An 1855 paper on the "introduction" of species, written by Alfred Russel Wallace, claimed that patterns in the geographical distribution of living and fossil species could be explained if every new species always came into existence near an already existing, closely related species. Charles Lyell recognised the implications of Wallace's paper and its possible connection to Darwin's work, although Darwin did not, and in a letter written on 1–2 May 1856 Lyell urged Darwin to publish his theory to establish priority. Darwin was torn between the desire to set out a full and convincing account and the pressure to quickly produce a short paper. He met Lyell, and in correspondence with Joseph Dalton Hooker affirmed that he did not want to expose his ideas to review by an editor as would have been required to publish in an academic journal. He began a "sketch" account on 14 May 1856, and by July had decided to produce a full technical treatise on species. His theory including the principle of divergence was complete by 5 September 1857 when he sent Asa Gray a brief but detailed abstract of his ideas.

When was the "Introduction of Species" paper written?

Who wrote the "Introduction of Species" paper?

Alfred Russel Wallace

How did Wallace claim that patterns in the distribution of species could be explained?

if every new species always came into existence near an already existing, closely related species

Which scientist recognized the possible validity and implications of Wallace's paper?

Charles Lyell

When did Lyell ask Darwin to publish his theory to give it priority?

1–2 May 1856


Darwin was hard at work on his "big book" on Natural Selection, when on 18 June 1858 he received a parcel from Wallace, who stayed on the Maluku Islands (Ternate and Gilolo). It enclosed twenty pages describing an evolutionary mechanism, a response to Darwin's recent encouragement, with a request to send it on to Lyell if Darwin thought it worthwhile. The mechanism was similar to Darwin's own theory. Darwin wrote to Lyell that "your words have come true with a vengeance, ... forestalled" and he would "of course, at once write and offer to send [it] to any journal" that Wallace chose, adding that "all my originality, whatever it may amount to, will be smashed". Lyell and Hooker agreed that a joint publication putting together Wallace's pages with extracts from Darwin's 1844 Essay and his 1857 letter to Gray should be presented at the Linnean Society, and on 1 July 1858, the papers entitled On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection, by Wallace and Darwin respectively, were read out but drew little reaction. While Darwin considered Wallace's idea to be identical to his concept of natural selection, historians have pointed out differences. Darwin described natural selection as being analogous to the artificial selection practised by animal breeders, and emphasised competition between individuals; Wallace drew no comparison to selective breeding, and focused on ecological pressures that kept different varieties adapted to local conditions. Some historians have suggested that Wallace was actually discussing group selection rather than selection acting on individual variation.

Which book was Darwin working on when he received a package from Wallace?

"big book" on Natural Selection,

What was in the packages Darwin received from Wallace?

twenty pages describing an evolutionary mechanism

Who wrote the paper, On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties?

Darwin

What do some historians think made Wallace's concept of natural selection different from Darwin's?

Some historians have suggested that Wallace was actually discussing group selection rather than selection acting on individual variation.


After the meeting, Darwin decided to write "an abstract of my whole work". He started work on 20 July 1858, while on holiday at Sandown, and wrote parts of it from memory. Lyell discussed arrangements with publisher John Murray III, of the publishing house John Murray, who responded immediately to Darwin's letter of 31 March 1859 with an agreement to publish the book without even seeing the manuscript, and an offer to Darwin of 2⁄3 of the profits. (eventually Murray paid £180 to Darwin for the 1st edition and by Darwin's death in 1882 the book was in its 6th edition, earning Darwin nearly £3000.)

What did Darwin decide to write in July, 1858?

"an abstract of my whole work".

Which publisher did Lyell convince to arrange publication of Darwin's work?

John Murray III

What did the publisher offer Darwin in payment for the book?

2⁄3 of the profits

What edition was the book in by the time of Darwin's death?

6th edition

How much had the book earned Darwin by the time he died?

nearly £3000


Darwin had initially decided to call his book An abstract of an Essay on the Origin of Species and Varieties Through natural selection, but with Murray's persuasion it was eventually changed to the snappier title: On the Origin of Species, with the title page adding by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. Here the term "races" is used as an alternative for "varieties" and does not carry the modern connotation of human races—the first use in the book refers to "the several races, for instance, of the cabbage" and proceeds to a discussion of "the hereditary varieties or races of our domestic animals and plants".

What title did Darwin's book ultimately have?

On the Origin of Species

What had Darwin wanted to name his book?

An abstract of an Essay on the Origin of Species and Varieties Through natural selection

Who convinced Darwin that his book needed a shorter, more compelling title?

Murray

What does the word "races" mean as referenced in Darwin's book?

an alternative for "varieties" and does not carry the modern connotation of human races

What is the extended name of The Origin of Species that is written on the title page?

by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life


Darwin had his basic theory of natural selection "by which to work" by December 1838, yet almost twenty years later, when Wallace's letter arrived on 18 June 1858, Darwin was still not ready to publish his theory. It was long thought that Darwin avoided or delayed making his ideas public for personal reasons. Reasons suggested have included fear of religious persecution or social disgrace if his views were revealed, and concern about upsetting his clergymen naturalist friends or his pious wife Emma. Charles Darwin's illness caused repeated delays. His paper on Glen Roy had proved embarrassingly wrong, and he may have wanted to be sure he was correct. David Quammen has suggested all these factors may have contributed, and notes Darwin's large output of books and busy family life during that time.

By which year did Darwin have the basic premise of his natural selection theory?

Why might Darwin have postponed publishing his theory of evolution for over 20 years?

fear of religious persecution or social disgrace

Which paper did Darwin write that was incorrect?

Glen Roy

Who might Darwin have feared upsetting by publishing his work?

his clergymen naturalist friends or his pious wife Emma.


A more recent study by science historian John van Wyhe has determined that the idea that Darwin delayed publication only dates back to the 1940s, and Darwin's contemporaries thought the time he took was reasonable. Darwin always finished one book before starting another. While he was researching, he told many people about his interest in transmutation without causing outrage. He firmly intended to publish, but it was not until September 1854 that he could work on it full-time. His estimate that writing his "big book" would take five years was optimistic.

What did Darwin's contemporaries think of the long delays on his publishing?

Darwin's contemporaries thought the time he took was reasonable

What was Darwin's process on writing his books?

Darwin always finished one book before starting another

What was Darwin's original estimate for the amount of time his book would take to write?

five years

Which scientist's study theorized that the idea of Darwin's work being delayed dates to the 1940s?

John van Wyhe


On the Origin of Species was first published on Thursday 24 November 1859, priced at fifteen shillings with a first printing of 1250 copies. The book had been offered to booksellers at Murray's autumn sale on Tuesday 22 November, and all available copies had been taken up immediately. In total, 1,250 copies were printed but after deducting presentation and review copies, and five for Stationers' Hall copyright, around 1,170 copies were available for sale. Significantly, 500 were taken by Mudie's Library, ensuring that the book promptly reached a large number of subscribers to the library. The second edition of 3,000 copies was quickly brought out on 7 January 1860, and incorporated numerous corrections as well as a response to religious objections by the addition of a new epigraph on page ii, a quotation from Charles Kingsley, and the phrase "by the Creator" added to the closing sentence. During Darwin's lifetime the book went through six editions, with cumulative changes and revisions to deal with counter-arguments raised. The third edition came out in 1861, with a number of sentences rewritten or added and an introductory appendix, An Historical Sketch of the Recent Progress of Opinion on the Origin of Species, while the fourth in 1866 had further revisions. The fifth edition, published on 10 February 1869, incorporated more changes and for the first time included the phrase "survival of the fittest", which had been coined by the philosopher Herbert Spencer in his Principles of Biology (1864).

What was the cost for the first published copies of On the Origin of Species?

fifteen shillings

How many copies of On the Origin of Species were created in the first printing?

1250 copies

Where was the book, On the Origin of Species first offered for sale?

Murray's autumn sale

How many editions did On the Origin of Species go through during Darwin's lifetime?

six editions

Which institution bought 500 copies of the book, ensuring that a large number of people would have access to it?

Mudie's Library


In January 1871, George Jackson Mivart's On the Genesis of Species listed detailed arguments against natural selection, and claimed it included false metaphysics. Darwin made extensive revisions to the sixth edition of the Origin (this was the first edition in which he used the word "evolution" which had commonly been associated with embryological development, though all editions concluded with the word "evolved"), and added a new chapter VII, Miscellaneous objections, to address Mivart's arguments.

What did On the Genesis of Species argue against natural selection?

claimed it included false metaphysics

Who wrote On the Genesis of Species?

George Jackson Mivart

When did Charles Darwin first use the word "evolution" in On the Origin of Species?

the sixth edition

What did Charles Darwin do to address Mivart's arguments?

added a new chapter VII,

What was chapter VII entitled?

Miscellaneous objections


In the United States, botanist Asa Gray an American colleague of Darwin negotiated with a Boston publisher for publication of an authorised American version, but learnt that two New York publishing firms were already planning to exploit the absence of international copyright to print Origin. Darwin was delighted by the popularity of the book, and asked Gray to keep any profits. Gray managed to negotiate a 5% royalty with Appleton's of New York, who got their edition out in mid January 1860, and the other two withdrew. In a May letter, Darwin mentioned a print run of 2,500 copies, but it is not clear if this referred to the first printing only as there were four that year.

Why couldn't Asa Gray use a Boston publisher for an American version of On the Origin of Species?

two New York publishing firms were already planning to exploit the absence of international copyright to print Origin

How much of a royalty was Gray able to negotiate with a New York publisher for On the Origin of Species?

a 5% royalty

When was the first American edition of On the Origin of Species published?

mid January 1860

What did Darwin decide to do with the profits of the American version of On the Origin of Species?

asked Gray to keep any profits

What was the print run that Darwin mentioned for On the Origin of Species?

2,500 copies


The book was widely translated in Darwin's lifetime, but problems arose with translating concepts and metaphors, and some translations were biased by the translator's own agenda. Darwin distributed presentation copies in France and Germany, hoping that suitable applicants would come forward, as translators were expected to make their own arrangements with a local publisher. He welcomed the distinguished elderly naturalist and geologist Heinrich Georg Bronn, but the German translation published in 1860 imposed Bronn's own ideas, adding controversial themes that Darwin had deliberately omitted. Bronn translated "favoured races" as "perfected races", and added essays on issues including the origin of life, as well as a final chapter on religious implications partly inspired by Bronn's adherence to Naturphilosophie. In 1862, Bronn produced a second edition based on the third English edition and Darwin's suggested additions, but then died of a heart attack. Darwin corresponded closely with Julius Victor Carus, who published an improved translation in 1867. Darwin's attempts to find a translator in France fell through, and the translation by Clémence Royer published in 1862 added an introduction praising Darwin's ideas as an alternative to religious revelation and promoting ideas anticipating social Darwinism and eugenics, as well as numerous explanatory notes giving her own answers to doubts that Darwin expressed. Darwin corresponded with Royer about a second edition published in 1866 and a third in 1870, but he had difficulty getting her to remove her notes and was troubled by these editions. He remained unsatisfied until a translation by Edmond Barbier was published in 1876. A Dutch translation by Tiberius Cornelis Winkler was published in 1860. By 1864, additional translations had appeared in Italian and Russian. In Darwin's lifetime, Origin was published in Swedish in 1871, Danish in 1872, Polish in 1873, Hungarian in 1873–1874, Spanish in 1877 and Serbian in 1878. By 1977, it had appeared in an additional 18 languages.

Who was the German translator that Darwin welcomed for On the Origin of Species?

Heinrich Georg Bronn,

What did Bronn do in his translation that went completely against what Darwin wanted in On the Origin of Species?

the German translation published in 1860 imposed Bronn's own ideas, adding controversial themes that Darwin had deliberately omitted.

What did Bronn change "Favoured Races" to in his translated edition of On the Origin of Species?

"perfected races"

Who published an improved translation of On the Origin of Species in 1867?

Julius Victor Carus

Why was Darwin unhappy with the first French translation of On the Origins of Species?

numerous explanatory notes giving her own answers to doubts that Darwin expressed


Page ii contains quotations by William Whewell and Francis Bacon on the theology of natural laws, harmonising science and religion in accordance with Isaac Newton's belief in a rational God who established a law-abiding cosmos. In the second edition, Darwin added an epigraph from Joseph Butler affirming that God could work through scientific laws as much as through miracles, in a nod to the religious concerns of his oldest friends. The Introduction establishes Darwin's credentials as a naturalist and author, then refers to John Herschel's letter suggesting that the origin of species "would be found to be a natural in contradistinction to a miraculous process":

What was Isaac Newton's belief about God  on the theory of natural law?

a rational God who established a law-abiding cosmos

Whose epigraph did Darwin add to On the Origin of Species harmonizing God with science and miracles together?

Joseph Butler

Whose letter does the introduction to On the Origin of Species refer?

John Herschel

In which edition of On the Origin of Species was the epigraph from Joseph Butler added?

the second edition


Chapter I covers animal husbandry and plant breeding, going back to ancient Egypt. Darwin discusses contemporary opinions on the origins of different breeds under cultivation to argue that many have been produced from common ancestors by selective breeding. As an illustration of artificial selection, he describes fancy pigeon breeding, noting that "[t]he diversity of the breeds is something astonishing", yet all were descended from one species of rock pigeon. Darwin saw two distinct kinds of variation: (1) rare abrupt changes he called "sports" or "monstrosities" (example: ancon sheep with short legs), and (2) ubiquitous small differences (example: slightly shorter or longer bill of pigeons). Both types of hereditary changes can be used by breeders. However, for Darwin the small changes were most important in evolution.

How far back does Chapter One of On the Origin of Species go in its coverage of animal and plant species?

ancient Egypt

What does Darwin use to illustrate the effects of artificial selection?

fancy pigeon breeding

From what does Darwin assert all pigeons are descended?

one species of rock pigeon

Which evolutionary changes were the most important to Darwin?

the small changes


In Chapter II, Darwin specifies that the distinction between species and varieties is arbitrary, with experts disagreeing and changing their decisions when new forms were found. He concludes that "a well-marked variety may be justly called an incipient species" and that "species are only strongly marked and permanent varieties". He argues for the ubiquity of variation in nature. Historians have noted that naturalists had long been aware that the individuals of a species differed from one another, but had generally considered such variations to be limited and unimportant deviations from the archetype of each species, that archetype being a fixed ideal in the mind of God. Darwin and Wallace made variation among individuals of the same species central to understanding the natural world.

What does Darwin believe about the differences between species and varieties?

is arbitrary

What does Darwin theorize about different species with regard to variety?

"species are only strongly marked and permanent varieties"

What did Darwin and Wallace make central to understanding the natural world?

variation among individuals of the same species

What did Darwin say that a "well marked variety" could be called?

incipient species"

What did historians say that naturalists generally thought about the differences in variations in a species?

generally considered such variations to be limited and unimportant deviations from the archetype of each species


He notes that both A. P. de Candolle and Charles Lyell had stated that all organisms are exposed to severe competition. Darwin emphasizes that he used the phrase "struggle for existence" in "a large and metaphorical sense, including dependence of one being on another"; he gives examples ranging from plants struggling against drought to plants competing for birds to eat their fruit and disseminate their seeds. He describes the struggle resulting from population growth: "It is the doctrine of Malthus applied with manifold force to the whole animal and vegetable kingdoms." He discusses checks to such increase including complex ecological interdependencies, and notes that competition is most severe between closely related forms "which fill nearly the same place in the economy of nature".

What is the struggle that Darwin describes about population likened to?

doctrine of Malthus

Within what frame of reference does Darwin use the phrase "Struggle for Existence?"

"a large and metaphorical sense

What was Charles Lyell's perception of what organisms are exposed to in their struggle for survival?

all organisms are exposed to severe competition

When is competition strongest in the natural world?

competition is most severe between closely related forms

Why is competition so fierce between related species?

fill nearly the same place in the economy of nature".


Chapter IV details natural selection under the "infinitely complex and close-fitting ... mutual relations of all organic beings to each other and to their physical conditions of life". Darwin takes as an example a country where a change in conditions led to extinction of some species, immigration of others and, where suitable variations occurred, descendants of some species became adapted to new conditions. He remarks that the artificial selection practised by animal breeders frequently produced sharp divergence in character between breeds, and suggests that natural selection might do the same, saying:

What did Darwin say that artificial selection by animal breeders often causes?

sharp divergence in character between breeds,

What did Darwin say could happen somewhere if there is a change in conditions?

extinction of some species

What can happen if species immigrate to a new location?

descendants of some species became adapted to new conditions


Darwin proposes sexual selection, driven by competition between males for mates, to explain sexually dimorphic features such as lion manes, deer antlers, peacock tails, bird songs, and the bright plumage of some male birds. He analysed sexual selection more fully in The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex (1871). Natural selection was expected to work very slowly in forming new species, but given the effectiveness of artificial selection, he could "see no limit to the amount of change, to the beauty and infinite complexity of the coadaptations between all organic beings, one with another and with their physical conditions of life, which may be effected in the long course of time by nature's power of selection". Using a tree diagram and calculations, he indicates the "divergence of character" from original species into new species and genera. He describes branches falling off as extinction occurred, while new branches formed in "the great Tree of life ... with its ever branching and beautiful ramifications".

What does Darwin say can explain diverse feature such as antlers on deer and bright feathers on certain male birds?

sexual selection, driven by competition between males for mates

Which of Darwin's written works has more in depth information about sexual selection?

The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex

What did Darwin expect to see between species with the addition of artificial selection?

no limit to the amount of change, to the beauty and infinite complexity of the coadaptations between all organic beings

What did Darwin use to illustrate the way that original species change and adapt into new ones?

a tree diagram and calculations


In Darwin's time there was no agreed-upon model of heredity; in Chapter I Darwin admitted, "The laws governing inheritance are quite unknown." He accepted a version of the inheritance of acquired characteristics (which after Darwin's death came to be called Lamarckism), and Chapter V discusses what he called the effects of use and disuse; he wrote that he thought "there can be little doubt that use in our domestic animals strengthens and enlarges certain parts, and disuse diminishes them; and that such modifications are inherited", and that this also applied in nature. Darwin stated that some changes that were commonly attributed to use and disuse, such as the loss of functional wings in some island dwelling insects, might be produced by natural selection. In later editions of Origin, Darwin expanded the role attributed to the inheritance of acquired characteristics. Darwin also admitted ignorance of the source of inheritable variations, but speculated they might be produced by environmental factors. However, one thing was clear: whatever the exact nature and causes of new variations, Darwin knew from observation and experiment that breeders were able to select such variations and produce huge differences in many generations of selection. The observation that selection works in domestic animals is not destroyed by lack of understanding of the underlying hereditary mechanism.

What is the theory that is based on acquired characteristics within a species?

Lamarckism

What did Darwin learn about about the characteristics of domestic animals?

use in our domestic animals strengthens and enlarges certain parts, and disuse diminishes them

What did Darwin speculate might be how inheritable variations might come about in a species?

environmental factors

What did Darwin admit about acquired characteristics in chapter one of On the Origin of Species?

"The laws governing inheritance are quite unknown."

What did Darwin learn about variations by observing breeders?

breeders were able to select such variations and produce huge differences in many generations of selection


More detail was given in Darwin's 1868 book on The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication, which tried to explain heredity through his hypothesis of pangenesis. Although Darwin had privately questioned blending inheritance, he struggled with the theoretical difficulty that novel individual variations would tend to blend into a population. However, inherited variation could be seen, and Darwin's concept of selection working on a population with a range of small variations was workable. It was not until the modern evolutionary synthesis in the 1930s and 1940s that a model of heredity became completely integrated with a model of variation. This modern evolutionary synthesis had been dubbed Neo Darwinian Evolution because it encompasses Charles Darwin's theories of evolution with Gregor Mendel's theories of genetic inheritance.

When was The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication by Charles Darwin published?

What was the hypothesis that attempted to explain heredity?

hypothesis of pangenesis.

While Darwin wasn't sure about blending inherited traits, what was his opinion about utilizing inherited variation?

Darwin's concept of selection working on a population with a range of small variations was workable

When did a model of heredity begin to be integrated with that of variation?

in the 1930s and 1940s

What was the modern evolutionary synthesis named?

Neo Darwinian Evolution


Chapter VI begins by saying the next three chapters will address possible objections to the theory, the first being that often no intermediate forms between closely related species are found, though the theory implies such forms must have existed. As Darwin noted, "Firstly, why, if species have descended from other species by insensibly fine gradations, do we not everywhere see innumerable transitional forms? Why is not all nature in confusion, instead of the species being, as we see them, well defined?" Darwin attributed this to the competition between different forms, combined with the small number of individuals of intermediate forms, often leading to extinction of such forms. This difficulty can be referred to as the absence or rarity of transitional varieties in habitat space.

What is one possible objection to the theory of integrated variation?

often no intermediate forms between closely related species are found

Why did Darwin wonder why all of nature isn't chaotic and random?

why, if species have descended from other species by insensibly fine gradations, do we not everywhere see innumerable transitional forms?

What did Darwin ultimately decide was the reason that nature is not a chaos of variation?

the competition between different forms, combined with the small number of individuals of intermediate forms, often leading to extinction of such forms.


His answer was that in many cases animals exist with intermediate structures that are functional. He presented flying squirrels, and flying lemurs as examples of how bats might have evolved from non-flying ancestors. He discussed various simple eyes found in invertebrates, starting with nothing more than an optic nerve coated with pigment, as examples of how the vertebrate eye could have evolved. Darwin concludes: "If it could be demonstrated that any complex organ existed, which could not possibly have been formed by numerous, successive, slight modifications, my theory would absolutely break down. But I can find out no such case."

What are some flying animals that Darwin thought might have evolved from bats?

flying squirrels, and flying lemurs

What example did Darwin give of eyes evolving?

simple eyes found in invertebrates, starting with nothing more than an optic nerve coated with pigment

How did Darwin justify his theory not breaking down?

any complex organ existed, which could not possibly have been formed by numerous, successive, slight modifications, my theory would absolutely break down.


Chapter VII (of the first edition) addresses the evolution of instincts. His examples included two he had investigated experimentally: slave-making ants and the construction of hexagonal cells by honey bees. Darwin noted that some species of slave-making ants were more dependent on slaves than others, and he observed that many ant species will collect and store the pupae of other species as food. He thought it reasonable that species with an extreme dependency on slave workers had evolved in incremental steps. He suggested that bees that make hexagonal cells evolved in steps from bees that made round cells, under pressure from natural selection to economise wax. Darwin concluded:

How does Darwin theorize that instincts have evolved in slave-making ants?

He thought it reasonable that species with an extreme dependency on slave workers had evolved in incremental steps.

How does Darwin theorize that instincts have evolved in bees?

He suggested that bees that make hexagonal cells evolved in steps from bees that made round cells, under pressure from natural selection to economise wax

What did Darwin notice specifically about slave-making ants?

some species of slave-making ants were more dependent on slaves than others


Chapter VIII addresses the idea that species had special characteristics that prevented hybrids from being fertile in order to preserve separately created species. Darwin said that, far from being constant, the difficulty in producing hybrids of related species, and the viability and fertility of the hybrids, varied greatly, especially among plants. Sometimes what were widely considered to be separate species produced fertile hybrid offspring freely, and in other cases what were considered to be mere varieties of the same species could only be crossed with difficulty. Darwin concluded: "Finally, then, the facts briefly given in this chapter do not seem to me opposed to, but even rather to support the view, that there is no fundamental distinction between species and varieties."

Why would hybrids have characteristics that keep them from being fertile?

in order to preserve separately created species

What are Darwin's thoughts on producing hybrids of related species?

the viability and fertility of the hybrids, varied greatly, especially among plants

What conclusion did Darwin come to after realizing that some diverse species were able to create variations easily, while other species thought to be closely related had difficulty?

support the view, that there is no fundamental distinction between species and varieties


In the sixth edition Darwin inserted a new chapter VII (renumbering the subsequent chapters) to respond to criticisms of earlier editions, including the objection that many features of organisms were not adaptive and could not have been produced by natural selection. He said some such features could have been by-products of adaptive changes to other features, and that often features seemed non-adaptive because their function was unknown, as shown by his book on Fertilisation of Orchids that explained how their elaborate structures facilitated pollination by insects. Much of the chapter responds to George Jackson Mivart's criticisms, including his claim that features such as baleen filters in whales, flatfish with both eyes on one side and the camouflage of stick insects could not have evolved through natural selection because intermediate stages would not have been adaptive. Darwin proposed scenarios for the incremental evolution of each feature.

Why did Darwin introduce a new chapter in On the Origin of Species in the sixth edition?

to respond to criticisms of earlier editions

What was one of the objections that Darwin addressed in his new chapter in On the Origin of Species?

that many features of organisms were not adaptive and could not have been produced by natural selection

Which of Darwin's books featured a plant whose elaborate structure aided with fertilization by insects?

Fertilisation of Orchids

Which scientist was addressed the most often in the new chapter of On the Origin of Species?

George Jackson Mivart

What was Darwin's response to the claims that certain animals could not have evolved through natural selection?

Darwin proposed scenarios for the incremental evolution of each feature.


Chapter IX deals with the fact that the geologic record appears to show forms of life suddenly arising, without the innumerable transitional fossils expected from gradual changes. Darwin borrowed Charles Lyell's argument in Principles of Geology that the record is extremely imperfect as fossilisation is a very rare occurrence, spread over vast periods of time; since few areas had been geologically explored, there could only be fragmentary knowledge of geological formations, and fossil collections were very poor. Evolved local varieties which migrated into a wider area would seem to be the sudden appearance of a new species. Darwin did not expect to be able to reconstruct evolutionary history, but continuing discoveries gave him well founded hope that new finds would occasionally reveal transitional forms. To show that there had been enough time for natural selection to work slowly, he again cited Principles of Geology and other observations based on sedimentation and erosion, including an estimate that erosion of The Weald had taken 300 million years. The initial appearance of entire groups of well developed organisms in the oldest fossil-bearing layers, now known as the Cambrian explosion, posed a problem. Darwin had no doubt that earlier seas had swarmed with living creatures, but stated that he had no satisfactory explanation for the lack of fossils. Fossil evidence of pre-Cambrian life has since been found, extending the history of life back for billions of years.

Whose argument did Darwin borrow that geological record is very imperfect, because fossilization is rare?

Charles Lyell

Which book written by Charles Lyell contains the argument that fossils are too rare to be used as proof of life suddenly arising?

Principles of Geology

What did Darwin hope to find as he continued to explore new geologic discoveries?

that new finds would occasionally reveal transitional forms

How long did Darwin estimate the erosion of the Weald to be?

300 million years

What is the name of the group of well-developed organisms that were discovered within fossil-bearing layers?

the Cambrian explosion


Chapter X examines whether patterns in the fossil record are better explained by common descent and branching evolution through natural selection, than by the individual creation of fixed species. Darwin expected species to change slowly, but not at the same rate – some organisms such as Lingula were unchanged since the earliest fossils. The pace of natural selection would depend on variability and change in the environment. This distanced his theory from Lamarckian laws of inevitable progress. It has been argued that this anticipated the punctuated equilibrium hypothesis, but other scholars have preferred to emphasise Darwin's commitment to gradualism. He cited Richard Owen's findings that the earliest members of a class were a few simple and generalised species with characteristics intermediate between modern forms, and were followed by increasingly diverse and specialised forms, matching the branching of common descent from an ancestor. Patterns of extinction matched his theory, with related groups of species having a continued existence until extinction, then not reappearing. Recently extinct species were more similar to living species than those from earlier eras, and as he had seen in South America, and William Clift had shown in Australia, fossils from recent geological periods resembled species still living in the same area.

How did Darwin expect species to change and evolve?

slowly, but not at the same rate

What did Darwin believe were the key things needed for variation of species to form?

variability and change in the environment

Which scientist theorized that the earliest members of a class in a species were simple and generalized?

Richard Owen

What did Darwin discover about more recently extinct species?

Recently extinct species were more similar to living species than those from earlier eras


Chapter XI deals with evidence from biogeography, starting with the observation that differences in flora and fauna from separate regions cannot be explained by environmental differences alone; South America, Africa, and Australia all have regions with similar climates at similar latitudes, but those regions have very different plants and animals. The species found in one area of a continent are more closely allied with species found in other regions of that same continent than to species found on other continents. Darwin noted that barriers to migration played an important role in the differences between the species of different regions. The coastal sea life of the Atlantic and Pacific sides of Central America had almost no species in common even though the Isthmus of Panama was only a few miles wide. His explanation was a combination of migration and descent with modification. He went on to say: "On this principle of inheritance with modification, we can understand how it is that sections of genera, whole genera, and even families are confined to the same areas, as is so commonly and notoriously the case." Darwin explained how a volcanic island formed a few hundred miles from a continent might be colonised by a few species from that continent. These species would become modified over time, but would still be related to species found on the continent, and Darwin observed that this was a common pattern. Darwin discussed ways that species could be dispersed across oceans to colonise islands, many of which he had investigated experimentally.

Why couldn't differences in flora and fauna be explained by differences in regions alone?

South America, Africa, and Australia all have regions with similar climates at similar latitudes, but those regions have very different plants and animals

What did Darwin consider that could explain why different regions could have such different species when they are close together?

barriers to migration played an important role in the differences between the species of different regions.

What was the combination of effects that Darwin considered the most important in determining the differences in species that evolved separately in similar environments?

His explanation was a combination of migration and descent with modification.


Darwin discusses morphology, including the importance of homologous structures. He says, "What can be more curious than that the hand of a man, formed for grasping, that of a mole for digging, the leg of the horse, the paddle of the porpoise, and the wing of the bat, should all be constructed on the same pattern, and should include the same bones, in the same relative positions?" He notes that animals of the same class often have extremely similar embryos. Darwin discusses rudimentary organs, such as the wings of flightless birds and the rudiments of pelvis and leg bones found in some snakes. He remarks that some rudimentary organs, such as teeth in baleen whales, are found only in embryonic stages.

What theory does Darwin discuss that is related to the importance of homologous structures?

morphology

What are some examples that Darwin gives of species whose basic form of limbs is similar, but who have vastly different uses for them?

the hand of a man, formed for grasping, that of a mole for digging, the leg of the horse, the paddle of the porpoise, and the wing of the bat

What does Darwin note about the embryos of many different species in the same class?

animals of the same class often have extremely similar embryos

What are some examples of rudimentary organs that Darwin discusses in the chapter?

e wings of flightless birds and the rudiments of pelvis and leg bones found in some snakes


The final chapter reviews points from earlier chapters, and Darwin concludes by hoping that his theory might produce revolutionary changes in many fields of natural history. Although he avoids the controversial topic of human origins in the rest of the book so as not to prejudice readers against his theory, here he ventures a cautious hint that psychology would be put on a new foundation and that "Light will be thrown on the origin of man". Darwin ends with a passage that became well known and much quoted:

What hopes does Darwin have for his theory in the natural history fields?

that his theory might produce revolutionary changes

Why did Darwin avoid the topic of the origins of humans in most of his book?

so as not to prejudice readers against his theory

What does Darwin allude to hoping in the final chapter of On the Origin of Species about humans?

that psychology would be put on a new foundation and that "Light will be thrown on the origin of man"


Darwin's aims were twofold: to show that species had not been separately created, and to show that natural selection had been the chief agent of change. He knew that his readers were already familiar with the concept of transmutation of species from Vestiges, and his introduction ridicules that work as failing to provide a viable mechanism. Therefore, the first four chapters lay out his case that selection in nature, caused by the struggle for existence, is analogous to the selection of variations under domestication, and that the accumulation of adaptive variations provides a scientifically testable mechanism for evolutionary speciation.

What were Darwin's two important aims about evolution?

to show that species had not been separately created, and to show that natural selection had been the chief agent of change

What did heknow his readers were already familiar with from Vestiges?

the concept of transmutation of species

How did Darwin view Vestiges in the introduction to On the Origin of Species?

his introduction ridicules that work as failing to provide a viable mechanism.

What is Darwin's belief about the accumulation of adaptive variations?

the accumulation of adaptive variations provides a scientifically testable mechanism for evolutionary speciation.


Later chapters provide evidence that evolution has occurred, supporting the idea of branching, adaptive evolution without directly proving that selection is the mechanism. Darwin presents supporting facts drawn from many disciplines, showing that his theory could explain a myriad of observations from many fields of natural history that were inexplicable under the alternate concept that species had been individually created. The structure of Darwin's argument showed the influence of John Herschel, whose philosophy of science maintained that a mechanism could be called a vera causa (true cause) if three things could be demonstrated: its existence in nature, its ability to produce the effects of interest, and its ability to explain a wide range of observations.

What does Darwin do to show that his theory can support many theories that could not be explained by individual creation of species?

Darwin presents supporting facts drawn from many disciplines

Whose scientific philosophy argued that a mechanism could be called a vera causa if three things could be shown as true?

John Herschel

What are the three things John Herschel maintains need to be shown to allow for a mechanism be called a true cause?

its existence in nature, its ability to produce the effects of interest, and its ability to explain a wide range of observations


While the book was readable enough to sell, its dryness ensured that it was seen as aimed at specialist scientists and could not be dismissed as mere journalism or imaginative fiction. Unlike the still-popular Vestiges, it avoided the narrative style of the historical novel and cosmological speculation, though the closing sentence clearly hinted at cosmic progression. Darwin had long been immersed in the literary forms and practices of specialist science, and made effective use of his skills in structuring arguments. David Quammen has described the book as written in everyday language for a wide audience, but noted that Darwin's literary style was uneven: in some places he used convoluted sentences that are difficult to read, while in other places his writing was beautiful. Quammen advised that later editions were weakened by Darwin making concessions and adding details to address his critics, and recommended the first edition. James T. Costa said that because the book was an abstract produced in haste in response to Wallace's essay, it was more approachable than the big book on natural selection Darwin had been working on, which would have been encumbered by scholarly footnotes and much more technical detail. He added that some parts of Origin are dense, but other parts are almost lyrical, and the case studies and observations are presented in a narrative style unusual in serious scientific books, which broadened its audience.

What element of On the Origin of Species ensured that the book would be taken seriously by scientists?

its dryness ensured that it was seen as aimed at specialist scientists and could not be dismissed as mere journalism or imaginative fiction.

What did On Origin of Species avoid in order to raise its chance of being taken seriously?

it avoided the narrative style of the historical novel and cosmological speculation

What reason did David Quammen believe that On the Origin of Species was weakened in later editions?

Darwin making concessions and adding details to address his critics

Why did James T. Costa think that On the Origin of Species was more likely to draw interest than a larger book that Darwin had been working on?

because the book was an abstract produced in haste in response to Wallace's essay

Why did James T. Costa think the larger, abandoned book would not have been as successful?

would have been encumbered by scholarly footnotes and much more technical detail


The book aroused international interest and a widespread debate, with no sharp line between scientific issues and ideological, social and religious implications. Much of the initial reaction was hostile, but Darwin had to be taken seriously as a prominent and respected name in science. There was much less controversy than had greeted the 1844 publication Vestiges of Creation, which had been rejected by scientists, but had influenced a wide public readership into believing that nature and human society were governed by natural laws. The Origin of Species as a book of wide general interest became associated with ideas of social reform. Its proponents made full use of a surge in the publication of review journals, and it was given more popular attention than almost any other scientific work, though it failed to match the continuing sales of Vestiges. Darwin's book legitimised scientific discussion of evolutionary mechanisms, and the newly coined term Darwinism was used to cover the whole range of evolutionism, not just his own ideas. By the mid-1870s, evolutionism was triumphant.

Why did On the Origin of Species likely raise so much interest and debate?

no sharp line between scientific issues and ideological, social and religious implications

Why was the book taken seriously even though much of the response was hostile?

Darwin had to be taken seriously as a prominent and respected name in science

What field of ideas latched onto On the Origin of Species when it became a widespread success?

social reform

What did Darwin's book do for the field of scientific study of evolution?

Darwin's book legitimised scientific discussion of evolutionary mechanisms

What was the term used to not only describe Darwin's theories, but the whole spectrum of evolution-ism after his book met with success?

Darwinism


Scientific readers were already aware of arguments that species changed through processes that were subject to laws of nature, but the transmutational ideas of Lamarck and the vague "law of development" of Vestiges had not found scientific favour. Darwin presented natural selection as a scientifically testable mechanism while accepting that other mechanisms such as inheritance of acquired characters were possible. His strategy established that evolution through natural laws was worthy of scientific study, and by 1875, most scientists accepted that evolution occurred but few thought natural selection was significant. Darwin's scientific method was also disputed, with his proponents favouring the empiricism of John Stuart Mill's A System of Logic, while opponents held to the idealist school of William Whewell's Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, in which investigation could begin with the intuitive truth that species were fixed objects created by design. Early support for Darwin's ideas came from the findings of field naturalists studying biogeography and ecology, including Joseph Dalton Hooker in 1860, and Asa Gray in 1862. Henry Walter Bates presented research in 1861 that explained insect mimicry using natural selection. Alfred Russel Wallace discussed evidence from his Malay archipelago research, including an 1864 paper with an evolutionary explanation for the Wallace line.

What was the general response from scientific readers to Lamarck's written work?

the transmutational ideas of Lamarck and the vague "law of development" of Vestiges had not found scientific favour

What was the likely reason that Darwin's ideas were accepted more readily than Lamarck's?

natural selection as a scientifically testable mechanism while accepting that other mechanisms such as inheritance of acquired characters were possible.

Which school did opponents to Darwin's method support?

the idealist school of William Whewell's Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences

Where did early support for Darwin's findings come from?

the findings of field naturalists studying biogeography and ecology, including Joseph Dalton Hooker in 1860, and Asa Gray in 1862

Who authored research supporting insect mimicry  using natural selection?

Henry Walter Bates


Evolution had less obvious applications to anatomy and morphology, and at first had little impact on the research of the anatomist Thomas Henry Huxley. Despite this, Huxley strongly supported Darwin on evolution; though he called for experiments to show whether natural selection could form new species, and questioned if Darwin's gradualism was sufficient without sudden leaps to cause speciation. Huxley wanted science to be secular, without religious interference, and his article in the April 1860 Westminster Review promoted scientific naturalism over natural theology, praising Darwin for "extending the domination of Science over regions of thought into which she has, as yet, hardly penetrated" and coining the term "Darwinism" as part of his efforts to secularise and professionalise science. Huxley gained influence, and initiated the X Club, which used the journal Nature to promote evolution and naturalism, shaping much of late Victorian science. Later, the German morphologist Ernst Haeckel would convince Huxley that comparative anatomy and palaeontology could be used to reconstruct evolutionary genealogies.

Who supported Darwin's theories on evolution despite it having little impact on his own research?

Thomas Henry Huxley

What did Huxley's 1860 article in the Westminster Review promote?

scientific naturalism over natural theology

Why did Huxley coin the name "Darwinism?"

as part of his efforts to secularise and professionalise science

What did the morphologist Ernst Haeckel convince Huxley of about comparative anatomy and paleontology?

that comparative anatomy and palaeontology could be used to reconstruct evolutionary genealogies


The leading naturalist in Britain was the anatomist Richard Owen, an idealist who had shifted to the view in the 1850s that the history of life was the gradual unfolding of a divine plan. Owen's review of the Origin in the April 1860 Edinburgh Review bitterly attacked Huxley, Hooker and Darwin, but also signalled acceptance of a kind of evolution as a teleological plan in a continuous "ordained becoming", with new species appearing by natural birth. Others that rejected natural selection, but supported "creation by birth", included the Duke of Argyll who explained beauty in plumage by design. Since 1858, Huxley had emphasised anatomical similarities between apes and humans, contesting Owen's view that humans were a separate sub-class. Their disagreement over human origins came to the fore at the British Association for the Advancement of Science meeting featuring the legendary 1860 Oxford evolution debate. In two years of acrimonious public dispute that Charles Kingsley satirised as the "Great Hippocampus Question" and parodied in The Water-Babies as the "great hippopotamus test", Huxley showed that Owen was incorrect in asserting that ape brains lacked a structure present in human brains. Others, including Charles Lyell and Alfred Russel Wallace, thought that humans shared a common ancestor with apes, but higher mental faculties could not have evolved through a purely material process. Darwin published his own explanation in the Descent of Man (1871).

Who was the leading naturalist in Britain?

Richard Owen,

How did Owen respond to On the Origin of Species with his review?

bitterly attacked Huxley, Hooker and Darwin, but also signalled acceptance of a kind of evolution as a teleological plan in a continuous "ordained becoming"

What was the debate between Huxley and Owen concerning humans and apes?

Huxley had emphasised anatomical similarities between apes and humans, contesting Owen's view that humans were a separate sub-class

What was the primary debate at the British Association for the Advancement of Science meeting of 1860?

legendary 1860 Oxford evolution debate

When did Darwin publish his own explanation of the question of the evolution of man and ape?

Darwin published his own explanation in the Descent of Man (1871)


Evolutionary ideas, although not natural selection, were accepted by German biologists accustomed to ideas of homology in morphology from Goethe's Metamorphosis of Plants and from their long tradition of comparative anatomy. Bronn's alterations in his German translation added to the misgivings of conservatives, but enthused political radicals. Ernst Haeckel was particularly ardent, aiming to synthesise Darwin's ideas with those of Lamarck and Goethe while still reflecting the spirit of Naturphilosophie. Their ambitious programme to reconstruct the evolutionary history of life was joined by Huxley and supported by discoveries in palaeontology. Haeckel used embryology extensively in his recapitulation theory, which embodied a progressive, almost linear model of evolution. Darwin was cautious about such histories, and had already noted that von Baer's laws of embryology supported his idea of complex branching.

While evolutionary ideas were accepted by German biologists, what was not?

natural selection

What led to more misgivings of conservative scientists when Bronn's German translation of On the Origin of Species was published?

Bronn's alterations in his German translation added to the misgivings of conservatives

Which group of people was excited by the German translation of On the Origin of Species?

political radicals

Why were political radicals such as Ernst Haekel so interested in On the Origin of Species?

aiming to synthesise Darwin's ideas with those of Lamarck and Goethe while still reflecting the spirit of Naturphilosophie


French-speaking naturalists in several countries showed appreciation of the much modified French translation by Clémence Royer, but Darwin's ideas had little impact in France, where any scientists supporting evolutionary ideas opted for a form of Lamarckism. The intelligentsia in Russia had accepted the general phenomenon of evolution for several years before Darwin had published his theory, and scientists were quick to take it into account, although the Malthusian aspects were felt to be relatively unimportant. The political economy of struggle was criticised as a British stereotype by Karl Marx and by Leo Tolstoy, who had the character Levin in his novel Anna Karenina voice sharp criticism of the morality of Darwin's views.

What was the general feeling toward Darwin's ideas in France?

Darwin's ideas had little impact in France, where any scientists supporting evolutionary ideas opted for a form of Lamarckism

What people in what country had embraced the idea of evolution for many years before Darwin published his theory?

The intelligentsia in Russia

Which aspects of evolution theory were thought to be unimportant by many who read Darwin's work?

the Malthusian aspects

Which author voiced his displeasure of the morality of Darwin's views in a novel?

Leo Tolstoy


There were serious scientific objections to the process of natural selection as the key mechanism of evolution, including Karl von Nägeli's insistence that a trivial characteristic with no adaptive advantage could not be developed by selection. Darwin conceded that these could be linked to adaptive characteristics. His estimate that the age of the Earth allowed gradual evolution was disputed by William Thomson (later awarded the title Lord Kelvin), who calculated that it had cooled in less than 100 million years. Darwin accepted blending inheritance, but Fleeming Jenkin calculated that as it mixed traits, natural selection could not accumulate useful traits. Darwin tried to meet these objections in the 5th edition. Mivart supported directed evolution, and compiled scientific and religious objections to natural selection. In response, Darwin made considerable changes to the sixth edition. The problems of the age of the Earth and heredity were only resolved in the 20th century.

What justification for his objections to the process of natural selection did Karl von Nägel give?

insistence that a trivial characteristic with no adaptive advantage could not be developed by selection

What was Darwin's concession to Karl von Nägel's objections?

Darwin conceded that these could be linked to adaptive characteristics

Who disputed Darwin's estimate that the age of the earth allowed gradual evolution of species?

William Thomson

What were William Thomson's reasons for disputing Darwin's estimate?

calculated that it had cooled in less than 100 million years

When were the problems of the earth and heredity resolved?

in the 20th century


By the mid-1870s, most scientists accepted evolution, but relegated natural selection to a minor role as they believed evolution was purposeful and progressive. The range of evolutionary theories during "the eclipse of Darwinism" included forms of "saltationism" in which new species were thought to arise through "jumps" rather than gradual adaptation, forms of orthogenesis claiming that species had an inherent tendency to change in a particular direction, and forms of neo-Lamarckism in which inheritance of acquired characteristics led to progress. The minority view of August Weismann, that natural selection was the only mechanism, was called neo-Darwinism. It was thought that the rediscovery of Mendelian inheritance invalidated Darwin's views.

Why did most scientists accept the validity of evolution by the 1870s, but considered natural selection a minor part of it?

they believed evolution was purposeful and progressive.

What was meant by the term saltationism?

new species were thought to arise through "jumps" rather than gradual adaptation

What is the term for the belief that species have a tendency to change and adapt in a certain direction?

orthogenesis

What was the minority view on evolution that was believed by August Weismann?

neo-Darwinism

What rediscovered inheritance was thought to invalidate Darwin's views on evolution?

Mendelian inheritance


While some, like Spencer, used analogy from natural selection as an argument against government intervention in the economy to benefit the poor, others, including Alfred Russel Wallace, argued that action was needed to correct social and economic inequities to level the playing field before natural selection could improve humanity further. Some political commentaries, including Walter Bagehot's Physics and Politics (1872), attempted to extend the idea of natural selection to competition between nations and between human races. Such ideas were incorporated into what was already an ongoing effort by some working in anthropology to provide scientific evidence for the superiority of Caucasians over non white races and justify European imperialism. Historians write that most such political and economic commentators had only a superficial understanding of Darwin's scientific theory, and were as strongly influenced by other concepts about social progress and evolution, such as the Lamarckian ideas of Spencer and Haeckel, as they were by Darwin's work. Darwin objected to his ideas being used to justify military aggression and unethical business practices as he believed morality was part of fitness in humans, and he opposed polygenism, the idea that human races were fundamentally distinct and did not share a recent common ancestry.

Who believed that action needed to be taken to level out the social and economic playing field before natural selection could occur to improve humanity?

Alfred Russel Wallace

Which political commentary attempted to widen the idea of natural selection to include competition between different races of people and countries?

Walter Bagehot's Physics and Politics (1872)

Why were some political commentaries attempting to attach natural selection to human races?

to provide scientific evidence for the superiority of Caucasians over non white races and justify European imperialism

What uses of his ideology did Darwin object to being used?

to justify military aggression and unethical business practices

What theory about humanity did Darwin oppose?

he opposed polygenism, the idea that human races were fundamentally distinct and did not share a recent common ancestry.


Natural theology was not a unified doctrine, and while some such as Louis Agassiz were strongly opposed to the ideas in the book, others sought a reconciliation in which evolution was seen as purposeful. In the Church of England, some liberal clergymen interpreted natural selection as an instrument of God's design, with the cleric Charles Kingsley seeing it as "just as noble a conception of Deity". In the second edition of January 1860, Darwin quoted Kingsley as "a celebrated cleric", and added the phrase "by the Creator" to the closing sentence, which from then on read "life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed by the Creator into a few forms or into one". While some commentators have taken this as a concession to religion that Darwin later regretted, Darwin's view at the time was of God creating life through the laws of nature, and even in the first edition there are several references to "creation".

What view did Louis Agassiz have of On the Origin of Species?

strongly opposed to the ideas in the book

What view did some clergymen in the Church of England take of the theory of natural selection?

interpreted natural selection as an instrument of God's design

What did Darwin do to show that he admired the cleric Charles Kingsley?

Darwin quoted Kingsley as "a celebrated cleric", and added the phrase "by the Creator" to the closing sentence,

What did some commentators think about Darwin changing the phrasing in his book?

some commentators have taken this as a concession to religion that Darwin later regretted

What were Darwin's views on the part of God in his theory?

Darwin's view at the time was of God creating life through the laws of nature


Baden Powell praised "Mr Darwin's masterly volume [supporting] the grand principle of the self-evolving powers of nature". In America, Asa Gray argued that evolution is the secondary effect, or modus operandi, of the first cause, design, and published a pamphlet defending the book in terms of theistic evolution, Natural Selection is not inconsistent with Natural Theology. Theistic evolution became a popular compromise, and St. George Jackson Mivart was among those accepting evolution but attacking Darwin's naturalistic mechanism. Eventually it was realised that supernatural intervention could not be a scientific explanation, and naturalistic mechanisms such as neo-Lamarckism were favoured over natural selection as being more compatible with purpose.

What was Baden Powell's opinion of On the Origin of Species?

Baden Powell praised "Mr Darwin's masterly volume [supporting] the grand principle of the self-evolving powers of nature"

What did the pamphlet that Asa Gray published defend?

defending the book in terms of theistic evolution, Natural Selection is not inconsistent with Natural Theology.

What was a way that theologians compromised with the information in Darwin's book?

Theistic evolution became a popular compromise

What was later realized that caused naturalistic mechanisms such as neo-Lamarckism to be embraced?

supernatural intervention could not be a scientific explanation


Even though the book had barely hinted at human evolution, it quickly became central to the debate as mental and moral qualities were seen as spiritual aspects of the immaterial soul, and it was believed that animals did not have spiritual qualities. This conflict could be reconciled by supposing there was some supernatural intervention on the path leading to humans, or viewing evolution as a purposeful and progressive ascent to mankind's position at the head of nature. While many conservative theologians accepted evolution, Charles Hodge argued in his 1874 critique "What is Darwinism?" that "Darwinism", defined narrowly as including rejection of design, was atheism though he accepted that Asa Gray did not reject design. Asa Gray responded that this charge misrepresented Darwin's text. By the early 20th century, four noted authors of The Fundamentals were explicitly open to the possibility that God created through evolution, but fundamentalism inspired the American creation–evolution controversy that began in the 1920s. Some conservative Roman Catholic writers and influential Jesuits opposed evolution in the late 19th and early 20th century, but other Catholic writers, starting with Mivart, pointed out that early Church Fathers had not interpreted Genesis literally in this area. The Vatican stated its official position in a 1950 papal encyclical, which held that evolution was not inconsistent with Catholic teaching.

How did people attempt to rationalize or reconcile the concept of natural selection?

by supposing there was some supernatural intervention on the path leading to humans

Which scientist argued that Darwinism was atheism?

Charles Hodge

What controversy around Darwin's book began in the 1920s?

the American creation–evolution controversy

What official position did the Vatican take on the subject of evolution in 1950?

The Vatican stated its official position in a 1950 papal encyclical, which held that evolution was not inconsistent with Catholic teaching.


Modern evolutionary theory continues to develop. Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection, with its tree-like model of branching common descent, has become the unifying theory of the life sciences. The theory explains the diversity of living organisms and their adaptation to the environment. It makes sense of the geologic record, biogeography, parallels in embryonic development, biological homologies, vestigiality, cladistics, phylogenetics and other fields, with unrivalled explanatory power; it has also become essential to applied sciences such as medicine and agriculture. Despite the scientific consensus, a religion-based political controversy has developed over how evolution is taught in schools, especially in the United States.

What branching common descent theory has become the most unifying one of the life sciences?

Darwin's theory of evolution

What does the theory of evolution explain about living organisms?

The theory explains the diversity of living organisms and their adaptation to the environment.

In what fields has Darwin's theory of evolution become particularly essential?

medicine and agriculture

What kind of controversy has begun within school systems about Darwin's theory?

a religion-based political controversy


Interest in Darwin's writings continues, and scholars have generated an extensive literature, the Darwin Industry, about his life and work. The text of Origin itself has been subject to much analysis including a variorum, detailing the changes made in every edition, first published in 1959, and a concordance, an exhaustive external index published in 1981. Worldwide commemorations of the 150th anniversary of the publication of On the Origin of Species and the bicentenary of Darwin's birth were scheduled for 2009. They celebrated the ideas which "over the last 150 years have revolutionised our understanding of nature and our place within it".

What kinds of things have been done by scholars interested in Darwin's work?

scholars have generated an extensive literature, the Darwin Industry, about his life and work.

What has been created in 1959 and filled with information about changes in every edition of On the Origin of Species?

a variorum

What was done on the 150th anniversary of the publication of On the Origin of Species?

Worldwide commemorations

What were the celebrants honoring with their commemorations?

They celebrated the ideas which "over the last 150 years have revolutionised our understanding of nature and our place within it".


The dissolution of the Soviet Union was formally enacted on December 26, 1991, as a result of the declaration no. 142-Н of the Soviet of the Republics of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union. The declaration acknowledged the independence of the former Soviet republics and created the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), although five of the signatories ratified it much later or not at all. On the previous day, Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev, the eighth and last leader of the Soviet Union, resigned, declared his office extinct, and handed over its powers – including control of the Soviet nuclear missile launching codes – to Russian President Boris Yeltsin. That evening at 7:32 p.m., the Soviet flag was lowered from the Kremlin for the last time and replaced with the pre-revolutionary Russian flag.

On what date did the Soviet Union dissolve?

December 26, 1991

What entity was created in place of the Soviet Union?

Commonwealth of Independent States

Who was president of the Soviet Union when it came to an end?

Mikhail Gorbachev,

Who became president of Russia after Gorbachev left office?

Boris Yeltsin

Which flag replaced the Soviet flag at the Kremlin?

pre-revolutionary Russian flag.


Mikhail Gorbachev was elected General Secretary by the Politburo on March 11, 1985, three hours after predecessor Konstantin Chernenko's death at age 73. Gorbachev, aged 54, was the youngest member of the Politburo. His initial goal as general secretary was to revive the Soviet economy, and he realized that doing so would require reforming underlying political and social structures. The reforms began with personnel changes of senior Brezhnev-era officials who would impede political and economic change. On April 23, 1985, Gorbachev brought two protégés, Yegor Ligachev and Nikolai Ryzhkov, into the Politburo as full members. He kept the "power" ministries happy by promoting KGB Head Viktor Chebrikov from candidate to full member and appointing Minister of Defence Marshal Sergei Sokolov as a Politburo candidate.

Who was General Secretary prior to Mikhail Gorbachev?

Konstantin Chernenko

What caused Chernenko to leave office?

death

How old was Gorbachev when he was elected as the General Secretary?

What entity was responsible for Gorbachev's being elected?

Politburo

To which two people did Gorbachev grant membership into the Politburo for his own reasons?

Yegor Ligachev and Nikolai Ryzhkov,


This liberalization, however, fostered nationalist movements and ethnic disputes within the Soviet Union. It also led indirectly to the revolutions of 1989, in which Soviet-imposed communist regimes of the Warsaw Pact were peacefully toppled (Romania excepted), which in turn increased pressure on Gorbachev to introduce greater democracy and autonomy for the Soviet Union's constituent republics. Under Gorbachev's leadership, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1989 introduced limited competitive elections to a new central legislature, the Congress of People's Deputies (although the ban on other political parties was not lifted until 1990).

What were some of the downsides of the more liberal Soviet Union?

nationalist movements and ethnic disputes

In which country did Warsaw Pact regime remain in place?

Romania

What party did Gorbachev belong to?

Communist Party

What was the name of the legislative body that was brought into existance in 1989?

Congress of People's Deputies

When were opposition parties first allowed in the Soviet Union?


In May 1985, Gorbachev delivered a speech in Leningrad advocating reforms and an anti-alcohol campaign to tackle widespread alcoholism. Prices on vodka, wine, and beer were raised in order to make these drinks more expensive and a disincentive to consumers, and the introduction of rationing. Unlike most forms of rationing intended to conserve scarce goods, this was done to restrict sales with the overt goal of curtailing drunkenness. Gorbachev's plan also included billboards promoting sobriety, increased penalties for public drunkenness, and to censor drinking scenes from old movies. Although this program was not a direct copycat of Tsar Nicholas II's outright prohibition during World War I, Gorbachev faced the same adverse economic reaction as did the last Tsar. The disincentivization of alcohol consumption was a serious blow to the state budget according to Alexander Yakovlev, who noted annual collections of alcohol taxes decreased by 100 billion rubles. Alcohol production migrated to the black market, or through moonshining as some made "bathtub vodka" with homegrown potatoes. Poorer, less educated Russians resorted to drinking unhealthy substitutes such as nail polish, rubbing alcohol or men's cologne, which only served to be an additional burden on Russia's healthcare sector due to the subsequent poisoning cases. The purpose of these reforms, however, was to prop up the existing centrally planned economy, unlike later reforms, which tended toward market socialism.

When was Gorbachev's speech addressing alcohol abuse?

May 1985

Other than increasing pricing what was another measure that was introduced to decrease alcohol consumption?

rationing

What was censored?

drinking scenes from old movies

Whose anti-alcohol program did Gorbachev's remind people of?

Tsar Nicholas II

When did Tsar Nicholas II ban alcohol?

during World War I,


On July 1, 1985, Gorbachev promoted Eduard Shevardnadze, First Secretary of the Georgian Communist Party, to full member of the Politburo, and the following day appointed him minister of foreign affairs, replacing longtime Foreign Minister Andrei Gromyko. The latter, disparaged as "Mr Nyet" in the West, had served for 28 years as Minister of Foreign Affairs. Gromyko was relegated to the largely ceremonial position of Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet (officially Soviet Head of State), as he was considered an "old thinker." Also on July 1, Gorbachev took the opportunity to dispose of his main rival by removing Grigory Romanov from the Politburo, and brought Boris Yeltsin and Lev Zaikov into the CPSU Central Committee Secretariat.

When did Eduard Shevardnadze gain full membership in the Politburo?

July 1, 1985

Who was responsible for Shevardnadze's membership?

Gorbachev

Who was minister of foreign affairs prior to Shevardnadze?

Andrei Gromyko

What was Gromyko's western nickname?

"Mr Nyet"

Which person did Gorbachev kick out of the Politburo on the first of July?

Grigory Romanov


In the fall of 1985, Gorbachev continued to bring younger and more energetic men into government. On September 27, Nikolai Ryzhkov replaced 79-year-old Nikolai Tikhonov as Chairman of the Council of Ministers, effectively the Soviet prime minister, and on October 14, Nikolai Talyzin replaced Nikolai Baibakov as chairman of the State Planning Committee (GOSPLAN). At the next Central Committee meeting on October 15, Tikhonov retired from the Politburo and Talyzin became a candidate. Finally, on December 23, 1985, Gorbachev appointed Yeltsin First Secretary of the Moscow Communist Party replacing Viktor Grishin.

Who became Chairman of the Council of Ministers in 1985?

Nikolai Ryzhkov

Who was Chairman of the Council of Ministers prior to Ryzhkov?

Nikolai Tikhonov

How old was Tikhonov when he stopped being Chairman?

What is an analogous office to Chairman of the Council of Ministers?

chairman of the State Planning Committee

Who was the new chairman of the State Planning Committee in 1985?

Nikolai Talyzin


The CTAG (Latvian: Cilvēktiesību aizstāvības grupa, Human Rights Defense Group) Helsinki-86 was founded in July 1986 in the Latvian port town of Liepāja by three workers: Linards Grantiņš, Raimonds Bitenieks, and Mārtiņš Bariss. Its name refers to the human-rights statements of the Helsinki Accords. Helsinki-86 was the first openly anti-Communist organization in the U.S.S.R., and the first openly organized opposition to the Soviet regime, setting an example for other ethnic minorities' pro-independence movements.[citation needed]

Who created the CTAG?

Linards Grantiņš, Raimonds Bitenieks, and Mārtiņš Bariss.

What group was the first to oppose the Soviet government publicly?

What party was Helsinki-86 in disagreement with?

Communist


The "Jeltoqsan" (Kazakh for "December") of 1986 were riots in Alma-Ata, Kazakhstan, sparked by Gorbachev's dismissal of Dinmukhamed Konayev, the First Secretary of the Communist Party of Kazakhstan and an ethnic Kazakh, who was replaced with Gennady Kolbin, an outsider from the Russian SFSR. Demonstrations started in the morning of December 17, 1986, with 200 to 300 students in front of the Central Committee building on Brezhnev Square protesting Konayev's dismissal and replacement by a Russian. Protesters swelled to 1,000 to 5,000 as other students joined the crowd. The CPK Central Committee ordered troops from the Ministry of Internal Affairs, druzhiniki (volunteers), cadets, policemen, and the KGB to cordon the square and videotape the participants. The situation escalated around 5 p.m., as troops were ordered to disperse the protesters. Clashes between the security forces and the demonstrators continued throughout the night in Almaty.

What is the English translation of the word Jeltoqsan?

December

Who was fired by Gorbachev causing riots?

Dinmukhamed Konayev

What position did Konayev hold in Kazakhstan prior to his removal?

First Secretary of the Communist Party

Who took the place of Konayev?

Gennady Kolbin

When were the first demonstrations in Kazakhstan to protest the removal and replacement of Konayev?

December 17, 1986


On the next day, December 18, protests turned into civil unrest as clashes between troops, volunteers, militia units, and Kazakh students turned into a wide-scale confrontation. The clashes could only be controlled on the third day. The Almaty events were followed by smaller protests and demonstrations in Shymkent, Pavlodar, Karaganda, and Taldykorgan. Reports from Kazakh SSR authorities estimated that the riots drew 3,000 people. Other estimates are of at least 30,000 to 40,000 protestors with 5,000 arrested and jailed, and an unknown number of casualties. Jeltoqsan leaders say over 60,000 Kazakhs participated in the protests. According to the Kazakh SSR government, there were two deaths during the riots, including a volunteer police worker and a student. Both of them had died due to blows to the head. About 100 others were detained and several others were sentenced to terms in labor camps. Sources cited by the Library of Congress claimed that at least 200 people died or were summarily executed soon thereafter; some accounts estimate casualties at more than 1,000. The writer Mukhtar Shakhanov claimed that a KGB officer testified that 168 protesters were killed, but that figure remains unconfirmed.

Who was demonstrating?

Kazakh students

How many people were estimated by authorities to have attended the riots?

What were the attendance estimates from non governmental groups?

30,000 to 40,000

How did the Kazakh SSR government say the two protesters were killed?

blows to the head

Who wrote about the KGB officer's testimony?

Mukhtar Shakhanov


Gorbachev also radically expanded the scope of Glasnost, stating that no subject was off-limits for open discussion in the media. Even so, the cautious Soviet intelligentsia took almost a year to begin pushing the boundaries to see if he meant what he said. For the first time, the Communist Party leader had appealed over the heads of Central Committee members for the people's support in exchange for expansion of liberties. The tactic proved successful: Within two years political reform could no longer be sidetracked by Party "conservatives." An unintended consequence was that having saved reform, Gorbachev's move ultimately killed the very system it was designed to save.

Whose support did Gorbachev seek in order to increase liberties?

the people's

What party was Gorbachev in charge of?

Communist

What group wanted to stop reforms?

"conservatives."


On February 7, 1987, dozens of political prisoners were freed in the first group release since Khrushchev's "thaw" in the mid-1950s. On May 6, 1987, Pamyat, a Russian nationalist group, held an unsanctioned demonstration in Moscow. The authorities did not break up the demonstration and even kept traffic out of the demonstrators' way while they marched to an impromptu meeting with Boris Yeltsin, head of the Moscow Communist Party and at the time one of Gorbachev's closest allies. On July 25, 1987, 300 Crimean Tatars staged a noisy demonstration near the Kremlin Wall for several hours, calling for the right to return to their homeland, from which they were deported in 1944; police and soldiers merely looked on.

When were the prisoners set free?

February 7, 1987,

What sort of prisoners were released?

political

Who demonstrated close to the Kremlin in July of 1978?

Crimean Tatars

Prior to 1987 when was the last large release of prisoners?

Who released the prisoners in the 1950s?

Khrushchev's


On September 10, 1987, after a lecture from hardliner Yegor Ligachev at the Politburo for allowing these two unsanctioned demonstrations in Moscow, Boris Yeltsin wrote a letter of resignation to Gorbachev, who had been holidaying on the Black Sea. Gorbachev was stunned – no one had ever voluntarily resigned from the Politburo. At the October 27, 1987, plenary meeting of the Central Committee, Yeltsin, frustrated that Gorbachev had not addressed any of the issues outlined in his resignation letter, criticized the slow pace of reform, servility to the general secretary, and opposition from Ligachev that had led to his (Yeltsin's) resignation. No one had ever addressed the Party leader so brazenly in front of the Central Committee since Leon Trotsky in the 1920s. In his reply, Gorbachev accused Yeltsin of "political immaturity" and "absolute irresponsibility." No one backed Yeltsin.

Who disagreed vocally about the demonstrations being permitted?

Yegor Ligachev

Who resigned in September of 1987?

Boris Yeltsin

What was Gorbachev's reaction to Yeltsin's resignation?

stunned

What did Yeltsin dislike about the reforms?

slow pace

Who took Yeltsin's side?

No one


On June 14, 1987, about 5,000 people gathered again at Freedom Monument in Riga, and laid flowers to commemorate the anniversary of Stalin's mass deportation of Latvians in 1941. This was the first large demonstration in the Baltic republics to commemorate the anniversary of an event contrary to official Soviet history. The authorities did not crack down on demonstrators, which encouraged more and larger demonstrations throughout the Baltic States. The next major anniversary after the August 23 Molotov Pact demonstration was on November 18, the date of Latvia’s independence in 1918. On November 18, 1987, hundreds of police and civilian militiamen cordoned off the central square to prevent any demonstration at Freedom Monument, but thousands lined the streets of Riga in silent protest regardless.

Where did the demonstrators meet in June of 1987?

Freedom Monument

Where is Freedom Monument?

Riga

What did the protesters do?

laid flowers

Who were the protesters remembering?

Latvians

Where did further protests take place?

Baltic States


In spring 1987, a protest movement arose against new phosphate mines in Estonia. Signatures were collected in Tartu, and students assembled in the university's main hall to express lack of confidence in the government. At a demonstration on May 1, 1987, young people showed up with banners and slogans despite an official ban. On August 15, 1987, former political prisoners formed the MRP-AEG group (Estonians for the Public Disclosure of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact), which was headed by Tiit Madisson. In September 1987, the Edasi newspaper published a proposal by Edgar Savisaar, Siim Kallas, Tiit Made, and Mikk Titma calling for Estonia's transition to autonomy. Initially geared toward economic independence, then toward a certain amount of political autonomy, the project, Isemajandav Eesti ("A Self-Managing Estonia") became known according to its Estonian acronym, IME, which means "miracle". On October 21, a demonstration dedicated to those who gave their lives in the 1918–1920 Estonian War of Independence took place in Võru, which culminated in a conflict with the militia. For the first time in years, the blue, black, and white national tricolor was publicly displayed.

What was being protested in Estonia?

new phosphate mines

When did the phosphate mine protests begin?

spring 1987

What group was started by ex-political prisoners?

MRP-AEG group

Who was in charge of the MRP-AEG group?

Tiit Madisson

What was requested for Estonia in the proposal printed by the Edasi newspaper in 1987?

autonomy


On October 17, 1987, about 3,000 Armenians demonstrated in Yerevan complaining about the condition of Lake Sevan, the Nairit chemicals plant, and the Metsamor Nuclear Power Plant, and air pollution in Yerevan. Police tried to prevent the protest but took no action to stop it once the march was underway. The demonstration was led by Armenian writers such as Silva Kaputikian, Zori Balayan, and Maro Margarian and leaders from the National Survival organization. The march originated at the Opera Plaza after speakers, mainly intellectuals, addressed the crowd.

When was the Yerevan demonstration?

October 17, 1987

How many people demonstrated?

about 3,000

What was the demonstrators' nationality?

Armenians

The protesters were unhappy with the pollution in what body of water?

Lake Sevan

Where did the protest march start?

Opera Plaza


On July 1, 1988, the fourth and last day of a bruising 19th Party Conference, Gorbachev won the backing of the tired delegates for his last-minute proposal to create a new supreme legislative body called the Congress of People's Deputies. Frustrated by the old guard's resistance, Gorbachev embarked on a set of constitutional changes to try to separate party and state, and thereby isolate his conservative Party opponents. Detailed proposals for the new Congress of People's Deputies were published on October 2, 1988, and to enable the creation of the new legislature the Supreme Soviet, during its November 29–December 1, 1988, session, implemented amendments to the 1977 Soviet Constitution, enacted a law on electoral reform, and set the date of the election for March 26, 1989.

What ws the final day of the 19th Party Conference?

July 1, 1988

What did Gorbachev hope to create?

new supreme legislative body

What was Gorbachev trying to separate?

party and state

What was the proposed legislative body called?

Congress of People's Deputies

What was the ideology of Gorbachev's opponents?

conservative


On October 2, the Popular Front formally launched its political platform at a two-day congress. Väljas attended, gambling that the front could help Estonia become a model of economic and political revival, while moderating separatist and other radical tendencies. On November 16, 1988, the Supreme Soviet of the Estonian SSR adopted a declaration of national sovereignty under which Estonian laws would take precedence over those of the Soviet Union. Estonia's parliament also laid claim to the republic's natural resources including land, inland waters, forests, mineral deposits, and to the means of industrial production, agriculture, construction, state banks, transportation, and municipal services within the territory of Estonia's borders.

Whose laws would take precedence according to the declaration of national sovereignty?

Estonian

Who claimed Estonia's national resources?

Estonia's parliament

What was the name of the group that made its platform known on October 2?

the Popular Front


In February 20, 1988, after a week of growing demonstrations in Stepanakert, capital of the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast (the Armenian majority area within Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic), the Regional Soviet voted to secede and join with the Soviet Socialist Republic of Armenia. This local vote in a small, remote part of the Soviet Union made headlines around the world; it was an unprecedented defiance of republic and national authorities. On February 22, 1988, in what became known as the "Askeran clash", two Azerbaijanis were killed by Karabakh police. These deaths, announced on state radio, led to the Sumgait Pogrom. Between February 26 and March 1, the city of Sumgait (Azerbaijan) saw violent anti-Armenian rioting during which 32 people were killed. The authorities totally lost control and occupied the city with paratroopers and tanks; nearly all of the 14,000 Armenian residents of Sumgait fled.

How many Azerbaijanis died in the Askeran clash?

two

When was the Askeran clash?

February 22, 1988

Who killed the two Azerbaijanis?

Karabakh police.

What was triggered by the radio broadcast of the deaths?

Sumgait Pogrom

How many were killed in the ensuing riots?


Gorbachev refused to make any changes to the status of Nagorno Karabakh, which remained part of Azerbaijan. He instead sacked the Communist Party Leaders in both Republics – on May 21, 1988, Kamran Baghirov was replaced by Abdulrahman Vezirov as First Secretary of the Azerbaijan Communist Party. From July 23 to September 1988, a group of Azerbaijani intellectuals began working for a new organization called the Popular Front of Azerbaijan, loosely based on the Estonian Popular Front. On September 17, when gun battles broke out between the Armenians and Azerbaijanis near Stepanakert, two soldiers were killed and more than two dozen injured. This led to almost tit-for-tat ethnic polarization in Nagorno-Karabakh's two main towns: The Azerbaijani minority was expelled from Stepanakert, and the Armenian minority was expelled from Shusha. On November 17, 1988, in response to the exodus of tens of thousands of Azerbaijanis from Armenia, a series of mass demonstrations began in Baku's Lenin Square, lasting 18 days and attracting half a million demonstrators. On December 5, 1988, the Soviet militia finally moved in, cleared the square by force, and imposed a curfew that lasted ten months.

Who did Gorbachev make First Secretary of the Azerbaijan Communist Party in 1988?

Abdulrahman Vezirov

Who was First Secretary prior to Vezirov?

Kamran Baghirov

How many soldiers died on September 17?

two

People of what ethnicity were thrown out of Shusha?

Armenian

How long did the Lenin Square protest last?

18 days


The rebellion of fellow Armenians in Nagorno-Karabakh had an immediate effect in Armenia itself. Daily demonstrations, which began in the Armenian capital Yerevan on February 18, initially attracted few people, but each day the Nagorno-Karabakh issue became increasingly prominent and numbers swelled. On February 20, a 30,000-strong crowd demonstrated in Theater Square, by February 22, there were 100,000, the next day 300,000, and a transport strike was declared, by February 25, there were close to 1 million demonstrators – about a quarter of Armenia's population. This was the first of the large, peaceful public demonstrations that would become a feature of communism's overthrow in Prague, Berlin, and, ultimately, Moscow. Leading Armenian intellectuals and nationalists, including future first President of independent Armenia Levon Ter-Petrossian, formed the eleven-member Karabakh Committee to lead and organize the new movement.

Where were the first demonstrations in Armenia?

Yerevan

What is the capitol of Armenia?

Yerevan

How many people protested on February 23?

What sort of strike was called?

transport

What percentage of Armenia's total population protested on February 25?

about a quarter


Gorbachev again refused to make any changes to the status of Nagorno Karabakh, which remained part of Azerbaijan. Instead he sacked both Republics' Communist Party Leaders: On May 21, 1988, Karen Demirchian was replaced by Suren Harutyunyan as First Secretary of the Communist Party of Armenia. However, Harutyunyan quickly decided to run before the nationalist wind and on May 28, allowed Armenians to unfurl the red-blue-gold First Armenian Republic flag for the first time in almost 70 years. On June 15, 1988, the Armenian Supreme Soviet adopted a resolution formally approving the idea of Nagorno Karabakh joining Armenia. Armenia, formerly one of the most loyal Republics, had suddenly turned into the leading rebel republic. On July 5, 1988, when a contingent of troops was sent in to remove demonstrators by force from Yerevan's Zvartnots International Airport, shots were fired and one student protester was killed. In September, further large demonstrations in Yerevan led to the deployment of armored vehicles. In the autumn of 1988 almost all the 200,000 Azerbaijani minority in Armenia was expelled by Armenian Nationalists, with over 100 killed in the process – this, after the Sumgait pogrom earlier that year carried out by Azerbaijanis against ethnic Armenians and subsequent expulsion of all Armenians from Azerbaijan. On November 25, 1988, a military commandant took control of Yerevan as the Soviet government moved to prevent further ethnic violence.

How many protesters died in the airport violence?

one

Who banned the Azerbaijani people from Armenia?

Nationalists

Who had been previously removed from Azerbaijan?

Armenians

Who took charge of Yerevan in November of 1988?

a military commandant


Beginning in February 1988, the Democratic Movement of Moldova (formerly Moldavia) organized public meetings, demonstrations, and song festivals, which gradually grew in size and intensity. In the streets, the center of public manifestations was the Stephen the Great Monument in Chişinău, and the adjacent park harboring Aleea Clasicilor (The "Alee of the Classics [of the Literature]"). On January 15, 1988, in a tribute to Mihai Eminescu at his bust on the Aleea Clasicilor, Anatol Şalaru submitted a proposal to continue the meetings. In the public discourse, the movement called for national awakening, freedom of speech, revival of Moldavian traditions, and for attainment of official status for the Romanian language and return to the Latin alphabet. The transition from "movement" (an informal association) to "front" (a formal association) was seen as a natural "upgrade" once a movement gained momentum with the public, and the Soviet authorities no longer dared to crack down on it.

When did the Democratic Movement of Moldova start operating?

February 1988

Which monument was a popular meeting place?

Stephen the Great Monument

Where was the Stephen the Great Monument located?

Chişinău

What did the movement seek to make the official language of Moldova?

Romanian

What was Moldova's previous name?

Moldavia


On April 26, 1988, about 500 people participated in a march organized by the Ukrainian Cultural Club on Kiev's Khreschatyk Street to mark the second anniversary of the Chernobyl nuclear disaster, carrying placards with slogans like "Openness and Democracy to the End." Between May and June 1988, Ukrainian Catholics in western Ukraine celebrated the Millennium of Christianity in Kievan Rus' in secret by holding services in the forests of Buniv, Kalush, Hoshiv, and Zarvanytsia. On June 5, 1988, as the official celebrations of the Millennium were held in Moscow, the Ukrainian Cultural Club hosted its own observances in Kiev at the monument to St. Volodymyr the Great, the grand prince of Kievan Rus'.

What group was responsible for the April 25, 1988 protest?

Ukrainian Cultural Club

Where did the march happen?

Kiev's Khreschatyk Street

What did the marchers wish to commemorate?

Chernobyl nuclear disaster,

Which group held secret Milleneum of Christianity celebrations?

Ukrainian Catholics

In what city did the Ukrainian Cultural Club have its Millennium celebration?

Kiev