilafa and Ummah, or that of Shia Islam on the concept of Imamah are considered proofs of political thought. The clashes between the Ehl-i Sunna and Shia in the 7th and 8th centuries had a genuine political character.

The clashes between Ehl-i Sunna and Shia had what kind of character?

political

Islamic political philosophy was rooted in what sources?

Islam

What is taken as the basis of an analysis?

The political conceptions of Islam

What political philosophy was rooted in theology?

I'm not sure.

What are the religious conceptions of Islam?

I'm not sure.

What clashed up until the seventh and eighth century?

I'm not sure.

What is the religious conception of Islam taken as?

I'm not sure.

What kind of character did the clashes between Bajjah and Rushd have in the 7th and 8th centuries?

I'm not sure.

What sources are Avicenna based on?

I'm not sure.

How did the ilah generally suppose Islamic philosophy was rooted?

I'm not sure.

What did Ehl-i-Sunna and Shia pose regarding Islam?

I'm not sure.

What do the ideas of general political character give proof of in early Islamic history?

I'm not sure.


Medieval political philosophy in Europe was heavily influenced by Christian thinking. It had much in common with the Mutazalite Islamic thinking in that the Roman Catholics though subordinating philosophy to theology did not subject reason to revelation but in the case of contradictions, subordinated reason to faith as the Asharite of Islam. The Scholastics by combining the philosophy of Aristotle with the Christianity of St. Augustine emphasized the potential harmony inherent in reason and revelation. Perhaps the most influential political philosopher of medieval Europe was St. Thomas Aquinas who helped reintroduce Aristotle's works, which had only been transmitted to Catholic Europe through Muslim Spain, along with the commentaries of Averroes. Aquinas's use of them set the agenda, for scholastic political philosophy dominated European thought for centuries even unto the Renaissance.

What was heavily influenced by Christian thinking?

Medieval political philosophy in Europe

Medieval political philosophy had much in common with what type of thinking?

Mutazalite Islamic thinking

Who was the most influential political philosopher of medieval Europe?

St. Thomas Aquinas

What influenced medieval politics?

I'm not sure.

What did Roman Catholics subordinate theology too?

I'm not sure.

How did Christian thinking differ from Mutazalite Islamic thinking?

I'm not sure.

Who emphasize the harmony absent in reason and revelation?

I'm not sure.

What medieval philosopher help to write some of Aristotle's works?

I'm not sure.

What was Mutazalite Islamic thinking influenced by in Europe?

I'm not sure.

Who was the most influential Asharite in medieval Europe?

I'm not sure.

What did Averroes help reintroduce in Europe?

I'm not sure.

What was the effect of Averroes uses of Aristotle's works in Europe?

I'm not sure.

Who was the most influential political philosopher who made the commentaries of Averroes?

I'm not sure.


One of the most influential works during this burgeoning period was Niccolò Machiavelli's The Prince, written between 1511–12 and published in 1532, after Machiavelli's death. That work, as well as The Discourses, a rigorous analysis of the classical period, did much to influence modern political thought in the West. A minority (including Jean-Jacques Rousseau) interpreted The Prince as a satire meant to be given to the Medici after their recapture of Florence and their subsequent expulsion of Machiavelli from Florence. Though the work was written for the di Medici family in order to perhaps influence them to free him from exile, Machiavelli supported the Republic of Florence rather than the oligarchy of the di Medici family. At any rate, Machiavelli presents a pragmatic and somewhat consequentialist view of politics, whereby good and evil are mere means used to bring about an end—i.e., the secure and powerful state. Thomas Hobbes, well known for his theory of the social contract, goes on to expand this view at the start of the 17th century during the English Renaissance. Although neither Machiavelli nor Hobbes believed in the divine right of kings, they both believed in the inherent selfishness of the individual. It was necessarily this belief that led them to adopt a strong central power as the only means of preventing the disintegration of the social order.

What was one of the most influential works during the period?

Niccolò Machiavelli's The Prince

When was Niccolo Machiavelli's The Prince published?

Who wrote The  Prince?

Niccolò Machiavelli

Who was well known for his theory of the social contract?

Thomas Hobbes

What influential work was written in 1532?

I'm not sure.

What was published just before Machiavelli died?

I'm not sure.

The Prince and what other work influenced medieval political thought?

I'm not sure.

What was written to free the Mattice family from exile?

I'm not sure.

Who is known for their theory of social contract in the 1700s?

I'm not sure.

What did Thomas Hobbes write  between 1511-1512?

I'm not sure.

After what year did Jean-Jacques Rousseau die?

I'm not sure.

What did di Medici do for the West?

I'm not sure.

Who expelled Hobbes from Florence?

I'm not sure.

What group did Thomas Hobbes support more than the other?

I'm not sure.


These theorists were driven by two basic questions: one, by what right or need do people form states; and two, what the best form for a state could be. These fundamental questions involved a conceptual distinction between the concepts of "state" and "government." It was decided that "state" would refer to a set of enduring institutions through which power would be distributed and its use justified. The term "government" would refer to a specific group of people who occupied the institutions of the state, and create the laws and ordinances by which the people, themselves included, would be bound. This conceptual distinction continues to operate in political science, although some political scientists, philosophers, historians and cultural anthropologists have argued that most political action in any given society occurs outside of its state, and that there are societies that are not organized into states that nevertheless must be considered in political terms. As long as the concept of natural order was not introduced, the social sciences could not evolve independently of theistic thinking. Since the cultural revolution of the 17th century in England, which spread to France and the rest of Europe, society has been considered subject to natural laws akin to the physical world.

What would refer to a set of enduring institutions through which power would be distributed and its use justified?

state

What refers to a specific group of people who occupied the institutions of the state?

government

Society has been considered subject to natural laws akin to what?

the physical world

What two questions joined the concepts of state and government?

I'm not sure.

What term referred to a set of temporary institutions through which power could be distributed in its use justified?

I'm not sure.

What term referred to individuals who created laws and ordinances by which other people would be bound?

I'm not sure.

What conceptual distinction continues to operate in science?

I'm not sure.

What has been believed society is subject to since the 1700s?

I'm not sure.

What is one question government was driven by?

I'm not sure.

What has happened since power was distributed and justified in Europe?

I'm not sure.

What theistic thinking led to a division between state and government?

I'm not sure.

What society not organized into states continues to operate today?

I'm not sure.

What does the rest of Europe argue about political action?

I'm not sure.


Political and economic relations were drastically influenced by these theories as the concept of the guild was subordinated to the theory of free trade, and Roman Catholic dominance of theology was increasingly challenged by Protestant churches subordinate to each nation-state, which also (in a fashion the Roman Catholic Church often decried angrily) preached in the vulgar or native language of each region. However, the enlightenment was an outright attack on religion, particularly Christianity. The most outspoken critic of the church in France was François Marie Arouet de Voltaire, a representative figure of the enlightenment. After Voltaire, religion would never be the same again in France.

The concept of the guild was subordinated to the theory of what?

free trade

What increasingly challenged the Roman Catholic dominance of theology?

Protestant churches

The enlightenment was an outright attack on what?

religion

Who was the most outspoken critic of the church in France?

François Marie Arouet de Voltaire

The concept of Guild was superior to what theory?

I'm not sure.

The Roman Catholic Church was subordinate to what?

I'm not sure.

The allotment was an evolution of what?

I'm not sure.

Who is the most outspoken supporter of the church in France?

I'm not sure.

After who philosophy was never the same again in France?

I'm not sure.

What concept was the enlightenment subordinated  to?

I'm not sure.

Who challenged Voltaire's dominance of theology?

I'm not sure.

What were political and economic relations an attack on?

I'm not sure.

Who was an outspoken critic of the theory of free trade?

I'm not sure.

After the concept of the guild, what happened to religion in France?

I'm not sure.


In the Ottoman Empire, these ideological reforms did not take place and these views did not integrate into common thought until much later. As well, there was no spread of this doctrine within the New World and the advanced civilizations of the Aztec, Maya, Inca, Mohican, Delaware, Huron and especially the Iroquois. The Iroquois philosophy in particular gave much to Christian thought of the time and in many cases actually inspired some of the institutions adopted in the United States: for example, Benjamin Franklin was a great admirer of some of the methods of the Iroquois Confederacy, and much of early American literature emphasized the political philosophy of the natives.

In what area did these ideological reforms not take place until much later?

Ottoman Empire

Whose philosophy gave much to Christian thought of the time?

The Iroquois philosophy

Who was a great admirer of some of the methods of the Iroquois Confederacy?

Benjamin Franklin

What area did ideological reforms take place much earlier?

I'm not sure.

Where in the New World was this doctrine spread?

I'm not sure.

Who modeled some of the methods of the Huron?

I'm not sure.

Whose literature emphasize the religious philosophy of the natives?

I'm not sure.

What did Aztec civilizations inspire in the US?

I'm not sure.

What did early Mohican literature focus on?

I'm not sure.

Who admired the methods of the Incan Confederacy?

I'm not sure.

What happened when methods of the Iroquois Confederacy were introduced to the Ottoman Empire?

I'm not sure.

What viewpoint influenced doctrine within the New World at the time?

I'm not sure.


John Locke in particular exemplified this new age of political theory with his work Two Treatises of Government. In it Locke proposes a state of nature theory that directly complements his conception of how political development occurs and how it can be founded through contractual obligation. Locke stood to refute Sir Robert Filmer's paternally founded political theory in favor of a natural system based on nature in a particular given system. The theory of the divine right of kings became a passing fancy, exposed to the type of ridicule with which John Locke treated it. Unlike Machiavelli and Hobbes but like Aquinas, Locke would accept Aristotle's dictum that man seeks to be happy in a state of social harmony as a social animal. Unlike Aquinas's preponderant view on the salvation of the soul from original sin, Locke believes man's mind comes into this world as tabula rasa. For Locke, knowledge is neither innate, revealed nor based on authority but subject to uncertainty tempered by reason, tolerance and moderation. According to Locke, an absolute ruler as proposed by Hobbes is unnecessary, for natural law is based on reason and seeking peace and survival for man.

Who was responsible for the work Two Treatises of Government?

John Locke

Locke refuted whose political theory?

Sir Robert Filmer

According to Locke, an absolute ruler is proposed by Hobbes is what?

unnecessary

Who critique the work Two Treaties of Government?

I'm not sure.

What did Sir Robert Filmer could be found through contractual obligation?

I'm not sure.

Which of John Locke's theories was a passing fancy?

I'm not sure.

What theory of Machiavelli and Hobbes did lock except?

I'm not sure.

What did Aquinas believe came into this world is a tabula rasa?

I'm not sure.

What work did Sir Rober FIlmer write?

I'm not sure.

What theory was ridiculed by Aquinas?

I'm not sure.

What did Locke accept that Machiavelli and Hobbes also believed?

I'm not sure.

What did Sir Robert Filmer believe about man's mind at birth?

I'm not sure.

What did Hobbes believe about gaining knowledge?

I'm not sure.


The Marxist critique of capitalism — developed with Friedrich Engels — was, alongside liberalism and fascism, one of the defining ideological movements of the Twentieth Century. The industrial revolution produced a parallel revolution in political thought. Urbanization and capitalism greatly reshaped society. During this same period, the socialist movement began to form. In the mid-19th century, Marxism was developed, and socialism in general gained increasing popular support, mostly from the urban working class. Without breaking entirely from the past, Marx established principles that would be used by future revolutionaries of the 20th century namely Vladimir Lenin, Mao Zedong, Ho Chi Minh, and Fidel Castro. Though Hegel's philosophy of history is similar to Immanuel Kant's, and Karl Marx's theory of revolution towards the common good is partly based on Kant's view of history—Marx declared that he was turning Hegel's dialectic, which was "standing on its head", "the right side up again". Unlike Marx who believed in historical materialism, Hegel believed in the Phenomenology of Spirit. By the late 19th century, socialism and trade unions were established members of the political landscape. In addition, the various branches of anarchism, with thinkers such as Mikhail Bakunin, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon or Peter Kropotkin, and syndicalism also gained some prominence. In the Anglo-American world, anti-imperialism and pluralism began gaining currency at the turn of the 20th century.

Who developed the Marxist critique of capitalism?

Friedrich Engels

What was one of the defining ideological movements of the Twentieth Century?

The Marxist critique of capitalism

What produced a parallel revolution in political thought?

The industrial revolution

Who developed liberalism and fascism?

I'm not sure.

What revolution was parallel but urbanization and capitalism?

I'm not sure.

What movement formed in the mid-1900s?

I'm not sure.

Whose theory of revolution is similar to Immanuel Kant's philosophy of history?

I'm not sure.

Who were established members of the political landscape by the late 1900s?

I'm not sure.

What political system was supported by capitalism?

I'm not sure.

What revolutionaries used Mikhail Bakunin's theories in the 20th century?

I'm not sure.

By the turn of the 20th century what two groups were established politically?

I'm not sure.

In the late 19th century what two ideas were becoming prominent in the Anglo-American world?

I'm not sure.

What was a defining movement of the Twentieth Century against capitalism, created by Vladamir Lenin?

I'm not sure.


World War I was a watershed event in human history, changing views of governments and politics. The Russian Revolution of 1917 (and similar, albeit less successful, revolutions in many other European countries) brought communism - and in particular the political theory of Leninism, but also on a smaller level Luxemburgism (gradually) - on the world stage. At the same time, social democratic parties won elections and formed governments for the first time, often as a result of the introduction of universal suffrage. However, a group of central European economists led by Austrian School economists Ludwig von Mises and Friedrich Hayek identified the collectivist underpinnings to the various new socialist and fascist doctrines of government power as being different brands of political totalitarianism.

What was a watershed event in human history?

World War I

When was The Russian Revolution?

What brought communism?

The Russian Revolution of 1917

What did Ludwig Von Mises and Friedrich Hayek run?

a group of central European economists

What changed because of Leninism?

I'm not sure.

When did universal suffrage I begin?

I'm not sure.

What did social democratic parties do after communism was introduced?

I'm not sure.

What did European countries lead that identified the inspirations behind new government doctrines?

I'm not sure.

What was identified as being different types of Luxemburgism?

I'm not sure.


From the end of World War II until 1971, when John Rawls published A Theory of Justice, political philosophy declined in the Anglo-American academic world, as analytic philosophers expressed skepticism about the possibility that normative judgments had cognitive content, and political science turned toward statistical methods and behavioralism. In continental Europe, on the other hand, the postwar decades saw a huge blossoming of political philosophy, with Marxism dominating the field. This was the time of Jean-Paul Sartre and Louis Althusser, and the victories of Mao Zedong in China and Fidel Castro in Cuba, as well as the events of May 1968 led to increased interest in revolutionary ideology, especially by the New Left. A number of continental European émigrés to Britain and the United States—including Karl Popper, Friedrich Hayek, Leo Strauss, Isaiah Berlin, Eric Voegelin and Judith Shklar—encouraged continued study in political philosophy in the Anglo-American world, but in the 1950s and 1960s they and their students remained at odds with the analytic establishment.

Who published A Theory of Justice?

John Rawls

What did John Rawls publish?

A Theory of Justice

What continent saw a huge blossoming of political philosophy?

Europe

The events of May 1968 led to an increased interest in what?

revolutionary ideology

From the end of WWII until 1971 what declined in China?

I'm not sure.

What was continental Europe skeptical about?

I'm not sure.

What did Marxism turn towards from the end of WWII until 1971?

I'm not sure.

In the 1950's and 1960's what group was interested in revolutionary ideology?

I'm not sure.

What immigrants to the US and Britain encouraged studies in Marxism?

I'm not sure.


Communism remained an important focus especially during the 1950s and 1960s. Colonialism and racism were important issues that arose. In general, there was a marked trend towards a pragmatic approach to political issues, rather than a philosophical one. Much academic debate regarded one or both of two pragmatic topics: how (or whether) to apply utilitarianism to problems of political policy, or how (or whether) to apply economic models (such as rational choice theory) to political issues. The rise of feminism, LGBT social movements and the end of colonial rule and of the political exclusion of such minorities as African Americans and sexual minorities in the developed world has led to feminist, postcolonial, and multicultural thought becoming significant. This led to a challenge to the social contract by philosophers Charles W. Mills in his book The Racial Contract and Carole Patemen in her book The Sexual Contract that the social contract excluded persons of colour and women respectively.

What remained an important focus during the 1950s and 1960s?

Communism

There was a marked trend towards what type of approach to political issues?

pragmatic approach

Who wrote The Racial Contract?

Charles W. Mills

Who wrote The Sexual Contract?

Carole Patemen

What was a political exclusion in the 1950's and 1960's?

I'm not sure.

What was the trend towards dealing with racism?

I'm not sure.

What did utilitarianism lead to in the developed world?

I'm not sure.

What did the Communism mention about who was excluded in society?

I'm not sure.

What was one approach to the debate about colonialism?

I'm not sure.


In Anglo-American academic political philosophy, the publication of John Rawls's A Theory of Justice in 1971 is considered a milestone. Rawls used a thought experiment, the original position, in which representative parties choose principles of justice for the basic structure of society from behind a veil of ignorance. Rawls also offered a criticism of utilitarian approaches to questions of political justice. Robert Nozick's 1974 book Anarchy, State, and Utopia, which won a National Book Award, responded to Rawls from a libertarian perspective and gained academic respectability for libertarian viewpoints.

What did John Rawsl publish?

A Theory of Justice

Who Published A Theory of Justice?

John Rawls

When was A Theory of Justice published?

Who wrote Anarchy, State, and Utopia?

Robert Nozick

What did Robert Nozick write in 1971?

I'm not sure.

What did John Rawls write in 1974?

I'm not sure.

What award did John Rawls's book win?

I'm not sure.

What is Robert Nozick's book considered in American philosophy?

I'm not sure.

What viewpoint did John Rawls have when responding to Rober Nozick?

I'm not sure.


Contemporaneously with the rise of analytic ethics in Anglo-American thought, in Europe several new lines of philosophy directed at critique of existing societies arose between the 1950s and 1980s. Most of these took elements of Marxist economic analysis, but combined them with a more cultural or ideological emphasis. Out of the Frankfurt School, thinkers like Herbert Marcuse, Theodor W. Adorno, Max Horkheimer, and Jürgen Habermas combined Marxian and Freudian perspectives. Along somewhat different lines, a number of other continental thinkers—still largely influenced by Marxism—put new emphases on structuralism and on a "return to Hegel". Within the (post-) structuralist line (though mostly not taking that label) are thinkers such as Gilles Deleuze, Michel Foucault, Claude Lefort, and Jean Baudrillard. The Situationists were more influenced by Hegel; Guy Debord, in particular, moved a Marxist analysis of commodity fetishism to the realm of consumption, and looked at the relation between consumerism and dominant ideology formation.

Herbert Marcuse was from what school?

Frankfurt School,

Thinkers out of the Frankfurt School combined Marxian and what other perspective?

Freudian

Who in particular moved a Marxist analysis of commodity fetishism to the realm of consumption?

Guy Debord

What thinkers came out of the Foucault School?

I'm not sure.

What points-of-view did Anglo-Americans combine?

I'm not sure.

What were thinkers influenced by when they emphasized consumerism?

I'm not sure.

Who took Marxist commodity fetishism to the realm of cultural emphasis?

I'm not sure.

What happened in Europe that led to criticism of Hegel between 1950 and 1980?

I'm not sure.


Another debate developed around the (distinct) criticisms of liberal political theory made by Michael Walzer, Michael Sandel and Charles Taylor. The liberal-communitarian debate is often considered valuable for generating a new set of philosophical problems, rather than a profound and illuminating clash of perspective.These and other communitarians (such as Alasdair MacIntyre and Daniel A. Bell) argue that, contra liberalism, communities are prior to individuals and therefore should be the center of political focus. Communitarians tend to support greater local control as well as economic and social policies which encourage the growth of social capital.

What is often considered valuable for generating a new set of philosophical problems?

The liberal-communitarian debate

What type of control do communitarians tend to support?

greater local control

What type of economic and social policies do Communitarians tend to support?

policies which encourage the growth of social capital

What is valuable for creating greater local control?

I'm not sure.

What does political theory tend to support in communities?

I'm not sure.

What type of policies do individuals support?

I'm not sure.

What did a clash of perspective develop around?

I'm not sure.

Who argues that individuals should have political focus?

I'm not sure.


A pair of overlapping political perspectives arising toward the end of the 20th century are republicanism (or neo- or civic-republicanism) and the capability approach. The resurgent republican movement aims to provide an alternate definition of liberty from Isaiah Berlin's positive and negative forms of liberty, namely "liberty as non-domination." Unlike liberals who understand liberty as "non-interference," "non-domination" entails individuals not being subject to the arbitrary will of anyother person. To a liberal, a slave who is not interfered with may be free, yet to a republican the mere status as a slave, regardless of how that slave is treated, is objectionable. Prominent republicans include historian Quentin Skinner, jurist Cass Sunstein, and political philosopher Philip Pettit. The capability approach, pioneered by economists Mahbub ul Haq and Amartya Sen and further developed by legal scholar Martha Nussbaum, understands freedom under allied lines: the real-world ability to act. Both the capability approach and republicanism treat choice as something which must be resourced. In other words, it is not enough to be legally able to do something, but to have the real option of doing it.

When did republicanism and the capability approach arise?

the end of the 20th century

What aims to provide an alternate definition of liberty from Isaiah Berlin's positive and negative forms of liberty?

The resurgent republican movement

Mahbub ul Haq and Amartya Sen pioneered what approach?

The capability approach

When did the perspectives jurist and non-interference appear?

I'm not sure.

To a liberal, what is the state of a political perspective that is not interfered with?

I'm not sure.

What is the approach of republicanism as developed by Mahbub ul Haq and Amartya Sen?

I'm not sure.

How do both political perspectives treat arbitrary will?

I'm not sure.

What does the economist movement look to define in a different way?

I'm not sure.


An alloy is a mixture of metals or a mixture of a metal and another element. Alloys are defined by metallic bonding character. An alloy may be a solid solution of metal elements (a single phase) or a mixture of metallic phases (two or more solutions). Intermetallic compounds are alloys with a defined stoichiometry and crystal structure. Zintl phases are also sometimes considered alloys depending on bond types (see also: Van Arkel-Ketelaar triangle for information on classifying bonding in binary compounds).

What is an alloy?

a mixture of metals or a mixture of a metal and another element

What are alloys defined by?

metallic bonding character

When are Zintl considered alloys?

depending on bond types

What is solid solution metal elements classified as?

a single phase

What is always a mixture of metal and other elements?

I'm not sure.

What is defined by its atomic bonding character?

I'm not sure.

What type of solution has a single phase in two or more solutions?

I'm not sure.

What type of phases are always considered to be alloys?

I'm not sure.


An alloy is a mixture of either pure or fairly pure chemical elements, which forms an impure substance (admixture) that retains the characteristics of a metal. An alloy is distinct from an impure metal, such as wrought iron, in that, with an alloy, the added impurities are usually desirable and will typically have some useful benefit. Alloys are made by mixing two or more elements; at least one of which being a metal. This is usually called the primary metal or the base metal, and the name of this metal may also be the name of the alloy. The other constituents may or may not be metals but, when mixed with the molten base, they will be soluble, dissolving into the mixture.

What kind of substance is an alloy?

impure

What happens when an alloy is mixed with a molten base?

they will be soluble, dissolving into the mixture

What is an alloy composed of?

two or more elements

What other metal is impure like alloy?

wrought iron

What is a mixture of impure substances?

I'm not sure.

What is a pure substance that retains the characteristics of a metal?

I'm not sure.

What desirable characteristic doesn't alloy and an impure metal have?

I'm not sure.

Mixing any to what produces an alloy

I'm not sure.

What other metal is pure like an alloy?

I'm not sure.


When the alloy cools and solidifies (crystallizes), its mechanical properties will often be quite different from those of its individual constituents. A metal that is normally very soft and malleable, such as aluminium, can be altered by alloying it with another soft metal, like copper. Although both metals are very soft and ductile, the resulting aluminium alloy will be much harder and stronger. Adding a small amount of non-metallic carbon to iron produces an alloy called steel. Due to its very-high strength and toughness (which is much higher than pure iron), and its ability to be greatly altered by heat treatment, steel is one of the most common alloys in modern use. By adding chromium to steel, its resistance to corrosion can be enhanced, creating stainless steel, while adding silicon will alter its electrical characteristics, producing silicon steel.

How is steel produced?

Adding a small amount of non-metallic carbon to iron

What kind of metal is soft like copper?

aluminium

What can be added to steel to enhance is corrosion resistance?

chromium

What is superior to pure iron?

steel

What is another word for when alloys solidify?

crystallizes

What is produced by adding metallic carb and iron?

I'm not sure.

What type of metal is hardly copper?

I'm not sure.

What makes steel more corrosive?

I'm not sure.

The characteristics of what stay the same as it cools?

I'm not sure.

What is aluminum alloy the most common of?

I'm not sure.


Although the elements usually must be soluble in the liquid state, they may not always be soluble in the solid state. If the metals remain soluble when solid, the alloy forms a solid solution, becoming a homogeneous structure consisting of identical crystals, called a phase. If the mixture cools and the constituents become insoluble, they may separate to form two or more different types of crystals, creating a heterogeneous microstructure of different phases. However, in other alloys, the insoluble elements may not separate until after crystallization occurs. These alloys are called intermetallic alloys because, if cooled very quickly, they first crystallize as a homogeneous phase, but they are supersaturated with the secondary constituents. As time passes, the atoms of these supersaturated alloys separate within the crystals, forming intermetallic phases that serve to reinforce the crystals internally.

What causes an alloy to form a solid solution?

If the metals remain soluble when solid

What is the purpose of intermetallic phases?

to reinforce the crystals internally

What are alloys called when the insoluble elements don't separate until after crystallization occurs?

intermetallic alloys

What is always soluble as a solid and illiquid?

I'm not sure.

What are not soluble when solid?

I'm not sure.

What happens to an alloy if the medical support insoluble when solid?

I'm not sure.

What are alloys called when the soluble elements separate after crystallization occurs?

I'm not sure.

What do the crystals intermetallic alloys support?

I'm not sure.


Some alloys occur naturally, such as electrum, which is an alloy that is native to Earth, consisting of silver and gold. Meteorites are sometimes made of naturally occurring alloys of iron and nickel, but are not native to the Earth. One of the first alloys made by humans was bronze, which is made by mixing the metals tin and copper. Bronze was an extremely useful alloy to the ancients, because it is much stronger and harder than either of its components. Steel was another common alloy. However, in ancient times, it could only be created as an accidental byproduct from the heating of iron ore in fires (smelting) during the manufacture of iron. Other ancient alloys include pewter, brass and pig iron. In the modern age, steel can be created in many forms. Carbon steel can be made by varying only the carbon content, producing soft alloys like mild steel or hard alloys like spring steel. Alloy steels can be made by adding other elements, such as molybdenum, vanadium or nickel, resulting in alloys such as high-speed steel or tool steel. Small amounts of manganese are usually alloyed with most modern-steels because of its ability to remove unwanted impurities, like phosphorus, sulfur and oxygen, which can have detrimental effects on the alloy. However, most alloys were not created until the 1900s, such as various aluminium, titanium, nickel, and magnesium alloys. Some modern superalloys, such as incoloy, inconel, and hastelloy, may consist of a multitude of different components.

What is electrum made of?

silver and gold

What alloy is formed naturally?

electrum

Which was on of the first alloys made by humans?

bronze

What metal is made by combining tin and copper?

bronze

Around what time where alloys starting to get made by humans?

What is a man-made alloy of silver and gold?

I'm not sure.

Meteorites contain what alloy native to earth?

I'm not sure.

Iron and what metal formed the first alloy made by humans?

I'm not sure.

What did humans start making in the 1900s?

I'm not sure.

What adds desired impurities to modern steel?

I'm not sure.


The term alloy is used to describe a mixture of atoms in which the primary constituent is a metal. The primary metal is called the base, the matrix, or the solvent. The secondary constituents are often called solutes. If there is a mixture of only two types of atoms, not counting impurities, such as a copper-nickel alloy, then it is called a binary alloy. If there are three types of atoms forming the mixture, such as iron, nickel and chromium, then it is called a ternary alloy. An alloy with four constituents is a quaternary alloy, while a five-part alloy is termed a quinary alloy. Because the percentage of each constituent can be varied, with any mixture the entire range of possible variations is called a system. In this respect, all of the various forms of an alloy containing only two constituents, like iron and carbon, is called a binary system, while all of the alloy combinations possible with a ternary alloy, such as alloys of iron, carbon and chromium, is called a ternary system.

The matrix and the solvent are other names for what?

The primary metal

What is another name for solutes?

The secondary constituents

What is the name of an alloy that has  four constituents?

quaternary alloy

A five-part alloy is known as?

ternary alloy

What term describes a mixture of atoms that include at least some metal?

I'm not sure.

What is another name for the primary metal or solute in an alloy?

I'm not sure.

An alloy with five what is called a quaternary alloy?

I'm not sure.

What type of alloy contains ten constituents?

I'm not sure.


Although an alloy is technically an impure metal, when referring to alloys, the term "impurities" usually denotes those elements which are not desired. These impurities are often found in the base metals or the solutes, but they may also be introduced during the alloying process. For instance, sulfur is a common impurity in steel. Sulfur combines readily with iron to form iron sulfide, which is very brittle, creating weak spots in the steel. Lithium, sodium and calcium are common impurities in aluminium alloys, which can have adverse effects on the structural integrity of castings. Conversely, otherwise pure-metals that simply contain unwanted impurities are often called "impure metals" and are not usually referred to as alloys. Oxygen, present in the air, readily combines with most metals to form metal oxides; especially at higher temperatures encountered during alloying. Great care is often taken during the alloying process to remove excess impurities, using fluxes, chemical additives, or other methods of extractive metallurgy.

What is a characteristic of iron sulfide?

very brittle

What makes pure metals impure metals?

unwanted impurities

What are the three common impurities in aluminum alloys?

Lithium, sodium and calcium

Using fluxes and chemical additives during the alloying process does what?

remove excess impurities

What is the term for desired elements in an alloy?

I'm not sure.

What is a rare impurity in steel?

I'm not sure.

Lithium, sodium and what other elements are common in steel?

I'm not sure.

Chemical what are used during alloying to add impurities?

I'm not sure.

What element from the air does not easily combined with most metals?

I'm not sure.


The term "alloy" is sometimes used in everyday speech as a synonym for a particular alloy. For example, automobile wheels made of an aluminium alloy are commonly referred to as simply "alloy wheels", although in point of fact steels and most other metals in practical use are also alloys. Steel is such a common alloy that many items made from it, like wheels, barrels, or girders, are simply referred to by the name of the item, assuming it is made of steel. When made from other materials, they are typically specified as such, (i.e.: "bronze wheel," "plastic barrel," or "wood girder").

What is the name of a common alloy?

Steel

What is something on a car that sometimes is made of alloy?

automobile wheels

Steel and other very practical metals are also named what?

alloys

Aluminum alloy is sometimes used as a synonym for what?

I'm not sure.

Why are some items made of iron only referred to by name?

I'm not sure.


Alloying a metal is done by combining it with one or more other metals or non-metals that often enhance its properties. For example, steel is stronger than iron, its primary element. The electrical and thermal conductivity of alloys is usually lower than that of the pure metals. The physical properties, such as density, reactivity, Young's modulus of an alloy may not differ greatly from those of its elements, but engineering properties such as tensile strength and shear strength may be substantially different from those of the constituent materials. This is sometimes a result of the sizes of the atoms in the alloy, because larger atoms exert a compressive force on neighboring atoms, and smaller atoms exert a tensile force on their neighbors, helping the alloy resist deformation. Sometimes alloys may exhibit marked differences in behavior even when small amounts of one element are present. For example, impurities in semiconducting ferromagnetic alloys lead to different properties, as first predicted by White, Hogan, Suhl, Tian Abrie and Nakamura. Some alloys are made by melting and mixing two or more metals. Bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, was the first alloy discovered, during the prehistoric period now known as the bronze age; it was harder than pure copper and originally used to make tools and weapons, but was later superseded by metals and alloys with better properties. In later times bronze has been used for ornaments, bells, statues, and bearings. Brass is an alloy made from copper and zinc.

What can be done to a metal to enhance its properties?

combining it with one or more other metals or non-metals

Pure metals have a higher electrical and thermal conductivity than what?

alloys

When copper and tin is mixed, what is made?

Bronze

When was the bronze age?

prehistoric period

Copper and zinc combine to make what?

Brass

What is done by combining one or more metals and removing nonmetals?

I'm not sure.

What has a higher electrical and thermal conductivity then pure metals?

I'm not sure.

What is made by mixing copper and iron?

I'm not sure.

What is combined with tin to make brass?

I'm not sure.

Who do smaller atoms exert a compressive force on?

I'm not sure.


Alloys are often made to alter the mechanical properties of the base metal, to induce hardness, toughness, ductility, or other desired properties. Most metals and alloys can be work hardened by creating defects in their crystal structure. These defects are created during plastic deformation, such as hammering or bending, and are permanent unless the metal is recrystallized. However, some alloys can also have their properties altered by heat treatment. Nearly all metals can be softened by annealing, which recrystallizes the alloy and repairs the defects, but not as many can be hardened by controlled heating and cooling. Many alloys of aluminium, copper, magnesium, titanium, and nickel can be strengthened to some degree by some method of heat treatment, but few respond to this to the same degree that steel does.

What kind of treatment can be made to alter it's properties?

heat treatment

Softening metals can be achieved by?

annealing

Aluminium, copper, magnesium, titanium, and nickel can be strengthened by?

heat treatment

Annealling softens metals by achieving what?

recrystallizes the alloy and repairs the defects

what is made to stabalize the properties of base metals?

I'm not sure.

|Creating defects in what softens a metal?

I'm not sure.

What does recrystalization make permanent?

I'm not sure.

What does annealing harden?

I'm not sure.

What does annealing cause defects in?

I'm not sure.


At a certain temperature, (usually between 1,500 °F (820 °C) and 1,600 °F (870 °C), depending on carbon content), the base metal of steel undergoes a change in the arrangement of the atoms in its crystal matrix, called allotropy. This allows the small carbon atoms to enter the interstices of the iron crystal, diffusing into the iron matrix. When this happens, the carbon atoms are said to be in solution, or mixed with the iron, forming a single, homogeneous, crystalline phase called austenite. If the steel is cooled slowly, the iron will gradually change into its low temperature allotrope. When this happens the carbon atoms will no longer be soluble with the iron, and will be forced to precipitate out of solution, nucleating into the spaces between the crystals. The steel then becomes heterogeneous, being formed of two phases; the carbon (carbide) phase cementite, and ferrite. This type of heat treatment produces steel that is rather soft and bendable. However, if the steel is cooled quickly the carbon atoms will not have time to precipitate. When rapidly cooled, a diffusionless (martensite) transformation occurs, in which the carbon atoms become trapped in solution. This causes the iron crystals to deform intrinsically when the crystal structure tries to change to its low temperature state, making it very hard and brittle.

What is the name of steel when it is being formed of two phases?

heterogeneous

What are the two phases when steel becomes heterogenous?

carbon (carbide) phase cementite, and ferrite

What are the characteristics of steel if it is cooled to quickly?

very hard and brittle

Soft and bendable steel is caused by what?

If the steel is cooled slowly

Allotrophy happens between what temperatures?

1,500 °F (820 °C) and 1,600 °F (870 °C)

What changes when steel reaches 870°F?

I'm not sure.

What is it called iron crystals enter carbon atoms?

I'm not sure.

What becomes brittle if it's cool too slowly?

I'm not sure.

Steel that is cool too quickly is soft and what?

I'm not sure.

Where's the carbon atom trapped when steel is called slowly?

I'm not sure.


Conversely, most heat-treatable alloys are precipitation hardening alloys, which produce the opposite effects that steel does. When heated to form a solution and then cooled quickly, these alloys become much softer than normal, during the diffusionless transformation, and then harden as they age. The solutes in these alloys will precipitate over time, forming intermetallic phases, which are difficult to discern from the base metal. Unlike steel, in which the solid solution separates to form different crystal phases, precipitation hardening alloys separate to form different phases within the same crystal. These intermetallic alloys appear homogeneous in crystal structure, but tend to behave heterogeneous, becoming hard and somewhat brittle.

Precipitation hardening alloys produce the opposite effects of?

steel

Precipitation hardening alloys are sometimes also?

heat-treatable alloys

What makes alloys more softer than normal?

When heated to form a solution and then cooled quickly

What do precipitation hardening alloys behave similarly to?

I'm not sure.

What alloys become softer when cooled slowly?

I'm not sure.

What alloys soften with age?

I'm not sure.

What type of alloys become soft and brittle?

I'm not sure.

What are easy to discern from the base metal?

I'm not sure.


When a molten metal is mixed with another substance, there are two mechanisms that can cause an alloy to form, called atom exchange and the interstitial mechanism. The relative size of each element in the mix plays a primary role in determining which mechanism will occur. When the atoms are relatively similar in size, the atom exchange method usually happens, where some of the atoms composing the metallic crystals are substituted with atoms of the other constituent. This is called a substitutional alloy. Examples of substitutional alloys include bronze and brass, in which some of the copper atoms are substituted with either tin or zinc atoms. With the interstitial mechanism, one atom is usually much smaller than the other, so cannot successfully replace an atom in the crystals of the base metal. The smaller atoms become trapped in the spaces between the atoms in the crystal matrix, called the interstices. This is referred to as an interstitial alloy. Steel is an example of an interstitial alloy, because the very small carbon atoms fit into interstices of the iron matrix. Stainless steel is an example of a combination of interstitial and substitutional alloys, because the carbon atoms fit into the interstices, but some of the iron atoms are replaced with nickel and chromium atoms.

Bronze and brass are examples of what?

substitutional alloys

Tin or zinc atoms in place of copper atoms create?

substitutional alloys

What is the name of one interstitial alloy?

Steel

Stainless steel is an example of what two alloys?

interstitial and substitutional

What is formed when molten metal is separated from other substances?

I'm not sure.

What is it called when the atoms of the other constituent are substituted with metallic crystals?

I'm not sure.

What is formed by substituting tin or zinc atoms with copper?

I'm not sure.

What two alloys is still a combination of?

I'm not sure.


The use of alloys by humans started with the use of meteoric iron, a naturally occurring alloy of nickel and iron. It is the main constituent of iron meteorites which occasionally fall down on Earth from outer space. As no metallurgic processes were used to separate iron from nickel, the alloy was used as it was. Meteoric iron could be forged from a red heat to make objects such as tools, weapons, and nails. In many cultures it was shaped by cold hammering into knives and arrowheads. They were often used as anvils. Meteoric iron was very rare and valuable, and difficult for ancient people to work.

What was one of the first alloys used by humans?

meteoric iron

What is meteoric iron composed of?

nickel and iron

What can forged meteoric iron make?

tools, weapons, and nails

Where does meteoric iron come from?

iron meteorites

How does meteoric iron come to earth?

occasionally fall down on Earth from outer space

What was the first man-made alloy used by humans?

I'm not sure.

What was used to separate the iron and nickelin meteoric iron? And

I'm not sure.

What was formed from meteoric iron using hot hammering?

I'm not sure.

What kind of iron was readily available to people?

I'm not sure.


Iron is usually found as iron ore on Earth, except for one deposit of native iron in Greenland, which was used by the Inuit people. Native copper, however, was found worldwide, along with silver, gold and platinum, which were also used to make tools, jewelry, and other objects since Neolithic times. Copper was the hardest of these metals, and the most widely distributed. It became one of the most important metals to the ancients. Eventually, humans learned to smelt metals such as copper and tin from ore, and, around 2500 BC, began alloying the two metals to form bronze, which is much harder than its ingredients. Tin was rare, however, being found mostly in Great Britain. In the Middle East, people began alloying copper with zinc to form brass. Ancient civilizations took into account the mixture and the various properties it produced, such as hardness, toughness and melting point, under various conditions of temperature and work hardening, developing much of the information contained in modern alloy phase diagrams. Arrowheads from the Chinese Qin dynasty (around 200 BC) were often constructed with a hard bronze-head, but a softer bronze-tang, combining the alloys to prevent both dulling and breaking during use.

Where is the only iron deposit on earth?

Greenland

Around what time did bronze start being formed?

2500 BC

What does copper and zinc form to make?

brass

Where is tin mostly found?

Great Britain

Which metal important to the ancients is the hardest one?

Copper

What is usually found his iron ore in Greenland?

I'm not sure.

What kind of copper is rare on earth?

I'm not sure.

What was used to make tools in jewelry before Neolithic times?

I'm not sure.

What did humans began alloying around 2500 A.D.?

I'm not sure.

What was rare in Great Britain?

I'm not sure.


Mercury has been smelted from cinnabar for thousands of years. Mercury dissolves many metals, such as gold, silver, and tin, to form amalgams (an alloy in a soft paste, or liquid form at ambient temperature). Amalgams have been used since 200 BC in China for plating objects with precious metals, called gilding, such as armor and mirrors. The ancient Romans often used mercury-tin amalgams for gilding their armor. The amalgam was applied as a paste and then heated until the mercury vaporized, leaving the gold, silver, or tin behind. Mercury was often used in mining, to extract precious metals like gold and silver from their ores.

What does mercury make most metals do?

dissolves

Since when have Amalgams been used?

200 BC

What did ancient Romans use to gild their armor?

mercury-tin amalgams

Gold and silver were extracted from their ores by using?

Mercury

What is cinnabar smelted from?

I'm not sure.

Amalgams melt mercury in what metals?

I'm not sure.

What have been used since 200 A.D. in China?

I'm not sure.

What is used to plate objects with common metals?

I'm not sure.

What did the Chinese use for gilding their armor?

I'm not sure.


Many ancient civilizations alloyed metals for purely aesthetic purposes. In ancient Egypt and Mycenae, gold was often alloyed with copper to produce red-gold, or iron to produce a bright burgundy-gold. Gold was often found alloyed with silver or other metals to produce various types of colored gold. These metals were also used to strengthen each other, for more practical purposes. Copper was often added to silver to make sterling silver, increasing its strength for use in dishes, silverware, and other practical items. Quite often, precious metals were alloyed with less valuable substances as a means to deceive buyers. Around 250 BC, Archimedes was commissioned by the king to find a way to check the purity of the gold in a crown, leading to the famous bath-house shouting of "Eureka!" upon the discovery of Archimedes' principle.

Ancient civilizations often alloyed metals for what reason?

purely aesthetic purposes

Red gold is made by combining gold with?

copper

Around what time was the Archimedes' principle discovered?

250 BC

Who shouted "Eureka!" while checking the purity of a crown?

Archimedes

Buyers were often deceived when precious metals were mixed with?

less valuable substances

Who alloyed metals for utilitarian purposes?

I'm not sure.

What is produced when gold is alloyed with tin?

I'm not sure.

Ten is often added to what to make sterling silver?

I'm not sure.

Softer silver was used for what practical items?

I'm not sure.

What was Archimedes commissioned to do in 250 A.D.?

I'm not sure.


The term pewter covers a variety of alloys consisting primarily of tin. As a pure metal, tin was much too soft to be used for any practical purpose. However, in the Bronze age, tin was a rare metal and, in many parts of Europe and the Mediterranean, was often valued higher than gold. To make jewelry, forks and spoons, or other objects from tin, it was usually alloyed with other metals to increase its strength and hardness. These metals were typically lead, antimony, bismuth or copper. These solutes sometimes were added individually in varying amounts, or added together, making a wide variety of things, ranging from practical items, like dishes, surgical tools, candlesticks or funnels, to decorative items such as ear rings and hair clips.

Pewter is mostly made up of?

tin

Why was tin was rarely used for everyday use?

too soft

During the bronze age, which metal was valued higher than gold in Europe and the Mediterranean?

tin

What was done to tin to make it stronger?

alloyed with other metals

What metals were alloyed with tin to make it stronger?

lead, antimony, bismuth or copper

What alloys consist primarily of lead?

I'm not sure.

What was tend to rare to be used for?

I'm not sure.

Where was gold the highest valued metal during the Bronze Age?

I'm not sure.

What practical items were made from tin without solutes

I'm not sure.


The first known smelting of iron began in Anatolia, around 1800 BC. Called the bloomery process, it produced very soft but ductile wrought iron. By 800 BC, iron-making technology had spread to Europe, arriving in Japan around 700 AD. Pig iron, a very hard but brittle alloy of iron and carbon, was being produced in China as early as 1200 BC, but did not arrive in Europe until the Middle Ages. Pig iron has a lower melting point than iron, and was used for making cast-iron. However, these metals found little practical use until the introduction of crucible steel around 300 BC. These steels were of poor quality, and the introduction of pattern welding, around the 1st century AD, sought to balance the extreme properties of the alloys by laminating them, to create a tougher metal. Around 700 AD, the Japanese began folding bloomery-steel and cast-iron in alternating layers to increase the strength of their swords, using clay fluxes to remove slag and impurities. This method of Japanese swordsmithing produced one of the purest steel-alloys of the early Middle Ages.

Where did smelting of iron begin?

Anatolia

When did the smelting of iron first begin?

around 1800 BC

When did iron making technology begin in Japan?

around 700 AD

Pig iron is composed of iron and what else?

carbon

What makes Pig iron different from regular iron?

lower melting point

Where was bronze first smelted

I'm not sure.

What smelting process was developed in 800 A.D.?

I'm not sure.

What technology arrived in Europe in 1800 BC

I'm not sure.

Where did iron technology arrived in 700 BC?

I'm not sure.

What was being produced in China in 1200 A.D.?

I'm not sure.


While the use of iron started to become more widespread around 1200 BC, mainly because of interruptions in the trade routes for tin, the metal is much softer than bronze. However, very small amounts of steel, (an alloy of iron and around 1% carbon), was always a byproduct of the bloomery process. The ability to modify the hardness of steel by heat treatment had been known since 1100 BC, and the rare material was valued for the manufacture of tools and weapons. Because the ancients could not produce temperatures high enough to melt iron fully, the production of steel in decent quantities did not occur until the introduction of blister steel during the Middle Ages. This method introduced carbon by heating wrought iron in charcoal for long periods of time, but the penetration of carbon was not very deep, so the alloy was not homogeneous. In 1740, Benjamin Huntsman began melting blister steel in a crucible to even out the carbon content, creating the first process for the mass production of tool steel. Huntsman's process was used for manufacturing tool steel until the early 1900s.

Heat treatment of steel has been know since what time?

1100 BC

When did iron start to become melted by people?

Middle Ages

Who created the first process for the mass production of tool steel?

Benjamin Huntsman

When did Benjamin Huntsman begin to melt blister steel in a crucible

What became more widespread in 1280 BC?

I'm not sure.

The softness of what could be modified in 1100 BC?

I'm not sure.

What common material was valued for the manufacturing of tools and weapons?

I'm not sure.

What was produced in decent quantities starting in 1100 BC?

I'm not sure.

What process was used for manufacturing tool steel until the nineteenth century?

I'm not sure.


With the introduction of the blast furnace to Europe in the Middle Ages, pig iron was able to be produced in much higher volumes than wrought iron. Because pig iron could be melted, people began to develop processes of reducing the carbon in the liquid pig iron to create steel. Puddling was introduced during the 1700s, where molten pig iron was stirred while exposed to the air, to remove the carbon by oxidation. In 1858, Sir Henry Bessemer developed a process of steel-making by blowing hot air through liquid pig iron to reduce the carbon content. The Bessemer process was able to produce the first large scale manufacture of steel. Once the Bessemer process began to gain widespread use, other alloys of steel began to follow. Mangalloy, an alloy of steel and manganese exhibiting extreme hardness and toughness, was one of the first alloy steels, and was created by Robert Hadfield in 1882.

What did the blast furnace help do to pig iron in the middle ages?

produced in much higher volumes than wrought iron

By reducing carbon in liquid pig iron, what was created?

steel

When did puddling start occurring?

When was the Bessemer process developed?

Steel and manganese combines form to make what?

Mangalloy

What allowed wrought iron to be produced in larger quantities than pig iron during the Middle Ages?

I'm not sure.

What was created by reducing carbon in liquid wrought iron?

I'm not sure.

What was introduced during the seventeenth century?

I'm not sure.

In what year did Henry Bessemer create Mangalloy?

I'm not sure.

What steel alloy was created by Henry Bessemer?

I'm not sure.


In 1906, precipitation hardening alloys were discovered by Alfred Wilm. Precipitation hardening alloys, such as certain alloys of aluminium, titanium, and copper, are heat-treatable alloys that soften when quenched (cooled quickly), and then harden over time. After quenching a ternary alloy of aluminium, copper, and magnesium, Wilm discovered that the alloy increased in hardness when left to age at room temperature. Although an explanation for the phenomenon was not provided until 1919, duralumin was one of the first "age hardening" alloys to be used, and was soon followed by many others. Because they often exhibit a combination of high strength and low weight, these alloys became widely used in many forms of industry, including the construction of modern aircraft.

Who discovered precipitation hardening alloys?

Alfred Wilm

When were precipitation hardening alloys discovered?

What happens to precipitation hardening alloys after they quenched?

harden over time

One of the first "age hardening" alloys used were called?

duralumin

What was used in the construction of modern aircraft?

duralumin

What is done to make precipitation hardening alloys hardened immediately?

I'm not sure.

What term refers to cooling over time?

I'm not sure.

Who discovered precipitation hardening alloys in 1919?

I'm not sure.

What phenomenon was explained in 1906?

I'm not sure.

What was used in the construction of early aircraft's?

I'm not sure.


Norfolk Island (i/ˈnɔːrfək ˈaɪlənd/; Norfuk: Norf'k Ailen) is a small island in the Pacific Ocean located between Australia, New Zealand and New Caledonia, 1,412 kilometres (877 mi) directly east of mainland Australia's Evans Head, and about 900 kilometres (560 mi) from Lord Howe Island. The island is part of the Commonwealth of Australia. Together with two neighbouring islands, it forms one of Australia's external territories. It has 1,796 inhabitants living on a total area of about 35 km2 (14 sq mi). Its capital is Kingston.

In what ocean is Norfolk Island found?

Pacific Ocean

How far away is the nearest land mass to Norfolk Island?

about 900 kilometres (560 mi)

What is the capital city of Norfolk Island?

Kingston

How many people live on Norfolk Island?

How far away is Evans Head from Norfolk Island?

1,412 kilometres (877 mi)

What ocean is Norfolk Island relocated from?

I'm not sure.

How far away is the furthest land mass to Norfolk Island?

I'm not sure.

What is the only city of Norfolk Island?

I'm not sure.

How many people have left Norfolk Island?

I'm not sure.

Which island has no capital city?

I'm not sure.


Norfolk Island was colonised by East Polynesians but was long unpeopled when it was settled by Great Britain as part of its settlement of Australia from 1788. The island served as a convict penal settlement from 6 March 1788 until 5 May 1855, except for an 11-year hiatus between 15 February 1814 and 6 June 1825, when it lay abandoned. On 8 June 1856, permanent civilian residence on the island began when it was settled from Pitcairn Island. In 1913, the UK handed Norfolk over to Australia to administer as an external territory.

Who was Norfolk Island colonised by?

East Polynesians

What purpose did Norfolk Island serve for the majority of the time from 1788 until 1855?

a convict penal settlement

What date did civilians begin to permanently reside in Norfolk Island?

8 June 1856

Where did the first permanent civilians of Norfolk Island settle from in 1856?

Pitcairn Island

In what year did the UK hand Norfolk Island over to Australia to administrate?

Who was Norfolk Island destroyed by?

I'm not sure.

What purpose did Norfolk Island avoid for the majority of the time from 1788 until 1855?

I'm not sure.

What date did civilians begin to permanently leave Norfolk Island?

I'm not sure.

Where were the first permanent civilians of Norfolk Island banned from in 1856?

I'm not sure.

What year did the UK hand Norfolk Island over to America to administrate?

I'm not sure.


Sir John Call argued the advantages of Norfolk Island in that it was uninhabited and that New Zealand flax grew there. In 1786 the British government included Norfolk Island as an auxiliary settlement, as proposed by John Call, in its plan for colonisation of New South Wales. The decision to settle Norfolk Island was taken due to Empress Catherine II of Russia's decision to restrict sales of hemp. Practically all the hemp and flax required by the Royal Navy for cordage and sailcloth was imported from Russia.

In what year did the British government include Norfolk Island as a auxiliary settlement?

Who proposed the idea to include Norfolk Island as a British auxiliary settlement in 1786?

John Call

In including Norfolk Island as an auxiliary settlement, what Australian state did the British government plan to colonise?

New South Wales

What woman influenced the decision by the British to settle Norfolk Island?

Empress Catherine II of Russia

Where was the majority of the hemp and flax used by the Royal Navy imported from?

Russia

What year did the German government include Norfolk Island as a auxiliary settlement?

I'm not sure.

Who rejected the idea to include Norfolk Island as a British auxiliary settlement in 1786?

I'm not sure.

What German state did the British government plan to colonise while including Norfolk Island as an auxiliary settlement?

I'm not sure.

What woman influenced the decision by the Russians to settle Norfolk Island?

I'm not sure.

Where was the majority of the cheese and wine used by the Royal Navy imported from?

I'm not sure.


As early as 1794, Lieutenant-Governor of New South Wales Francis Grose suggested its closure as a penal settlement, as it was too remote and difficult for shipping and too costly to maintain. The first group of people left in February 1805, and by 1808 only about 200 remained, forming a small settlement until the remnants were removed in 1813. A small party remained to slaughter stock and destroy all buildings, so that there would be no inducement for anyone, especially from other European powers, to visit and lay claim to the place. From 15 February 1814 to 6 June 1825 the island was abandoned.

When did Lieutenant-Governor of New South Wales Francis Grose start suggesting Norfolk Island be closed as a penal settlement?

Why did Francis Grose think that Norfolk Island should be closed as a penal settlement?

it was too remote and difficult for shipping and too costly to maintain

When did the first group of people leave Norfolk Island?

February 1805

By 1808, how many people remained on Norfolk Island?

Why did a small group of people remain on Norfolk Island, after others had already left?

to slaughter stock and destroy all buildings

When did Lieutenant-Governor of New South Wales Francis Grose start suggesting Norfolk Island be permanently opened as a penal settlement?

I'm not sure.

Why did Francis Grose think that Norfolk Island should be kept as a penal settlement?

I'm not sure.

When did the first group of people save Norfolk Island?

I'm not sure.

How many people died on Norfolk Island by 1808?

I'm not sure.

Why did one person remain on Norfolk Island, after others had already left?

I'm not sure.


In 1824 the British government instructed the Governor of New South Wales Thomas Brisbane to occupy Norfolk Island as a place to send "the worst description of convicts". Its remoteness, previously seen as a disadvantage, was now viewed as an asset for the detention of recalcitrant male prisoners. The convicts detained have long been assumed to be a hardcore of recidivists, or 'doubly-convicted capital respites' – that is, men transported to Australia who committed fresh colonial crimes for which they were sentenced to death, and were spared the gallows on condition of life at Norfolk Island. However, a recent study has demonstrated, utilising a database of 6,458 Norfolk Island convicts, that the reality was somewhat different: more than half were detained at Norfolk Island without ever receiving a colonial conviction, and only 15% had been reprieved from a death sentence. Furthermore, the overwhelming majority of convicts sent to Norfolk Island had committed non-violent property sentences, and the average length of detention was three years.

Who instructed the Governor of New South Wales Thomas Brisbane to send the worst convicts to Norfolk Island?

the British government

What previous disadvantage of Norfolk Island was seen as an advantage for holding male convicts?

Its remoteness

What were the prisoners on Norfolk Island spared from on the the mainland?

the gallows

How many convicts are listed in the database at Norfolk Island?

What was the average length of a prisoner's detention at Norfolk Island?

three years

Who blocked the Governor of New South Wales Thomas Brisbane from sending the worst convicts to Norfolk Island?

I'm not sure.

What previous disadvantage of Norfolk Island was seen as an advantage for holding female convicts?

I'm not sure.

What were the prisoners on Norfolk Island condemned to on the mainland?

I'm not sure.

How many convicts are no longer listed in the database at Norfolk Island?

I'm not sure.

What was the average length of a prisoner's escape at Norfolk Island?

I'm not sure.


On 8 June 1856, the next settlement began on Norfolk Island. These were the descendants of Tahitians and the HMS Bounty mutineers, including those of Fletcher Christian. They resettled from the Pitcairn Islands, which had become too small for their growing population. On 3 May 1856, 193 persons left Pitcairn Islands aboard the "Morayshire". On 8 June 194 persons arrived, a baby having been born in transit. The Pitcairners occupied many of the buildings remaining from the penal settlements, and gradually established traditional farming and whaling industries on the island. Although some families decided to return to Pitcairn in 1858 and 1863, the island's population continued to grow. They accepted additional settlers, who often arrived with whaling fleets.

Who were the next settlement of people on Norfolk Island descended from?

Tahitians and the HMS Bounty mutineers

Where did the next settlement of people on Norfolk Island settle from?

the Pitcairn Islands

On May 3, 1856, how many Pitcairners left for Norfolk Island?

What was the name of the ship the Pitcairners traveled on to Norfolk Island?

Morayshire

What trades did the Pitcairners establish while on Norfolk Island?

farming and whaling industries

Who were the next settlement of people on Norfolk Island restricted from?

I'm not sure.

Where did the next settlement of people on Norfolk Island bomb?

I'm not sure.

How many of the Pitcairners arrived at Norfolk Island on May 3, 1856?

I'm not sure.

What was the name of the canoe the Pitcairners traveled on to Norfolk Island?

I'm not sure.

What trades did the Pitcairners punish while on Norfolk Island?

I'm not sure.


After the creation of the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901, Norfolk Island was placed under the authority of the new Commonwealth government to be administered as an external territory. During World War II, the island became a key airbase and refuelling depot between Australia and New Zealand, and New Zealand and the Solomon Islands. The airstrip was constructed by Australian, New Zealand and United States servicemen during 1942. Since Norfolk Island fell within New Zealand's area of responsibility it was garrisoned by a New Zealand Army unit known as N Force at a large Army camp which had the capacity to house a 1,500 strong force. N Force relieved a company of the Second Australian Imperial Force. The island proved too remote to come under attack during the war and N Force left the island in February 1944.

When was the Commonwealth of Australia created?

During what major event did Norfolk Island become an important airbase and refuelling station?

World War II

Who contructed the airbase used on Norfolk Island during World War II?

Australian, New Zealand and United States servicemen

Norfolk Island fell under whose responsibility during World War II?

New Zealand

When did N Force leave Norfolk Island during the time of World War II?

February 1944

When was the Commonwealth of Australia hidden?

I'm not sure.

What minor event did Norfolk Island become an important airbase and refueling station during?

I'm not sure.

Who removed the airbase used on Norfolk Island during World War II?

I'm not sure.

Whose responsibility did Norfolk Island avoid during World War II?

I'm not sure.

When did N Force leave Norfolk Island during the time of World War I?

I'm not sure.


Financial problems and a reduction in tourism led to Norfolk Island's administration appealing to the Australian federal government for assistance in 2010. In return, the islanders were to pay income tax for the first time but would be eligible for greater welfare benefits. However, by May 2013 agreement had not been reached and islanders were having to leave to find work and welfare. An agreement was finally signed in Canberra on 12 March 2015 to replace self-government with a local council but against the wishes of the Norfolk Island government. A majority of Norfolk Islanders have objected to the Australian plan to make changes to Norfolk Island without first consulting them and allowing their say with 68% of voters against forced changes.

 What lead to Norfolk Island asking for assistance from Australia in 2010?

Financial problems and a reduction in tourism

What benefit were residents of Norfolk Island told they would receive as a result of Australia's assistance?

greater welfare benefits

What actually ended up happening after Norfolk Island asked Australia for help?

islanders were having to leave to find work and welfare

An agreement was finally signed in Canberra on March 12, 2015, to do what for Norfolk Island?

replace self-government with a local council

What percentage of Norfolk Island voters were against the changes brought by Australia?

What lead to Norfolk Island asking for assistance from Russia in 2010?

I'm not sure.

What benefit were residents of Norfolk Island told they would receive as a result of Russia's assistance?

I'm not sure.

What actually ended up happening after Norfolk Island asked Russia for help?

I'm not sure.

What agreement was never signed in Canberra on March 12, 2015?

I'm not sure.

What percentage of Norfolk Island voters were against the changes brought by Russia?

I'm not sure.


Norfolk Island is located in the South Pacific Ocean, east of the Australian mainland. Norfolk Island is the main island of the island group the territory encompasses and is located at 29°02′S 167°57′E / 29.033°S 167.950°E / -29.033; 167.950. It has an area of 34.6 square kilometres (13.4 sq mi), with no large-scale internal bodies of water and 32 km (20 mi) of coastline. The island's highest point is Mount Bates (319 metres (1,047 feet) above sea level), located in the northwest quadrant of the island. The majority of the terrain is suitable for farming and other agricultural uses. Phillip Island, the second largest island of the territory, is located at 29°07′S 167°57′E / 29.117°S 167.950°E / -29.117; 167.950, seven kilometres (4.3 miles) south of the main island.

What part of the Pacific Ocean is Norfolk Island located?

South

What direction is Norfolk Island in relation to Australia?

east

What are the coordinates for Norfolk Island?

29°02′S 167°57′E / 29.033°S 167.950°E / -29.033; 167.950

What is the name of the mountain at Norfolk Island's highest point?

Mount Bates

What is the name of the second largest island of the territory of Norfolk Island?

Phillip Island

What part of the Atlantic Ocean is Norfolk Island located?

I'm not sure.

What direction is Norfolk Island no longer in relation to Australia?

I'm not sure.

What are the fake coordinates for Norfolk Island?

I'm not sure.

What is the name of the mountain at Norfolk Island's lowest point?

I'm not sure.

What is the name of the second worst island of the territory of Norfolk Island?

I'm not sure.


The coastline of Norfolk Island consists, to varying degrees, of cliff faces. A downward slope exists towards Slaughter Bay and Emily Bay, the site of the original colonial settlement of Kingston. There are no safe harbour facilities on Norfolk Island, with loading jetties existing at Kingston and Cascade Bay. All goods not domestically produced are brought in by ship, usually to Cascade Bay. Emily Bay, protected from the Pacific Ocean by a small coral reef, is the only safe area for recreational swimming, although surfing waves can be found at Anson and Ball Bays.

What is the coastline of Norfolk made of?

cliff faces

Where is the site of the original colonial settlement of Kingston, Norfolk Islands, currently located?

Slaughter Bay and Emily Bay

How are goods imported to Norfolk Island?

by ship

Where are imported goods usually sent on Norfolk Island?

Cascade Bay

Where can you go to surf on Norfolk Island?

Anson and Ball Bays

What is the center of Norfolk made of?

I'm not sure.

Where is the site of the original colonial settlement of Kingston, Norfolk Islands, going to be relocated?

I'm not sure.

How are goods stolen from Norfolk Island?

I'm not sure.

Where are imported goods usually stolen on Norfolk Island?

I'm not sure.

Where can you illegally surf on Norfolk Island?

I'm not sure.


Norfolk Island has 174 native plants; 51 of them are endemic. At least 18 of the endemic species are rare or threatened. The Norfolk Island palm (Rhopalostylis baueri) and the smooth tree-fern (Cyathea brownii), the tallest tree-fern in the world, are common in the Norfolk Island National Park but rare elsewhere on the island. Before European colonization, most of Norfolk Island was covered with subtropical rain forest, the canopy of which was made of Araucaria heterophylla (Norfolk Island pine) in exposed areas, and the palm Rhopalostylis baueri and tree ferns Cyathea brownii and C. australis in moister protected areas. The understory was thick with lianas and ferns covering the forest floor. Only one small tract (5 km2) of rainforest remains, which was declared as the Norfolk Island National Park in 1986.

How many plants can only be found on Norfolk Island?

How many of the plants that can only be found on Norfolk Island are rare or threatened?

Where can the tallest tree-fern in the world be found?

Norfolk Island National Park

What was the majority of Norfolk Island covered with, before European colonization?

subtropical rain forest

How much of the rainforest remains in Norfolk Island today?

5 km2

How many plants can only be eaten on Norfolk Island?

I'm not sure.

How many of the plants that can only be found on Norfolk Island are extinct?

I'm not sure.

Where can the smallest tree-fern in the world be found?

I'm not sure.

What was the majority of Norfolk Island covered with, after European colonization?

I'm not sure.

How much of the rainforest was lost in Norfolk Island today?

I'm not sure.


As a relatively small and isolated oceanic island, Norfolk has few land birds but a high degree of endemicity among them. Many of the endemic species and subspecies have become extinct as a result of massive clearance of the island's native vegetation of subtropical rainforest for agriculture, hunting and persecution as agricultural pests. The birds have also suffered from the introduction of mammals such as rats, cats, pigs and goats, as well as from introduced competitors such as common blackbirds and crimson rosellas.

What type of bird does Norfolk Island have few of?

land

What is one reason that has caused many of the birds of Norfolk Island to become extinct?

massive clearance of the island's native vegetation

What is the second thing that caused many of the birds of Norfolk Island to become extinct?

hunting and persecution as agricultural pests

What non-bird animals caused the bird populations of Norfolk Island to suffer?

mammals

What non-native birds caused the bird populations of Norfolk Island to suffer?

common blackbirds and crimson rosellas

What type of bird does Norfolk Island have billions of?

I'm not sure.

What is one reason that has caused many of the birds of Norfolk Island to thrive?

I'm not sure.

What is the second thing that caused many of the birds of Norfolk Island to thrive?

I'm not sure.

What non-bird animals caused the bird populations of Norfolk Island to celebrate?

I'm not sure.

What non-native birds caused the bird populations of Norfolk Island to be happy?

I'm not sure.


The Norfolk Island Group Nepean Island is also home to breeding seabirds. The providence petrel was hunted to local extinction by the beginning of the 19th century, but has shown signs of returning to breed on Phillip Island. Other seabirds breeding there include the white-necked petrel, Kermadec petrel, wedge-tailed shearwater, Australasian gannet, red-tailed tropicbird and grey ternlet. The sooty tern (known locally as the whale bird) has traditionally been subject to seasonal egg harvesting by Norfolk Islanders.

What island in the Norfolk Island Group is home to breeding seabirds?

Nepean Island

What near extinct bird of Norfolk Island has shown signs of population increase?

The providence petrel

Where has the providence petrel been seen breeding on Norfolk Island?

Phillip Island

What other types of petrels breed on Phillip Island?

the white-necked petrel, Kermadec petrel

What is the sooty tern known as on Norfolk Island?

the whale bird

What island in the Norfolk Island Group is home to bioluminescent seabirds?

I'm not sure.

What near extinct bird of Norfolk Island has shown signs of population decrease?

I'm not sure.

Where has the providence petrel never been seen breeding on Norfolk Island?

I'm not sure.

What other types of petrels are extinct on Phillip Island?

I'm not sure.


Cetaceans were historically abundant around the island as commercial hunts on the island was operating until 1956. Today, numbers of larger whales have disappeared, but even today many species such humpback whale, minke whale, sei whale, and dolphins can be observed close to shores, and scientific surveys have been conducted regularly. Southern right whales were once regular migrants to the Norfolk hence naming the island as the "Middle ground" by whalers, but had been severely depleted by historical hunts, and further by illegal Soviet and Japan whaling, resulting in none of very few, if remnants still live, right whales in these regions along with Lord Howe Island.

What used to be abundant in the waters around Norfolk Island?

Cetaceans

When did commercial sea hunts on Norfolk Island stop operating?

What are some species of whales that can be seen around Norfolk Island today?

humpback whale, minke whale, sei whale

What other species can be seen close to the shores of Norfolk Island?

dolphins

What type of whales were once common in Norfolk Island, but hardly any remain today?

Southern right whales

What was never abundant in the waters around Norfolk Island?

I'm not sure.

When did amateur sea hunts on Norfolk Island stop operating?

I'm not sure.

What are some species of extinct whales that can currently be seen on Norfolk Island today?

I'm not sure.

What other species can only be seen far away from the shores of Norfolk Island?

I'm not sure.

What type of whales were once rare near Norfolk Island, but many exist today?

I'm not sure.


Sixty-two percent of islanders are Christians. After the death of the first chaplain Rev G. H. Nobbs in 1884, a Methodist church was formed and in 1891 a Seventh-day Adventist congregation led by one of Nobbs' sons. Some unhappiness with G. H. Nobbs, the more organised and formal ritual of the Church of England service arising from the influence of the Melanesian Mission, decline in spirituality, the influence of visiting American whalers, literature sent by Christians overseas impressed by the Pitcairn story, and the adoption of Seventh-day Adventism by the descendants of the mutineers still on Pitcairn, all contributed to these developments. The Roman Catholic Church began work in 1957 and in the late 1990s a group left the former Methodist (then Uniting Church) and formed a charismatic fellowship. In 2011, 34 percent of the ordinary residents identified as Anglican, 13 percent as Uniting Church, 12 percent as Roman Catholic and three percent as Seventh-day Adventist. Nine percent were from other religions. Twenty four percent had no religion, and seven percent did not indicate a religion. Typical ordinary congregations in any church do not exceed 30 local residents as of 2010[update]. The three older denominations have good facilities. Ministers are usually short-term visitors.

Christians make up what percentage of the population of Norfolk Island?

Sixty-two percent

Who was the first chaplain of Norfolk Island?

Rev G. H. Nobbs

What type of church was formed after Rev G.H. Nobbs' death in 1884?

a Methodist church

Who led Norfolk Island's first Seventh-day Adventist church?

one of Nobbs' sons

Typical church congregations on Norfolk Island as of 2010 don't exceed what number?

What percentage of the population of Norfolk Island do Christians avoid?

I'm not sure.

Who was the first chaplain of Norfolk Island to be exiled?

I'm not sure.

What type of church was forbidden after Rev G.H. Nobbs' death in 1882?

I'm not sure.

Who led Norfolk Island's first Sixth-day Adventist church?

I'm not sure.

What number is always exceeded by typical church congregations on Norfolk Island as of 2010?

I'm not sure.


Islanders speak both English and a creole language known as Norfuk, a blend of 18th-century English and Tahitian. The Norfuk language is decreasing in popularity as more tourists travel to the island and more young people leave for work and study reasons; however, there are efforts to keep it alive via dictionaries and the renaming of some tourist attractions to their Norfuk equivalents. In 2004 an act of the Norfolk Island Assembly made it a co-official language of the island. The act is long-titled: "An Act to recognise the Norfolk Island Language (Norf'k) as an official language of Norfolk Island." The "language known as 'Norf'k'" is described as the language "that is spoken by descendants of the first free settlers of Norfolk Island who were descendants of the settlers of Pitcairn Island". The act recognises and protects use of the language but does not require it; in official use, it must be accompanied by an accurate translation into English. 32% of the total population reported speaking a language other than English in the 2011 census, and just under three-quarters of the ordinarily resident population could speak Norfuk.

What languages do residents of Norfolk Island speak?

English and a creole language known as Norfuk

What is the Norfuk language a mixture of?

18th-century English and Tahitian

The Norfuk language of Norfolk Island was first spoken by whom?

descendants of the first free settlers of Norfolk Island who were descendants of the settlers of Pitcairn Island

What is the official co-language of Norfolk Island?

The Norfuk language

What part of the residents of Norfolk Island could speak Norfuk as of 2011?

under three-quarters

What languages do residents of Norfolk Island restrict?

I'm not sure.

What is the Norfuk language not influenced by?

I'm not sure.

What is the unofficial co-language of Norfolk Island?

I'm not sure.

What portion of the residents of Norfolk Island don't understand any Norfuk as of 2011?

I'm not sure.