Differences in pain perception and tolerance thresholds are associated with, among other factors, ethnicity, genetics, and sex. People of Mediterranean origin report as painful some radiant heat intensities that northern Europeans describe as nonpainful. And Italian women tolerate less intense electric shock than Jewish or Native American women. Some individuals in all cultures have significantly higher than normal pain perception and tolerance thresholds. For instance, patients who experience painless heart attacks have higher pain thresholds for electric shock, muscle cramp and heat.

Along with with ethnicity and genetics, what is the other factor associated with differences in pain perception?

sex

What might some people of Mediterranean origin report as painful that people of this origin wouldn't?

Europeans

What nationality can tolerate the least amount of electric shock?

Italian

What do some individuals in all cultures have significantly higher than normal?

pain perception

Patients who have painless heart attacks have higher what?

pain thresholds

What are pain thresholds and tolerance perception associated with?

I'm not sure.

Who do Native American women tolerate less intense electric shock than?

I'm not sure.

Who do Italian woman report more painful radiant heat intensities than?

I'm not sure.


A person's self-report is the most reliable measure of pain, with health care professionals tending to underestimate severity. A definition of pain widely employed in nursing, emphasizing its subjective nature and the importance of believing patient reports, was introduced by Margo McCaffery in 1968: "Pain is whatever the experiencing person says it is, existing whenever he says it does". To assess intensity, the patient may be asked to locate their pain on a scale of 0 to 10, with 0 being no pain at all, and 10 the worst pain they have ever felt. Quality can be established by having the patient complete the McGill Pain Questionnaire indicating which words best describe their pain.

What is the most reliable measure of pain?

person's self-report

What do health-care professionals tend to underestimate?

severity

What did Margo McCaffery introduce in 1968?

definition of pain

What scale might a patient be asked to locate their pain on?

0 to 10

What are patients asked to use the McGill Pain Questionnaire to indicate?

which words best describe their pain

What is a person's health care report?

I'm not sure.

Who defined pain in 1986?

I'm not sure.

What is the definition Margo McCaffery gave for pain in 1986?

I'm not sure.

What is the number range on the McCaffery Pain scale?

I'm not sure.


The Multidimensional Pain Inventory (MPI) is a questionnaire designed to assess the psychosocial state of a person with chronic pain. Analysis of MPI results by Turk and Rudy (1988) found three classes of chronic pain patient: "(a) dysfunctional, people who perceived the severity of their pain to be high, reported that pain interfered with much of their lives, reported a higher degree of psychological distress caused by pain, and reported low levels of activity; (b) interpersonally distressed, people with a common perception that significant others were not very supportive of their pain problems; and (c) adaptive copers, patients who reported high levels of social support, relatively low levels of pain and perceived interference, and relatively high levels of activity." Combining the MPI characterization of the person with their IASP five-category pain profile is recommended for deriving the most useful case description.

What is MPI an abbreviation for?

Multidimensional Pain Inventory

How many classes of chronic pain patients are there?

three

What do dysfunctional people perceive the severity of their pain to be?

high

What do interpersonally distressed people feel their significant others aren't supportive of?

their pain problems

What should MPI characterization of a person be combined with for deriving the most useful case descriptions?

their IASP five-category pain profile

What is the MIP?

I'm not sure.

What does MIP stand for?

I'm not sure.

How many classes of chronic pain patient did Turk and Rudy find in 1898?

I'm not sure.

What is the definition of a dysfunctional pain patient according to the 1898 results of Turk and Rudy?

I'm not sure.

What is the definition of adaptive copers according to the 1898 results by Turk and Rudy?

I'm not sure.


When a person is non-verbal and cannot self-report pain, observation becomes critical, and specific behaviors can be monitored as pain indicators. Behaviors such as facial grimacing and guarding indicate pain, as well as an increase or decrease in vocalizations, changes in routine behavior patterns and mental status changes. Patients experiencing pain may exhibit withdrawn social behavior and possibly experience a decreased appetite and decreased nutritional intake. A change in condition that deviates from baseline such as moaning with movement or when manipulating a body part, and limited range of motion are also potential pain indicators. In patients who possess language but are incapable of expressing themselves effectively, such as those with dementia, an increase in confusion or display of aggressive behaviors or agitation may signal that discomfort exists, and further assessment is necessary.

What become critical when a person is non-verbal?

observation

What can be monitored as pain indicators?

specific behaviors

Facial grimacing and guarding indicate what?

pain

What type of social behavior might patients experiencing pain exhibit?

withdrawn

How can patients with dementia indicate discomfort exists?

signal

When does grimacing become critical?

I'm not sure.

In what patients does a decrease in confusion signal pain?

I'm not sure.

What is an increased range of motion a sign of?

I'm not sure.

What can a change in baseline that deviates from the condition be a sign of?

I'm not sure.


The experience of pain has many cultural dimensions. For instance, the way in which one experiences and responds to pain is related to sociocultural characteristics, such as gender, ethnicity, and age. An aging adult may not respond to pain in the way that a younger person would. Their ability to recognize pain may be blunted by illness or the use of multiple prescription drugs. Depression may also keep the older adult from reporting they are in pain. The older adult may also quit doing activities they love because it hurts too much. Decline in self-care activities (dressing, grooming, walking, etc.) may also be indicators that the older adult is experiencing pain. The older adult may refrain from reporting pain because they are afraid they will have to have surgery or will be put on a drug they might become addicted to. They may not want others to see them as weak, or may feel there is something impolite or shameful in complaining about pain, or they may feel the pain is deserved punishment for past transgressions.

What does the experience of pain have throughout cultures?

dimensions

What might an aging adult not respond to the same way as a younger person would?

pain

Aging adult's ability to recognize pain may be blunted by what?

illness

Why may older adults quit doing activities the love?

because it hurts too much

An older adult may also not report pain because they're scared they may be put on what?

a drug

How many dimensions does the cultural experience of pain have?

I'm not sure.

What are examples of sociocharacteristics?

I'm not sure.

What condition may cause an older adult to report they are in pain?

I'm not sure.

What are reasons a younger adult might refrain from reporting pain?

I'm not sure.


Cultural barriers can also keep a person from telling someone they are in pain. Religious beliefs may prevent the individual from seeking help. They may feel certain pain treatment is against their religion. They may not report pain because they feel it is a sign that death is near. Many people fear the stigma of addiction and avoid pain treatment so as not to be prescribed potentially addicting drugs. Many Asians do not want to lose respect in society by admitting they are in pain and need help, believing the pain should be borne in silence, while other cultures feel they should report pain right away and get immediate relief. Gender can also be a factor in reporting pain. Sexual differences can be the result of social and cultural expectations, with women expected to be emotional and show pain and men stoic, keeping pain to themselves.

What kind of barriers can prevent a person from telling someone they're in pain?

Cultural

How can religious beliefs contribute to a person remaining in pain?

prevent the individual from seeking help

Some people may not report pain because they think it's a sign what is near?

death

What do many people fear pain treatment will lead to?

potentially addicting drugs

What is an issue of reporting pain specific to Asians?

do not want to lose respect in society by admitting they are in pain

What can cultural beliefs keep a person from doing?

I'm not sure.

What can religious barriers prevent?

I'm not sure.

What race feels they should report pain right away to not lose respect in society?

I'm not sure.

What do stoic women do about pain?

I'm not sure.

What are men expected to show while being emotional?

I'm not sure.


The International Association for the Study of Pain advocates that the relief of pain should be recognized as a human right, that chronic pain should be considered a disease in its own right, and that pain medicine should have the full status of a specialty. It is a specialty only in China and Australia at this time. Elsewhere, pain medicine is a subspecialty under disciplines such as anesthesiology, physiatry, neurology, palliative medicine and psychiatry. In 2011, Human Rights Watch alerted that tens of millions of people worldwide are still denied access to inexpensive medications for severe pain.

What does the IASP advocate that the relief of pain should be recognized as?

a human right

What should chronic pain be considered in its own right?

a disease

What two countries is treating pain a specialty in?

China and Australia

What is pain medicine often under disciplines like physiatry, neurology, etc?

subspecialty

As of 2011, how many people worldwide are still denied access to inexpensive medications for severe pain?

tens of millions

What does the International Association for Pain Study advocate for?

I'm not sure.

What does the International Association for Pain Study believe about chronic pain?

I'm not sure.

What does the International Association for Pain Study believe about pain medicine?

I'm not sure.

What did Human Rights Watch do in 2101?

I'm not sure.


 Sugar taken orally reduces the total crying time but not the duration of the first cry in newborns undergoing a painful procedure (a single lancing of the heel). It does not moderate the effect of pain on heart rate and a recent single study found that sugar did not significantly affect pain-related electrical activity in the brains of newborns one second after the heel lance procedure. Sweet oral liquid moderately reduces the incidence and duration of crying caused by immunization injection in children between one and twelve months of age.

What, when taken orally, can reduce total crying time of newsborns undergoing a painful procedure?

Sugar

What doesn't sugar change the effect of pain on?

heart rate

Sugar also doesn't measurably change what type of electrical activity in the brains of newborns a second after the heel lance procedure?

pain-related

A sweet oral liquid does moderately reduce the incidence and duration of what?

crying

What reduces the duration of the first cry in newborns undergoing painful procedures?

I'm not sure.

What reduces the duration of crying in children between one and twelve years of age?

I'm not sure.

What does sugar moderate the effect of pain on?

I'm not sure.


A number of meta-analyses have found clinical hypnosis to be effective in controlling pain associated with diagnostic and surgical procedures in both adults and children, as well as pain associated with cancer and childbirth. A 2007 review of 13 studies found evidence for the efficacy of hypnosis in the reduction of chronic pain in some conditions, though the number of patients enrolled in the studies was low, bringing up issues of power to detect group differences, and most lacked credible controls for placebo and/or expectation. The authors concluded that "although the findings provide support for the general applicability of hypnosis in the treatment of chronic pain, considerably more research will be needed to fully determine the effects of hypnosis for different chronic-pain conditions."

Clinical hypnosis may be effective in doing what with pain associated with surgical procedures in adults and children?

controlling

How many studies in 2007 found evidence for the efficacy of hypnosis in the reduction of chronic pain?

What did the studies regarding the effectiveness of hypnosis lack?

credible controls for placebo and/or expectation

What is considerable more research needed to determine for different chronic pain conditions?

effects of hypnosis

What did a 2013 review of 7 studies find?

I'm not sure.

What did meta-analyses find to be effective in controlling surgical procedures?

I'm not sure.

What was found about the number of participants in 7 studies?

I'm not sure.


Pain is the most common reason for people to use complementary and alternative medicine. An analysis of the 13 highest quality studies of pain treatment with acupuncture, published in January 2009, concluded there is little difference in the effect of real, sham and no acupuncture. However other reviews have found benefit. Additionally, there is tentative evidence for a few herbal medicine. There is interest in the relationship between vitamin D and pain, but the evidence so far from controlled trials for such a relationship, other than in osteomalacia, is unconvincing.

What is the most common reason people seek out alternative medicine?

Pain

What did an analysis of the 13 studies of pain treatment conclude about the effect of real treament versus sham treatments?

little difference in the effect

Some contradictory reviews of 13 high quality studies found actual what?

benefit

What medicine is there tentative evidence for the efficacy of?

herbal

Other than in osteomalacia, what is there no evidence of a relationship between pain and?

vitamin D

What did a January 2013 study find?

I'm not sure.

What was the treatment method of the 9 studies published in 2013?

I'm not sure.

What is the other interest in the relationship with vitamins?

I'm not sure.


Physical pain is an important political topic in relation to various issues, including pain management policy, drug control, animal rights or animal welfare, torture, and pain compliance. In various contexts, the deliberate infliction of pain in the form of corporal punishment is used as retribution for an offence, or for the purpose of disciplining or reforming a wrongdoer, or to deter attitudes or behaviour deemed unacceptable. In some cultures, extreme practices such as mortification of the flesh or painful rites of passage are highly regarded.

What type of topic is physical pain important in relation to many issues?

political

Corporal punishment is a form of what type of pain?

deliberate infliction

What is corporal punishment used as retribution for?

an offence

How does pain inform attitudes deemed unacceptable?

deter

What kind of practices do some cultures highly regard?

extreme

What is animal rights in relation to various issues?

I'm not sure.

What important political issues relate to infliction of pain?

I'm not sure.

What reasons are given for pain?

I'm not sure.

What cultural practices are highly regarded as torture?

I'm not sure.


The most reliable method for assessing pain in most humans is by asking a question: a person may report pain that cannot be detected by any known physiological measure. However, like infants (Latin infans meaning "unable to speak"), animals cannot answer questions about whether they feel pain; thus the defining criterion for pain in humans cannot be applied to them. Philosophers and scientists have responded to this difficulty in a variety of ways. René Descartes for example argued that animals lack consciousness and therefore do not experience pain and suffering in the way that humans do. Bernard Rollin of Colorado State University, the principal author of two U.S. federal laws regulating pain relief for animals, writes that researchers remained unsure into the 1980s as to whether animals experience pain, and that veterinarians trained in the U.S. before 1989 were simply taught to ignore animal pain. In his interactions with scientists and other veterinarians, he was regularly asked to "prove" that animals are conscious, and to provide "scientifically acceptable" grounds for claiming that they feel pain. Carbone writes that the view that animals feel pain differently is now a minority view. Academic reviews of the topic are more equivocal, noting that although the argument that animals have at least simple conscious thoughts and feelings has strong support, some critics continue to question how reliably animal mental states can be determined. The ability of invertebrate species of animals, such as insects, to feel pain and suffering is also unclear.

What is the most reliable method of learning about pain in a human?

asking a question

What can't animals answer?

whether they feel pain

What did Descartes argue animals lack?

consciousness

What university is Bernard Rollin associated with?

Colorado State University

Can invertebrate species of animals like insects feel pain and suffering?

unclear

What is the word "infants" mean in Latin?

I'm not sure.

What did Rene Rollin argue about animals and pain?

I'm not sure.

What was Bernard Descartes' opinion on animals and pain?

I'm not sure.

What did Rene Carbone write about animals and pain?

I'm not sure.

How clear is the ability of vertebrae species to feel pain?

I'm not sure.


The presence of pain in an animal cannot be known for certain, but it can be inferred through physical and behavioral reactions. Specialists currently believe that all vertebrates can feel pain, and that certain invertebrates, like the octopus, might too. As for other animals, plants, or other entities, their ability to feel physical pain is at present a question beyond scientific reach, since no mechanism is known by which they could have such a feeling. In particular, there are no known nociceptors in groups such as plants, fungi, and most insects, except for instance in fruit flies.

What about pain in an animal isn't able to be known with certainty?

presence

An animals physical and behavioral reactions may be inferred to indicate the presence of what?

pain

Who do specialists believe can feel pain?

vertebrates

No mechanism is known by which what organisms would be able to have a feeling such as pain?

plants

What do fungi and fruit flies seem to lack?

nociceptors

What can be known for certain in animals?

I'm not sure.

What do specialists say all invertebrates can feel?

I'm not sure.

What does a fruit fly not have?

I'm not sure.


A database management system (DBMS) is a computer software application that interacts with the user, other applications, and the database itself to capture and analyze data. A general-purpose DBMS is designed to allow the definition, creation, querying, update, and administration of databases. Well-known DBMSs include MySQL, PostgreSQL, Microsoft SQL Server, Oracle, Sybase, SAP HANA, and IBM DB2. A database is not generally portable across different DBMSs, but different DBMS can interoperate by using standards such as SQL and ODBC or JDBC to allow a single application to work with more than one DBMS. Database management systems are often classified according to the database model that they support; the most popular database systems since the 1980s have all supported the relational model as represented by the SQL language.[disputed – discuss] Sometimes a DBMS is loosely referred to as a 'database'.

What does DBMS stand for?

database management system

What is the purpose of a DBMS?

to allow the definition, creation, querying, update, and administration of databases

How are DBMSs classified?

according to the database model that they support

What is the most popular DBMS?

SQL language

What does DBMS stand against?

I'm not sure.

What is a DBMS designed to avoid?

I'm not sure.

What is generally portable across different DBMSs?

I'm not sure.

What is the least popular DBMS?

I'm not sure.

When did popular database systems stop releasing updates?

I'm not sure.


Formally, a "database" refers to a set of related data and the way it is organized. Access to these data is usually provided by a "database management system" (DBMS) consisting of an integrated set of computer software that allows users to interact with one or more databases and provides access to all of the data contained in the database (although restrictions may exist that limit access to particular data). The DBMS provides various functions that allow entry, storage and retrieval of large quantities of information and provides ways to manage how that information is organized.

How is data accessed?

by a "database management system" (DBMS)

A DBMS consists of what?

an integrated set of computer software

How much data can a DBMS store?

large quantities

What does a database refer to informally?

I'm not sure.

What requires a user to use more than one database?

I'm not sure.

What allows the entry, storage and retrieval of only small quantities of information?

I'm not sure.

How much data is typically lost by a DBMS?

I'm not sure.


Physically, database servers are dedicated computers that hold the actual databases and run only the DBMS and related software. Database servers are usually multiprocessor computers, with generous memory and RAID disk arrays used for stable storage. RAID is used for recovery of data if any of the disks fail. Hardware database accelerators, connected to one or more servers via a high-speed channel, are also used in large volume transaction processing environments. DBMSs are found at the heart of most database applications. DBMSs may be built around a custom multitasking kernel with built-in networking support, but modern DBMSs typically rely on a standard operating system to provide these functions. from databases before the inception of Structured Query Language (SQL). The data recovered was disparate, redundant and disorderly, since there was no proper method to fetch it and arrange it in a concrete structure.[citation needed]

What is used to recover data if disks suffer a failure?

RAID

How can large quantities of data be accessed?

Hardware database accelerators

What do most database applications contain?

DBMSs

What is required for a modern DBMS to function?

standard operating system

What is used to destroy data if disks suffer a failure?

I'm not sure.

How can no quantities of data be accessed?

I'm not sure.

What do most database applications not integrate?

I'm not sure.

What is required for a broken DBMS to function?

I'm not sure.

What are non-dedicated computers that hold databases called?

I'm not sure.


A DBMS has evolved into a complex software system and its development typically requires thousands of human years of development effort.[a] Some general-purpose DBMSs such as Adabas, Oracle and DB2 have been undergoing upgrades since the 1970s. General-purpose DBMSs aim to meet the needs of as many applications as possible, which adds to the complexity. However, the fact that their development cost can be spread over a large number of users means that they are often the most cost-effective approach. However, a general-purpose DBMS is not always the optimal solution: in some cases a general-purpose DBMS may introduce unnecessary overhead. Therefore, there are many examples of systems that use special-purpose databases. A common example is an email system that performs many of the functions of a general-purpose DBMS such as the insertion and deletion of messages composed of various items of data or associating messages with a particular email address; but these functions are limited to what is required to handle email and don't provide the user with all of the functionality that would be available using a general-purpose DBMS.

How long can it take to create a DBMS?

thousands of human years

Name three DBMSs that have been used since the 1970s.

Adabas, Oracle and DB2

How is the cost to create a DBMS distributed?

spread over a large number of users

Name an example of a general-purpose DBMS.

an email system

How long can it take to search for a DBMS?

I'm not sure.

What are three DBMSs that have been used during the 1960s?

I'm not sure.

How is the cost to remove a DBMS distributed?

I'm not sure.

What is always the optimal solution to manage databases?

I'm not sure.


Many other databases have application software that accesses the database on behalf of end-users, without exposing the DBMS interface directly. Application programmers may use a wire protocol directly, or more likely through an application programming interface. Database designers and database administrators interact with the DBMS through dedicated interfaces to build and maintain the applications' databases, and thus need some more knowledge and understanding about how DBMSs operate and the DBMSs' external interfaces and tuning parameters.

How are many databases accessed?

application software

How do administrators work with the DBMS?

through dedicated interfaces

What is a way for programmers to use the DBMS?

wire protocol

How are no databases accessed?

I'm not sure.

How do administrators no longer work with the DBMS?

I'm not sure.

What is a way for programmers to avoid DBMS?

I'm not sure.

Who is not typically allowed to interact with a DBMS?

I'm not sure.

Who needs less knowledge and understanding about how DBMSs operate?

I'm not sure.


The relational model, first proposed in 1970 by Edgar F. Codd, departed from this tradition by insisting that applications should search for data by content, rather than by following links. The relational model employs sets of ledger-style tables, each used for a different type of entity. Only in the mid-1980s did computing hardware become powerful enough to allow the wide deployment of relational systems (DBMSs plus applications). By the early 1990s, however, relational systems dominated in all large-scale data processing applications, and as of 2015[update] they remain dominant : IBM DB2, Oracle, MySQL and Microsoft SQL Server are the top DBMS. The dominant database language, standardised SQL for the relational model, has influenced database languages for other data models.[citation needed]

Who created the relational model of DBMS?

Edgar F. Codd

Instead of using links, how was information found in a relational model?

by content

In what decade did computer hardware become able to handle a relational system?

What type of system in still prominent to this day?

relational systems

What database language is the most prominent?

SQL

Who was falsely misrepresented as having created the relational model of DBMS?

I'm not sure.

How was information lost in a relational model?

I'm not sure.

What decade did computer hardware lose the ability to handle a relational system?

I'm not sure.

What type of system in rarely seen to this day?

I'm not sure.

What database language is now outlawed?

I'm not sure.


As computers grew in speed and capability, a number of general-purpose database systems emerged; by the mid-1960s a number of such systems had come into commercial use. Interest in a standard began to grow, and Charles Bachman, author of one such product, the Integrated Data Store (IDS), founded the "Database Task Group" within CODASYL, the group responsible for the creation and standardization of COBOL. In 1971 the Database Task Group delivered their standard, which generally became known as the "CODASYL approach", and soon a number of commercial products based on this approach entered the market.

When were DBMSs first used commercially?

What group discovered COBOL?

Database Task Group

Why was COBOL created?

Interest in a standard

What was the standard protocol called?

CODASYL approach

When was the standard protocol completed?

When were DBMSs last used commercially?

I'm not sure.

What group destroyed COBOL?

I'm not sure.

Why was COBOL removed?

I'm not sure.

When was the standard taken away?

I'm not sure.

What was the name of the incomplete standard?

I'm not sure.


IBM also had their own DBMS in 1966, known as Information Management System (IMS). IMS was a development of software written for the Apollo program on the System/360. IMS was generally similar in concept to CODASYL, but used a strict hierarchy for its model of data navigation instead of CODASYL's network model. Both concepts later became known as navigational databases due to the way data was accessed, and Bachman's 1973 Turing Award presentation was The Programmer as Navigator. IMS is classified[by whom?] as a hierarchical database. IDMS and Cincom Systems' TOTAL database are classified as network databases. IMS remains in use as of 2014[update].

What was the DBMS created by IBM called?

Information Management System (IMS)

What was the purpose of the IBM DBMS?

the Apollo program

What is the classification of IMS?

hierarchical database

What was the name of Bachman's Turing Award presentation in 1973?

The Programmer as Navigator

What was the DBMS designed for IBM by a third-party called?

I'm not sure.

What was irrelevant to the IBM DBMS?

I'm not sure.

What is the classification of IMS not considered?

I'm not sure.

What was the name of Bachman's Turing Award presentation in 1972?

I'm not sure.

When did IBM lose their own DBMS?

I'm not sure.


In this paper, he described a new system for storing and working with large databases. Instead of records being stored in some sort of linked list of free-form records as in CODASYL, Codd's idea was to use a "table" of fixed-length records, with each table used for a different type of entity. A linked-list system would be very inefficient when storing "sparse" databases where some of the data for any one record could be left empty. The relational model solved this by splitting the data into a series of normalized tables (or relations), with optional elements being moved out of the main table to where they would take up room only if needed. Data may be freely inserted, deleted and edited in these tables, with the DBMS doing whatever maintenance needed to present a table view to the application/user.

Who proposed using a table to store data?

Codd

How is data accessed in a table?

A linked-list system

What model solved the problem of databases where information was missing?

relational

What system assists a user in seeing a table?

DBMS

Who proposed using a table to remove data?

I'm not sure.

How is data lost in a table?

I'm not sure.

What model couldn't solve the problem of databases where information was missing?

I'm not sure.

What system can't assist a user in seeing a table?

I'm not sure.


The relational model also allowed the content of the database to evolve without constant rewriting of links and pointers. The relational part comes from entities referencing other entities in what is known as one-to-many relationship, like a traditional hierarchical model, and many-to-many relationship, like a navigational (network) model. Thus, a relational model can express both hierarchical and navigational models, as well as its native tabular model, allowing for pure or combined modeling in terms of these three models, as the application requires.

How was the relational model able to improve over time?

without constant rewriting of links and pointers

What is the relationship called in a hierarchical model?

one-to-many

What is the relationship called in a navigational model?

many-to-many

What is a third type of model that can be combined with heirarchical and navigation models?

tabular

How was the relational model able to degrade over time?

I'm not sure.

What is the only kind of relationship called?

I'm not sure.

What is the relationship that is avoided in a navigational model?

I'm not sure.

What is a third type of model that can't be combined with hierarchical and navigation models?

I'm not sure.


For instance, a common use of a database system is to track information about users, their name, login information, various addresses and phone numbers. In the navigational approach all of this data would be placed in a single record, and unused items would simply not be placed in the database. In the relational approach, the data would be normalized into a user table, an address table and a phone number table (for instance). Records would be created in these optional tables only if the address or phone numbers were actually provided.

How is a database system frequently used?

to track information about users

How is information stored in a navigational system?

in a single record

What happens to blank data fields in a navigational system?

not be placed in the database

How is information stored in a relational system?

normalized into a user table

How is a database system rarely used?

I'm not sure.

How is information discarded in a navigational system?

I'm not sure.

What happens to full data fields in a navigational system?

I'm not sure.

How is information lost in a relational system?

I'm not sure.


Linking the information back together is the key to this system. In the relational model, some bit of information was used as a "key", uniquely defining a particular record. When information was being collected about a user, information stored in the optional tables would be found by searching for this key. For instance, if the login name of a user is unique, addresses and phone numbers for that user would be recorded with the login name as its key. This simple "re-linking" of related data back into a single collection is something that traditional computer languages are not designed for.

How is information accessed in a relational model?

a "key"

What is a key used for?

uniquely defining a particular record

What technique is used to collect into one place?

re-linking

How is data in an optional table accessed?

by searching for this key

How is information hidden in a relational model?

I'm not sure.

What is a key no longer used for?

I'm not sure.

What technique is used to collect into nowhere?

I'm not sure.

How is data in an optional table removed?

I'm not sure.


Just as the navigational approach would require programs to loop in order to collect records, the relational approach would require loops to collect information about any one record. Codd's solution to the necessary looping was a set-oriented language, a suggestion that would later spawn the ubiquitous SQL. Using a branch of mathematics known as tuple calculus, he demonstrated that such a system could support all the operations of normal databases (inserting, updating etc.) as well as providing a simple system for finding and returning sets of data in a single operation.

How does a program collect information using a navigational system?

require programs to loop

What is used to solve the problem of looping?

a set-oriented language

What computer language came about as a result of the looping problem?

SQL

What type of math was used to create a system to find data sets?

tuple calculus

Who used tuple calculus to show the functionality of databases?

Codd

How does a program collect information using a normalized system?

I'm not sure.

What is used to create the problem of looping?

I'm not sure.

What computer language lost popularity as a result of the looping problem?

I'm not sure.

What type of physics was used to create a system to find data sets?

I'm not sure.

Who used tuple calculus to hide the functionality of databases?

I'm not sure.


Codd's paper was picked up by two people at Berkeley, Eugene Wong and Michael Stonebraker. They started a project known as INGRES using funding that had already been allocated for a geographical database project and student programmers to produce code. Beginning in 1973, INGRES delivered its first test products which were generally ready for widespread use in 1979. INGRES was similar to System R in a number of ways, including the use of a "language" for data access, known as QUEL. Over time, INGRES moved to the emerging SQL standard.

Who used Codd's paper at Berkeley to improve a geographical database?

Eugene Wong and Michael Stonebraker

What was the name of the project to create a geographical database?

INGRES

When was INGRES first tested?

What computer language was used in INGRES to access data?

QUEL

Is QUEL still used to access data in INGRES?

INGRES moved to the emerging SQL standard

Who used Codd's paper at Yale to improve a geographical database?

I'm not sure.

What was the name of the project to steal a geographical database?

I'm not sure.

When was INGRES first avoided?

I'm not sure.

What computer language was used in INGRES to fabricate data?

I'm not sure.

What year did INGRES stop widespread use?

I'm not sure.


Another approach to hardware support for database management was ICL's CAFS accelerator, a hardware disk controller with programmable search capabilities. In the long term, these efforts were generally unsuccessful because specialized database machines could not keep pace with the rapid development and progress of general-purpose computers. Thus most database systems nowadays are software systems running on general-purpose hardware, using general-purpose computer data storage. However this idea is still pursued for certain applications by some companies like Netezza and Oracle (Exadata).

What is a CAFS accelerator?

a hardware disk controller with programmable search capabilities

Did the CAFS accelerator work as planned?

efforts were generally unsuccessful

How are today's database systems run?

general-purpose hardware

Name a company that is still working on the CAFS accellerator?

Netezza and Oracle (Exadata)

What is a CAFS decelerator?

I'm not sure.

What is no longer used in modern database systems?

I'm not sure.

What companies still work on the CAFS decelerator?

I'm not sure.

What are rarely seen nowadays?

I'm not sure.

What was a failed approach to hardware support for database management?

I'm not sure.


IBM started working on a prototype system loosely based on Codd's concepts as System R in the early 1970s. The first version was ready in 1974/5, and work then started on multi-table systems in which the data could be split so that all of the data for a record (some of which is optional) did not have to be stored in a single large "chunk". Subsequent multi-user versions were tested by customers in 1978 and 1979, by which time a standardized query language – SQL[citation needed] – had been added. Codd's ideas were establishing themselves as both workable and superior to CODASYL, pushing IBM to develop a true production version of System R, known as SQL/DS, and, later, Database 2 (DB2).

What is the system IBM created using Codd's research?

System R

When was IBM's system released?

What did System R work on to change the way data was stored?

multi-table systems

When customers first tested IBM's system, what computer language had been added?

SQL

What was the name of the database product created by IBM?

SQL/DS, and, later, Database 2 (DB2)

What is the system IBM lost using Codd's research?

I'm not sure.

When was IBM's system stolen?

I'm not sure.

What did System R avoid to change the way data was stored?

I'm not sure.

When customers first tested IBM's system, what computer language had been removed?

I'm not sure.

What was the name of the database product created by IBN?

I'm not sure.


The 1980s ushered in the age of desktop computing. The new computers empowered their users with spreadsheets like Lotus 1-2-3 and database software like dBASE. The dBASE product was lightweight and easy for any computer user to understand out of the box. C. Wayne Ratliff the creator of dBASE stated: "dBASE was different from programs like BASIC, C, FORTRAN, and COBOL in that a lot of the dirty work had already been done. The data manipulation is done by dBASE instead of by the user, so the user can concentrate on what he is doing, rather than having to mess with the dirty details of opening, reading, and closing files, and managing space allocation." dBASE was one of the top selling software titles in the 1980s and early 1990s.

Who created dBASE?

C. Wayne Ratliff

Why was dBASE successful?

lightweight and easy for any computer user to understand out of the box

Why was dBASE unique?

data manipulation is done by dBASE

What is a benefit of using dBASE?

managing space allocation

Who created BASE?

I'm not sure.

Why was dBASE unsuccessful?

I'm not sure.

Why was dBASE considered common?

I'm not sure.

What is the only benefit of using dBASE?

I'm not sure.

When was BASE the top selling software title?

I'm not sure.


The 1990s, along with a rise in object-oriented programming, saw a growth in how data in various databases were handled. Programmers and designers began to treat the data in their databases as objects. That is to say that if a person's data were in a database, that person's attributes, such as their address, phone number, and age, were now considered to belong to that person instead of being extraneous data. This allows for relations between data to be relations to objects and their attributes and not to individual fields. The term "object-relational impedance mismatch" described the inconvenience of translating between programmed objects and database tables. Object databases and object-relational databases attempt to solve this problem by providing an object-oriented language (sometimes as extensions to SQL) that programmers can use as alternative to purely relational SQL. On the programming side, libraries known as object-relational mappings (ORMs) attempt to solve the same problem.

In the 1990s, what type of programming changed the handling of databases?

object-oriented

What term is used for the difficulty in database table and programmed object translation?

object-relational impedance mismatch

How is the problem of object-relational impedance mismatch corrected?

object-oriented language

What is the library programmers use to solve object-relational impedance mismatch?

object-relational mappings (ORMs)

What type of programming did not influence databases?

I'm not sure.

What term is no longer used for the difficulty in database table and programmed object translation?

I'm not sure.

How is the problem of object-relational impedance mismatch started?

I'm not sure.

What is the hardware programmers use to solve object-relational impedance mismatch?

I'm not sure.


XML databases are a type of structured document-oriented database that allows querying based on XML document attributes. XML databases are mostly used in enterprise database management, where XML is being used as the machine-to-machine data interoperability standard. XML database management systems include commercial software MarkLogic and Oracle Berkeley DB XML, and a free use software Clusterpoint Distributed XML/JSON Database. All are enterprise software database platforms and support industry standard ACID-compliant transaction processing with strong database consistency characteristics and high level of database security.

What kind of database is XML?

structured document-oriented database

Where are XML databases frequently used?

enterprise database management

How is XML used in enterprise database management?

machine-to-machine data

What type of processing is used in enterprise database software?

ACID-compliant transaction processing

What kind of database is ZML?

I'm not sure.

Where are XML databases never used?

I'm not sure.

How is XML bypassed in enterprise database management?

I'm not sure.

What type of processing is forbidden in enterprise database software?

I'm not sure.


In recent years there was a high demand for massively distributed databases with high partition tolerance but according to the CAP theorem it is impossible for a distributed system to simultaneously provide consistency, availability and partition tolerance guarantees. A distributed system can satisfy any two of these guarantees at the same time, but not all three. For that reason many NoSQL databases are using what is called eventual consistency to provide both availability and partition tolerance guarantees with a reduced level of data consistency.

What explains the difficulty in a system containing availability, consistency, and partition tolerance guarantees?

the CAP theorem

How many guarantees will most databases tolerate?

two

What is used to offer a balance in guarantees?

eventual consistency

What can't explain the difficulty in a system containing availability, consistency, and partition tolerance guarantees?

I'm not sure.

How many guarantees will most databases destroy?

I'm not sure.

What can satisfy all guarantees at the same time?

I'm not sure.

What is used to discourage eventual consistency?

I'm not sure.

What has had low demand in recent years?

I'm not sure.


The first task of a database designer is to produce a conceptual data model that reflects the structure of the information to be held in the database. A common approach to this is to develop an entity-relationship model, often with the aid of drawing tools. Another popular approach is the Unified Modeling Language. A successful data model will accurately reflect the possible state of the external world being modeled: for example, if people can have more than one phone number, it will allow this information to be captured. Designing a good conceptual data model requires a good understanding of the application domain; it typically involves asking deep questions about the things of interest to an organisation, like "can a customer also be a supplier?", or "if a product is sold with two different forms of packaging, are those the same product or different products?", or "if a plane flies from New York to Dubai via Frankfurt, is that one flight or two (or maybe even three)?". The answers to these questions establish definitions of the terminology used for entities (customers, products, flights, flight segments) and their relationships and attributes.

What should a conceptual data model do?

reflects the structure of the information to be held

What makes a successful data model?

accurately reflect the possible state of the external world being modeled

What must one understand in order to create a successful data model?

the application domain

Asking questions about an organization's needs will help to create what?

definitions of the terminology used for entities

What does a conceptual data model never do?

I'm not sure.

What data model is no longer a popular approach?

I'm not sure.

What must one have no knowledge of in order to create a successful data model?

I'm not sure.

Who is not allowed to produce a conceptual data model?

I'm not sure.

What involves asking shallow questions to improve a data model?

I'm not sure.


Having produced a conceptual data model that users are happy with, the next stage is to translate this into a schema that implements the relevant data structures within the database. This process is often called logical database design, and the output is a logical data model expressed in the form of a schema. Whereas the conceptual data model is (in theory at least) independent of the choice of database technology, the logical data model will be expressed in terms of a particular database model supported by the chosen DBMS. (The terms data model and database model are often used interchangeably, but in this article we use data model for the design of a specific database, and database model for the modelling notation used to express that design.)

In what form is the output of a logical database design?

schema

Which data model is displayed as a specific model that uses DBMS?

logical

A conceptual data model in separate from the choice of what?

database technology

What form is the input of a logical database design?

I'm not sure.

Which data model is displayed as a nonspecific model that uses DBMS?

I'm not sure.

What is the conceptual data model dependent on?

I'm not sure.

What terms are no longer used interchangeably?

I'm not sure.


The final stage of database design is to make the decisions that affect performance, scalability, recovery, security, and the like. This is often called physical database design. A key goal during this stage is data independence, meaning that the decisions made for performance optimization purposes should be invisible to end-users and applications. Physical design is driven mainly by performance requirements, and requires a good knowledge of the expected workload and access patterns, and a deep understanding of the features offered by the chosen DBMS.

What decisions must be made in the last stage of database design?

performance, scalability, recovery, security

What is an important goal in in this final stage?

data independence

What factor is reflected in performance requirements?

Physical design

What decisions are optional in the last stage of database design?

I'm not sure.

What is an irrelevant goal in the final stage?

I'm not sure.

What factor is not reflected in performance requirements?

I'm not sure.

What requires no knowledge of the expected workload?

I'm not sure.

What is no longer a key goal during the final stage?

I'm not sure.


While there is typically only one conceptual (or logical) and physical (or internal) view of the data, there can be any number of different external views. This allows users to see database information in a more business-related way rather than from a technical, processing viewpoint. For example, a financial department of a company needs the payment details of all employees as part of the company's expenses, but does not need details about employees that are the interest of the human resources department. Thus different departments need different views of the company's database.

How many conceptual or physical views of data are there?

one

How many different external views of data are there?

any number

What is the benefit of external views of data?

see database information in a more business-related way

How many conceptual or physical views of data do not exist?

I'm not sure.

How many duplicated external views of data are there?

I'm not sure.

What is the disadvantage of external views of data?

I'm not sure.

Who is not allowed to see database information?

I'm not sure.


The conceptual view provides a level of indirection between internal and external. On one hand it provides a common view of the database, independent of different external view structures, and on the other hand it abstracts away details of how the data are stored or managed (internal level). In principle every level, and even every external view, can be presented by a different data model. In practice usually a given DBMS uses the same data model for both the external and the conceptual levels (e.g., relational model). The internal level, which is hidden inside the DBMS and depends on its implementation, requires a different level of detail and uses its own types of data structure types.

What does the conceptual view offer?

a level of indirection between internal and external

How does the conceptual view handle how data is managed?

abstracts away details

What type of view does the conceptual view offer?

common

What does the conceptual view ignore?

I'm not sure.

How does the conceptual view handle how data is erased?

I'm not sure.

What type of view does the conceptual view degrade?

I'm not sure.

What view can't be presented by a different data model?

I'm not sure.


Database storage is the container of the physical materialization of a database. It comprises the internal (physical) level in the database architecture. It also contains all the information needed (e.g., metadata, "data about the data", and internal data structures) to reconstruct the conceptual level and external level from the internal level when needed. Putting data into permanent storage is generally the responsibility of the database engine a.k.a. "storage engine". Though typically accessed by a DBMS through the underlying operating system (and often utilizing the operating systems' file systems as intermediates for storage layout), storage properties and configuration setting are extremely important for the efficient operation of the DBMS, and thus are closely maintained by database administrators. A DBMS, while in operation, always has its database residing in several types of storage (e.g., memory and external storage). The database data and the additional needed information, possibly in very large amounts, are coded into bits. Data typically reside in the storage in structures that look completely different from the way the data look in the conceptual and external levels, but in ways that attempt to optimize (the best possible) these levels' reconstruction when needed by users and programs, as well as for computing additional types of needed information from the data (e.g., when querying the database).

What is responsible for putting information into permanent storage?

database engine

What is database storage?

physical materialization of a database

What do database administrators closely monitor?

storage properties and configuration setting

While working, does DBMS store information in one place?

several types of storage

What are huge quantities of information stored as?

bits

What is responsible for losing information in permanent storage?

I'm not sure.

What is no longer considered database storage?

I'm not sure.

What do database administrators loosely monitor?

I'm not sure.

How many types of storage are not utilized for DBMS?

I'm not sure.

What are no quantities of information stored as?

I'm not sure.


Database access control deals with controlling who (a person or a certain computer program) is allowed to access what information in the database. The information may comprise specific database objects (e.g., record types, specific records, data structures), certain computations over certain objects (e.g., query types, or specific queries), or utilizing specific access paths to the former (e.g., using specific indexes or other data structures to access information). Database access controls are set by special authorized (by the database owner) personnel that uses dedicated protected security DBMS interfaces.

What does database access limit?

who (a person or a certain computer program) is allowed to access what information

What are examples of database objects?

record types, specific records, data structures

Who sets database access?

special authorized (by the database owner) personnel

What does database access have no influence on?

I'm not sure.

What are examples of the only kind of database errors?

I'm not sure.

Who has no database access?

I'm not sure.

Who uses dedicated unprotected security DBMS interfaces?

I'm not sure.


This may be managed directly on an individual basis, or by the assignment of individuals and privileges to groups, or (in the most elaborate models) through the assignment of individuals and groups to roles which are then granted entitlements. Data security prevents unauthorized users from viewing or updating the database. Using passwords, users are allowed access to the entire database or subsets of it called "subschemas". For example, an employee database can contain all the data about an individual employee, but one group of users may be authorized to view only payroll data, while others are allowed access to only work history and medical data. If the DBMS provides a way to interactively enter and update the database, as well as interrogate it, this capability allows for managing personal databases.

What does data security avoid?

unauthorized users from viewing or updating the database

What is a subset of a database called that can be accessed by using a password?

subschemas

What is possible when a DBMS interrogate and update a database?

managing personal databases

What does data security support?

I'm not sure.

What is a subset of a database called that can be accessed by using a spell?

I'm not sure.

What is possible when a DBMS corrupts a database?

I'm not sure.

Who can view the entire contents of an employee database?

I'm not sure.


Database transactions can be used to introduce some level of fault tolerance and data integrity after recovery from a crash. A database transaction is a unit of work, typically encapsulating a number of operations over a database (e.g., reading a database object, writing, acquiring lock, etc.), an abstraction supported in database and also other systems. Each transaction has well defined boundaries in terms of which program/code executions are included in that transaction (determined by the transaction's programmer via special transaction commands).

What is a unit of work called in a database?

transaction

How can database transactions ensure accuracy after a crash?

fault tolerance

Are transactions limited?

Each transaction has well defined boundaries

What is a unit of play called in a database?

I'm not sure.

How can database transactions lower accuracy after a crash?

I'm not sure.

What has poorly defined boundaries in a database?

I'm not sure.

What has no ability to recover from a crash?

I'm not sure.

What always encapsulates only one transaction?

I'm not sure.


A database built with one DBMS is not portable to another DBMS (i.e., the other DBMS cannot run it). However, in some situations it is desirable to move, migrate a database from one DBMS to another. The reasons are primarily economical (different DBMSs may have different total costs of ownership or TCOs), functional, and operational (different DBMSs may have different capabilities). The migration involves the database's transformation from one DBMS type to another. The transformation should maintain (if possible) the database related application (i.e., all related application programs) intact. Thus, the database's conceptual and external architectural levels should be maintained in the transformation. It may be desired that also some aspects of the architecture internal level are maintained. A complex or large database migration may be a complicated and costly (one-time) project by itself, which should be factored into the decision to migrate. This in spite of the fact that tools may exist to help migration between specific DBMSs. Typically a DBMS vendor provides tools to help importing databases from other popular DBMSs.

Can a DBMS be transfered to a different DBMS?

ano

Why would someone attempt to unite two different databases?

primarily economical

In order to merge, what must the database maintain?

database related application

What are the important parts of the database related application that should be moved?

conceptual and external architectural levels

How can a DBMS database migration be made easier?

vendor provides tools

What is portable from one DBMS to another?

I'm not sure.

What kind of database is migration impossible from?

I'm not sure.

What is always an easy and cheap project for an individual?

I'm not sure.

What no longer exist to help migration between specific DBMSs?

I'm not sure.

What is not typically provided by a DBMS vendor?

I'm not sure.


Sometimes it is desired to bring a database back to a previous state (for many reasons, e.g., cases when the database is found corrupted due to a software error, or if it has been updated with erroneous data). To achieve this a backup operation is done occasionally or continuously, where each desired database state (i.e., the values of its data and their embedding in database's data structures) is kept within dedicated backup files (many techniques exist to do this effectively). When this state is needed, i.e., when it is decided by a database administrator to bring the database back to this state (e.g., by specifying this state by a desired point in time when the database was in this state), these files are utilized to restore that state.

Name a reason to take a database backward in time?

database is found corrupted

Is each database backup kept in the same file?

dedicated backup files

Who can restore a database that has been corrupted?

database administrator

What parameter is requiret to restore a database?

desired point in time

What is not a reason to take a database backward in time?

I'm not sure.

What type of file has no dedicated ones involved?

I'm not sure.

Who can restore a database that has been deleted?

I'm not sure.

What can't be restored to a previous date?

I'm not sure.

What operation can be done only once per year?

I'm not sure.


Static analysis techniques for software verification can be applied also in the scenario of query languages. In particular, the *Abstract interpretation framework has been extended to the field of query languages for relational databases as a way to support sound approximation techniques. The semantics of query languages can be tuned according to suitable abstractions of the concrete domain of data. The abstraction of relational database system has many interesting applications, in particular, for security purposes, such as fine grained access control, watermarking, etc.

How can static analysis be useful with query languages?

software verification

What do query languages support in abstract interpretation frameworks?

sound approximation techniques

What is a security measure that uses a relational database system?

watermarking

Can query languages be adjusted?

according to suitable abstractions of the concrete domain of data

Why is static analysis impossible with query languages?

I'm not sure.

What do query languages oppose in abstract interpretation frameworks?

I'm not sure.

What is a security measure that no longer uses a relational database system?

I'm not sure.

What has very few interesting applications?

I'm not sure.

What techniques are now forbidden for software verification?

I'm not sure.


Tucson (/ˈtuːsɒn/ /tuːˈsɒn/) is a city and the county seat of Pima County, Arizona, United States, and home to the University of Arizona. The 2010 United States Census put the population at 520,116, while the 2013 estimated population of the entire Tucson metropolitan statistical area (MSA) was 996,544. The Tucson MSA forms part of the larger Tucson-Nogales combined statistical area (CSA), with a total population of 980,263 as of the 2010 Census. Tucson is the second-largest populated city in Arizona behind Phoenix, both of which anchor the Arizona Sun Corridor. The city is  located 108 miles (174 km) southeast of Phoenix and 60 mi (97 km) north of the U.S.-Mexico border. Tucson is the 33rd largest city and the 59th largest metropolitan area in the United States. Roughly 150 Tucson companies are involved in the design and manufacture of optics and optoelectronics systems, earning Tucson the nickname Optics Valley.

What is the largest populated city in Arizona?

Phoenix

How many miles is Tuscon from the U.S.- Mexico border?

What nickname does Tuscon have because of their many companies involved in optics?

Optics Valley

What was the population of Tuscon according to the 2010 U.S. Census?

What was the estimated population of the entire Tuscan area in 2013?

Which county is Tucson in?

Pima County

Which university is in Tucson?

University of Arizona

How far is Tucson from Phoenix?

108 miles (174 km)

How far is Tucson from Mexico?

60 mi (97 km)

What industry-based nickname does Tucson have?

Optics Valley


Tucson was probably first visited by Paleo-Indians, known to have been in southern Arizona about 12,000 years ago. Recent archaeological excavations near the Santa Cruz River have located a village site dating from 2100 BC.[citation needed] The floodplain of the Santa Cruz River was extensively farmed during the Early Agricultural period, circa 1200 BC to AD 150. These people constructed irrigation canals and grew corn, beans, and other crops while gathering wild plants and hunting. The Early Ceramic period occupation of Tucson saw the first extensive use of pottery vessels for cooking and storage. The groups designated as the Hohokam lived in the area from AD 600 to 1450 and are known for their vast irrigation canal systems and their red-on-brown pottery.[citation needed]

What was Tuscon known as 12,000 years ago?

southern Arizona

What group lived in the area that were known for their red-on-brown pottery?

Hohokam

Near what river was a village site dating from 2100 BC found?

Santa Cruz River

Who were probably the first group of people in Tuscan?

Paleo-Indians

How long ago did Tuscan have their first visitors?

12,000 years ago

How long ago were Paleo-Indians known to be in the Tucson area?

about 12,000 years ago

How old was the village site found near the Santa Cruz River?

2100 BC

When was the Early Agricultural period?

1200 BC to AD 150

What happened in the Early Ceramic period?

the first extensive use of pottery vessels for cooking and storage

When did the Hohokam live in the Tucson area?

from AD 600 to 1450


Jesuit missionary Eusebio Francisco Kino visited the Santa Cruz River valley in 1692, and founded the Mission San Xavier del Bac in 1700 about 7 mi (11 km) upstream from the site of the settlement of Tucson. A separate Convento settlement was founded downstream along the Santa Cruz River, near the base of what is now "A" mountain. Hugo O'Conor, the founding father of the city of Tucson, Arizona authorized the construction of a military fort in that location, Presidio San Agustín del Tucsón, on August 20, 1775 (near the present downtown Pima County Courthouse). During the Spanish period of the presidio, attacks such as the Second Battle of Tucson were repeatedly mounted by Apaches. Eventually the town came to be called "Tucson" and became a part of Sonora after Mexico gained independence from Spain in 1821.

Who is considered the founding father of Tuscan?

Hugo O'Conor

What year did Mexico gain independence from Spain?

Who founded the Mission San Xavier del Bac?

Eusebio Francisco Kino

How many miles was Mission San Xavier del Bac from Tuscon?

Which missionary came to the Santa Cruz River area in 1692?

Eusebio Francisco Kino

What religion was Kino?

Jesuit

What mission did Kino found?

Mission San Xavier del Bac

When did Kino found the del Bac mission?

Who is Tucson's 'founding father'?

Hugo O'Conor


Arizona, south of the Gila River was legally bought from Mexico in the Gadsden Purchase on June 8, 1854. Tucson became a part of the United States of America, although the American military did not formally take over control until March 1856. In 1857 Tucson became a stage station on the San Antonio-San Diego Mail Line and in 1858 became 3rd division headquarters of the Butterfield Overland Mail until the line shut down in March 1861. The Overland Mail Corporation attempted to continue running, however following the Bascom Affair, devastating Apache attacks on the stations and coaches ended operations in August 1861.[citation needed]

What was the date when Arizona was bought?

June 8, 1854

What year did the Overland Mail Corporation end operations?

What was the name of the deal in which Arizona was bought?

Gadsden Purchase

Arizona is south of which river?

Gila River

In what year did Tuscon become a stage station?

When was the Gadsden Purchase?

June 8, 1854

Where did the US buy land from in the Gadsden Purchase?

Mexico

When did the US formally take control of the Tucson area?

March 1856

When did the mail stagecoaches stop running?

August 1861

Why did the mail stagecoaches stop running?

devastating Apache attacks on the stations and coaches


From 1877 to 1878, the area suffered a rash of stagecoach robberies. Most notable, however, were the two holdups committed by masked road-agent William Whitney Brazelton. Brazelton held up two stages in the summer of 1878 near Point of Mountain Station approximately 17 mi (27 km) northwest of Tucson. John Clum, of Tombstone, Arizona fame was one of the passengers. Brazelton was eventually tracked down and killed on Monday August 19, 1878, in a mesquite bosque along the Santa Cruz River 3 miles (5 km) south of Tucson by Pima County Sheriff Charles A. Shibell and his citizen's posse. Brazelton had been suspected of highway robbery not only in the Tucson area, but also in the Prescott region and Silver City, New Mexico area as well. Brazelton's crimes prompted John J. Valentine, Sr. of Wells, Fargo & Co. to send special agent and future Pima County sheriff Bob Paul to investigate. Fort Lowell, then east of Tucson, was established to help protect settlers from Apache attacks. In 1882, Frank Stilwell was implicated in the murder of Morgan Earp by Cowboy Pete Spence's wife, Marietta, at the coroner's inquest on Morgan Earp's shooting. The coroner's jury concluded that Spence, Stilwell, Frederick Bode, and Florentino "Indian Charlie" Cruz were the prime suspects in the assassination of Morgan Earp. :250 Deputy U.S. Marshal Wyatt Earp gathered a few trusted friends and accompanied Virgil Earp and his family as they traveled to Benson for a train ride to California. They found Stilwell lying in wait for Virgil in the Tucson station and killed him on the tracks. After killing Stilwell, Wyatt deputized others and rode on a vendetta, killing three more cowboys over the next few days before leaving the state.

What date did William Whitney Brazelton Die?

August 19, 1878

What is the name of the sheriff who shot William Whitney Brazelton?

Charles A. Shibell

Who was held responsible for the murder of Morgan Earp?

Frank Stilwell

What was Wyatt Earp's job title?

Deputy U.S. Marshal

What Deputy was responsible for the death of Frank Stiwell?

Wyatt Earp

What crime increased in the Tucson area in 1877?

stagecoach robberies

Who was the most famous stagecoach robber in the Tucson area?

William Whitney Brazelton

When was Brazelton killed?

August 19, 1878

Who killed Brazelton?

Charles A. Shibell and his citizen's posse

What was Shibell's job?

Pima County Sheriff


By 1900, 7,531 people lived in the city. The population increased gradually to 13,913 in 1910. At about this time, the U.S. Veterans Administration had begun construction on the present Veterans Hospital. Many veterans who had been gassed in World War I and were in need of respiratory therapy began coming to Tucson after the war, due to the clean dry air. Over the following years the city continued to grow, with the population increasing to 20,292 in 1920 and 36,818 in 1940. In 2006 the population of Pima County, in which Tucson is located, passed one million while the City of Tucson's population was 535,000.

What county is Tuscon located in?

Pima County

What was the population of Tuscon in 2006?

what were veterans in need of after World War I?

respiratory therapy

What did the U.S. Veterans Administration build around 1910?

Veterans Hospital

What was the population of Tuscon in 1940?

What was Tucson's population in 1900?

What was Tucson's population in 1910?

What was Tucson's population in 1920?

What was Tucson's population in 1940?

What was Tucson's population in 2006?


The city's elevation is 2,643 ft (806 m) above sea level (as measured at the Tucson International Airport). Tucson is situated on an alluvial plain in the Sonoran desert, surrounded by five minor ranges of mountains: the Santa Catalina Mountains and the Tortolita Mountains to the north, the Santa Rita Mountains to the south, the Rincon Mountains to the east, and the Tucson Mountains to the west. The high point of the Santa Catalina Mountains is 9,157 ft (2,791 m) Mount Lemmon, the southernmost ski destination in the continental U.S., while the Tucson Mountains include 4,687 ft (1,429 m) Wasson Peak. The highest point in the area is Mount Wrightson, found in the Santa Rita Mountains at 9,453 ft (2,881 m) above sea level.

Which Mountain has the Highest point surrounding Tuscon?

Mount Wrightson

Which desert is Tuscon in?

Sonoran

How many mountain ranges is Tuscon surrounded by?

five

How above sea level is Wasson Peak in feet?

4,687 ft

What direction are the Tortolita Mountains from Tuscon?

north

How high is Tucson's airport?

2,643 ft (806 m) above sea level

What desert is Tucson in?

Sonoran

What mountain range is east of Tucson?

Rincon Mountains

What mountain range is north of Tucson?

Tortolita Mountains

What mountain range is west of Tucson?

Tucson Mountains


Tucson is located 118 mi (190 km) southeast of Phoenix and 60 mi (97 km) north of the United States - Mexico border. The 2010 United States Census puts the city's population at 520,116 with a metropolitan area population at 980,263. In 2009, Tucson ranked as the 32nd largest city and 52nd largest metropolitan area in the United States. A major city in the Arizona Sun Corridor, Tucson is the largest city in southern Arizona, the second largest in the state after Phoenix. It is also the largest city in the area of the Gadsden Purchase. As of 2015, The Greater Tucson Metro area has exceeded a population of 1 million.

How many miles is Tuscon from Phoenix?

How many miles is Tuscon from the US - Mexico border?

What is the second largest city in Arizona?

Tucson

Where does Tuscon rank in terms of the largest city in the U.S. in 2009?

What area exceeded 1 million people in 2015?

Greater Tucson Metro

What is Tucson's city population in 2010?

What is Tucson's metro area population in 2010?

How does Tucson rank among US cities?

32nd largest

How does Tucson rank among US metro areas?

52nd largest

What is Tucson's metro area population in 2015?

1 million


Interstate 10, which runs southeast to northwest through town, connects Tucson to Phoenix to the northwest on the way to its western terminus in Santa Monica, California, and to Las Cruces, New Mexico and El Paso, Texas toward its eastern terminus in Jacksonville, Florida. I-19 runs south from Tucson toward Nogales and the U.S.-Mexico border. I-19 is the only Interstate highway that uses "kilometer posts" instead of "mileposts", although the speed limits are marked in miles per hour instead of kilometers per hour.

Which interstate is the only one that uses kilometer posts instead of mileposts?

Are the speed limits on I-19 marked in miles or kilometers?

miles

What border does I-19 come close to?

U.S.-Mexico border

Which interstate would you take to go to Jackson Florida from Tuscon Arizona?

Interstate 10

Which direction does I-10 run through Tucson?

southeast to northwest

What is the next major town to the west on I-10?

Phoenix

What is the next major town to the east on I-10?

Las Cruces, New Mexico

Which direction does I-19 run from Tucson?

south

What is unusual about I-19?

the only Interstate highway that uses "kilometer posts" instead of "mileposts"


At the end of the first decade of the 21st century, downtown Tucson underwent a revitalization effort by city planners and the business community. The primary project was Rio Nuevo, a large retail and community center that has been stalled in planning for more than ten years. Downtown is generally regarded as the area bordered by 17th Street to the south, I-10 to the west, and 6th Street to the north, and Toole Avenue and the Union Pacific (formerly Southern Pacific) railroad tracks, site of the historic train depot and "Locomotive #1673", built in 1900. Downtown is divided into the Presidio District, the Barrio Viejo, and the Congress Street Arts and Entertainment District. Some authorities include the 4th Avenue shopping district, which is set just northeast of the rest of downtown and connected by an underpass beneath the UPRR tracks.

What was the Union Pacific once known as?

Southern Pacific

What year was Locomotive #1673 made in?

What was the name of the retail and community center that took longer than a decade to build?

Rio Nuevo

When did a revitalization of downtown Tucson begin?

At the end of the first decade of the 21st century

What is Rio Nuevo?

a large retail and community center

What is the southern edge of Tucson's downtown?

17th Street

What is the western edge of Tucson's downtown?

What is the northern edge of Tucson's downtown?

6th Street


As one of the oldest parts of town, Central Tucson is anchored by the Broadway Village shopping center designed by local architect Josias Joesler at the intersection of Broadway Boulevard and Country Club Road. The 4th Avenue Shopping District between downtown and the University and the Lost Barrio just East of downtown, also have many unique and popular stores. Local retail business in Central Tucson is densely concentrated along Fourth Avenue and the Main Gate Square on University Boulevard near the UA campus. The El Con Mall is also located in the eastern part of midtown.

Which architect designed the Broadway Village shopping Center?

Josias Joesler

Which part of Tuscon is Broadway Village shopping center located in?

Central

What mall is located in midtown?

El Con Mall

Who designed the Broadway Village shopping center?

Josias Joesler

Where is Broadway Village shopping center?

at the intersection of Broadway Boulevard and Country Club Road

Where is the Lost Barrio?

just East of downtown

Where is the El Con Mall?

in the eastern part of midtown

Where is the 4th Avenue Shopping District?

between downtown and the University


Tucson's largest park, Reid Park, is located in midtown and includes Reid Park Zoo and Hi Corbett Field. Speedway Boulevard, a major east-west arterial road in central Tucson, was named the "ugliest street in America" by Life magazine in the early 1970s, quoting Tucson Mayor James Corbett. Despite this, Speedway Boulevard was awarded "Street of the Year" by Arizona Highways in the late 1990s. According to David Leighton, historical writer for the Arizona Daily Star newspaper, Speedway Boulevard derives its name from an old horse racetrack, known as "The Harlem River Speedway," more commonly called "The Speedway," in New York City. The street was called "The Speedway," from 1904 to about 1906 before the word "The" was taken out.

What is Tuscon's largest Park?

Reid Park

What was once named the "ugliest street in America" by Life magazine?

Speedway Boulevard

What mayor was quoted in calling Speedway Boulevard "the ugliest street in America?

James Corbett

Which newspaper did David Leighton work for?

Arizona Daily Star

What city is the Harlem River Speedway in?

New York City

What is Tucson's biggest park?

Reid Park

What sports field is in Reid Park?

Hi Corbett Field

What zoo is in Reid Park?

Reid Park Zoo

What was the "ugliest street in America" in the 1970s?

Speedway Boulevard

What was Speedway Blvd called in the 1990s?

"Street of the Year"


Central Tucson is bicycle-friendly. To the east of the University of Arizona, Third Street is bike-only except for local traffic and passes by the historic homes of the Sam Hughes neighborhood. To the west, E. University Boulevard leads to the Fourth Avenue Shopping District. To the North, N. Mountain Avenue has a full bike-only lane for half of the 3.5 miles (5.6 km) to the Rillito River Park bike and walk multi-use path. To the south, N. Highland Avenue leads to the Barraza-Aviation Parkway bicycle path.

Where does E.University Blvd. lead to?

Fourth Avenue Shopping District

What neighborhood has historic homes?

Sam Hughes neighborhood

What mode of transport is encouraged in Central Tuscon?

bicycle

Of the 3.5 miles from N. Mountain Avenue to Rillito River Park, how many are bike-only?

half

Which Tucson street is devoted to bicycles?

Third Street

How long does N Mountain Ave have a bike lane?

half of the 3.5 miles (5.6 km) to the Rillito River Park

Which park has a multi-use path?

Rillito River Park

Which bike path does Highland lead to?

Barraza-Aviation Parkway

Which shopping area is on East University?

Fourth Avenue Shopping District


South Tucson is actually the name of an independent, incorporated town of 1 sq mi (2.6 km2), completely surrounded by the city of Tucson, sitting just south of downtown. South Tucson has a colorful, dynamic history. It was first incorporated in 1936, and later reincorporated in 1940. The population consists of about 83% Mexican-American and 10% Native American residents. South Tucson is widely known for its many Mexican restaurants and the architectural styles which include bright outdoor murals, many of which have been painted over due to city policy.

What is the percentage of Native Americans in South Tuscon?

What kind of restaurants are widely known in South Tuscon?

Mexican

What are painted do to city policy?

outdoor murals

What percentage of the South Tuscon Population is Mexican-American?

What year was South Tuscon reincorperated?

When was South Tucson first incorporated?

When was South Tucson reincorporated?

How large is South Tucson?

1 sq mi (2.6 km2)

How much of South Tucson is Mexican-American?

How much of South Tucson is Native American?


A combination of urban and suburban development, the West Side is generally defined as the area west of I-10. Western Tucson encompasses the banks of the Santa Cruz River and the foothills of the Tucson Mountains, and includes the International Wildlife Museum, Sentinel Peak, and the Marriott Starr Pass Resort & Spa, located in the wealthy enclave known as Starr Pass. Moving past the Tucson Mountains, travelers find themselves in the area commonly referred to as "west of" Tucson or "Old West Tucson". A large undulating plain extending south into the Altar Valley, rural residential development predominates, but here you will also find major attractions including Saguaro National Park West, the Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum, and the Old Tucson Studios movie set/theme park.

What interstate is the West side west of?

What is the name of the movie set in Old West Tuscon?

Old Tucson Studios

What is the name of the national park in Old West Tuscon?

Saguaro National Park West

What is the museum in Old West Tuscon?

Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum

The Marriott Starr Pass Resort & Spa is located where?

Starr Pass

What part of Tucson is considered the West Side?

the area west of I-10

What museum is in Western Tucson?

International Wildlife Museum

What resort is in Western Tucson?

Marriott Starr Pass Resort & Spa

What neighborhood is the Marriott Starr Pass Resort & Spa in?

Starr Pass

What theme park is in Old West Tucson?

Old Tucson Studios


On Sentinel Peak (also known as "'A' Mountain"), just west of downtown, there is a giant "A" in honor of the University of Arizona. Starting in about 1916, a yearly tradition developed for freshmen to whitewash the "A", which was visible for miles. However, at the beginning of the Iraq War, anti-war activists painted it black. This was followed by a paint scuffle where the "A" was painted various colors until the city council intervened. It is now red, white and blue except when it is white or another color decided by a biennial election. Because of the three-color paint scheme often used, the shape of the A can be vague and indistinguishable from the rest of the peak. The top of Sentinel Peak, which is accessible by road, offers an outstanding scenic view of the city looking eastward. A parking lot located near the summit of Sentinel Peak was formerly a popular place to watch sunsets or view the city lights at night.

What else is Sentinel Peak also known as?

'A' Mountain

What is the giant letter downtown in honor of?

University of Arizona

What year did the tradition of freshmen whitewashing the "A" begin?

during the Iraq war, what color did anti-war activists paint the "A"?

black

Who intervened when the "A" was painted various colors?

city council

Why is there a giant letter A on a Tucson mountain?

in honor of the University of Arizona

Where is there a giant letter A on a Tucson mountain?

On Sentinel Peak (also known as "'A' Mountain"), just west of downtown

What color did college freshmen paint the A?

white

What color did Iraq War protesters paint the A?

black

How did City Council decide to paint the A?

red, white and blue


Also on the north side is the suburban community of Catalina Foothills, located in the foothills of the Santa Catalina Mountains just north of the city limits. This community includes among the area's most expensive homes, sometimes multimillion-dollar estates. The Foothills area is generally defined as north of River Road, east of Oracle Road, and west of Sabino Creek. Some of the Tucson area's major resorts are located in the Catalina Foothills, including the Hacienda Del Sol, Westin La Paloma Resort, Loews Ventana Canyon Resort and Canyon Ranch Resort. La Encantada, an upscale outdoor shopping mall, is also in the Foothills.

What is the Foothills west of?

Sabino Creek

Where are some of the major resorts of Tuscon?

Catalina Foothills

What is the Foothills east of?

Oracle Road

What is La Encantada?

upscale outdoor shopping mall

What community is north of Tucson's city limits?

Catalina Foothills

Where are the most expensive homes in the Tucson metro area?

Catalina Foothills

What is the southern edge of the Catalina Foothills area?

River Road

What outdoor mall is in Catalina Foothills?

La Encantada

Which big resorts are in Catalina Foothills?

Hacienda Del Sol, Westin La Paloma Resort, Loews Ventana Canyon Resort and Canyon Ranch Resort


The expansive area northwest of the city limits is diverse, ranging from the rural communities of Catalina and parts of the town of Marana, the small suburb of Picture Rocks, the affluent town of Oro Valley in the western foothills of the Santa Catalina Mountains, and residential areas in the northeastern foothills of the Tucson Mountains. Continental Ranch (Marana), Dove Mountain (Marana), and Rancho Vistoso (Oro Valley) are all masterplanned communities located in the Northwest, where thousands of residents live.

How many residents live in the master-planned communities?

thousands

What mountains is Oro Valley next to?

Santa Catalina Mountains

Which town is Rancho Vistoso located?

Oro Valley

Which town would you find Dove Mountain and Continental Ranch?

Marana

Where is Oro Valley?

in the western foothills of the Santa Catalina Mountains

Where is the Continental Ranch planned community?

Marana

Where is the Dove Mountain planned community?

Marana

Where is the Rancho Vistoso planned community?

Oro Valley

Which direction from Tucson is Picture Rocks?

northwest


The community of Casas Adobes is also on the Northwest Side, with the distinction of being Tucson's first suburb, established in the late 1940s. Casas Adobes is centered on the historic Casas Adobes Plaza (built in 1948). Casas Adobes is also home to Tohono Chul Park (a nature preserve) near the intersection of North Oracle Road and West Ina Road. The attempted assassination of Representative Gabrielle Giffords, and the murders of chief judge for the U.S. District Court for Arizona, John Roll and five other people on January 8, 2011, occurred at the La Toscana Village in Casas Adobes. The Foothills Mall is also located on the northwest side in Casas Adobes.

What is considered Tuscon's first suburb?

Casas Adobes

When was the Casas Adobes Plaza established?

What nature preserve is in Casas Adobes?

Tohono Chul Park

What representative was almost assassinated at the La Toscana Village?

Gabrielle Giffords

What mall is located in Casas Adobes?

Foothills Mall

When was the Casas Adobes Plaza built?

What was Tucson's first suburb?

Casas Adobes

Where is Tohono Chul Park?

near the intersection of North Oracle Road and West Ina Road

Who was nearly assassinated in Casas Adobes?

Representative Gabrielle Giffords

What was John Roll's job title?

chief judge for the U.S. District Court for Arizona


East Tucson is relatively new compared to other parts of the city, developed between the 1950s and the 1970s,[citation needed] with developments such as Desert Palms Park. It is generally classified as the area of the city east of Swan Road, with above-average real estate values relative to the rest of the city. The area includes urban and suburban development near the Rincon Mountains. East Tucson includes Saguaro National Park East. Tucson's "Restaurant Row" is also located on the east side, along with a significant corporate and financial presence. Restaurant Row is sandwiched by three of Tucson's storied Neighborhoods: Harold Bell Wright Estates, named after the famous author's ranch which occupied some of that area prior to the depression; the Tucson Country Club (the third to bear the name Tucson Country Club), and the Dorado Country Club. Tucson's largest office building is 5151 East Broadway in east Tucson, completed in 1975. The first phases of Williams Centre, a mixed-use, master-planned development on Broadway near Craycroft Road, were opened in 1987. Park Place, a recently renovated shopping center, is also located along Broadway (west of Wilmot Road).

What park was developed between the 1950's and 1970's?

Desert Palms Park

What park is in East Tuscon?

Saguaro National Park East

Which estates were named after a ranch of a famous author?

Harold Bell Wright Estates

What year was Tuscon's largest office building built?

What shopping center is located along Broadway?

Park Place

What part of Tucson is Saguaro National Park East in?

East

When was East Tucson developed?

between the 1950s and the 1970s

What is the boundary of East Tucson?

Swan Road

What is the biggest office building in Tucson?

5151 East Broadway

Where is Park Place?

along Broadway (west of Wilmot Road)


Near the intersection of Craycroft and Ft. Lowell Roads are the remnants of the Historic Fort Lowell. This area has become one of Tucson's iconic neighborhoods. In 1891, the Fort was abandoned and much of the interior was stripped of their useful components and it quickly fell into ruin. In 1900, three of the officer buildings were purchased for use as a sanitarium. The sanitarium was then sold to Harvey Adkins in 1928. The Bolsius family Pete, Nan and Charles Bolsius purchased and renovated surviving adobe buildings of the Fort – transforming them into spectacular artistic southwestern architectural examples. Their woodwork, plaster treatment and sense of proportion drew on their Dutch heritage and New Mexican experience. Other artists and academics throughout the middle of the 20th century, including: Win Ellis, Jack Maul, Madame Cheruy, Giorgio Belloli, Charels Bode, Veronica Hughart, Edward and Rosamond Spicer, Hazel Larson Archer and Ruth Brown, renovated adobes, built homes and lived in the area. The artist colony attracted writers and poets including beat generation Alan Harrington and Jack Kerouac whose visit is documented in his iconic book On the Road. This rural pocket in the middle of the city is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Each year in February the neighborhood celebrates its history in the City Landmark it owns and restored the San Pedro Chapel.

Who bought The sanitarium in 1928?

Harvey Adkins

Jack Kerouac authored what iconic book?

On the Road

What year where three officer building bought and used for a sanitarium?

Alan Harrington is considered part of what generation?

beat generation

Which month does the neighborhood celebrates its history in the City Landmark?

February

When was Fort Lowell shut down?

What were some buildings of Fort Lowell bought to be used for in 1900?

a sanitarium

Who bought the Fort Lowell sanitarium in 1928?

Harvey Adkins

Who renovated Fort Lowell's adobe buildings?

The Bolsius family Pete, Nan and Charles Bolsius

In what book did Jack Kerouac write about visiting Tucson?

On the Road


Southeast Tucson continues to experience rapid residential development. The area includes Davis-Monthan Air Force Base. The area is considered to be south of Golf Links Road. It is the home of Santa Rita High School, Chuck Ford Park (Lakeside Park), Lakeside Lake, Lincoln Park (upper and lower), The Lakecrest Neighborhoods, and Pima Community College East Campus. The Atterbury Wash with its access to excellent bird watching is also located in the Southeast Tucson area. The suburban community of Rita Ranch houses many of the military families from Davis-Monthan, and is near the southeastern-most expansion of the current city limits. Close by Rita Ranch and also within the city limits lies Civano, a planned development meant to showcase ecologically sound building practices and lifestyles.

Where is a great place to bird watch in Southeast Tuscon?

The Atterbury Wash

Where do a lot of the families from Davis-Monthan Air Force Base live at?

Rita Ranch

Rita Ranch also has a planned development called what?

Civano

What is the name of the lake in Southeast Tuscon?

Lakeside Lake

What is the name of the High School in the area of Southeast Tuscon?

Santa Rita High School

What Air Force base is in Tucson?

Davis-Monthan Air Force Base

What is the alternate name of Chuck Ford Park?

Lakeside Park

What community college is in southeast Tucson?

Pima Community College East Campus

Where do many Air Force families live?

Rita Ranch

What is the goal of Civano?

showcase ecologically sound building practices and lifestyles


Catalina Highway stretches 25 miles (40 km) and the entire mountain range is one of Tucson's most popular vacation spots for cycling, hiking, rock climbing, camping, birding, and wintertime snowboarding and skiing. Near the top of Mt. Lemmon is the town of Summerhaven. In Summerhaven, visitors will find log houses and cabins, a general store, and various shops, as well as numerous hiking trails. Near Summerhaven is the road to Ski Valley which hosts a ski lift, several runs, a giftshop, and nearby restaurant.

What area has a ski lift?

Ski Valley

How many miles is Catalina Highway?

What town is near the top of Mt. Lemmon?

Summerhaven

What two winter sports would you do at the mountain range?

snowboarding and skiing

How long is Catalina Highway?

25 miles (40 km)

What activities are popular in the mountains of Tucson?

cycling, hiking, rock climbing, camping, birding, and wintertime snowboarding and skiing

Where is Summerhaven?

Near the top of Mt. Lemmon

What is in Ski Valley?

a ski lift, several runs, a giftshop, and nearby restaurant

What is in Summerhaven?

log houses and cabins, a general store, and various shops, as well as numerous hiking trails


Tucson has a desert climate (Köppen BWh), with two major seasons, summer and winter; plus three minor seasons: fall, spring, and the monsoon. Tucson averages 11.8 inches (299.7 mm) of precipitation per year, more than most other locations with desert climates, but it still qualifies due to its high evapotranspiration; in other words, it experiences a high net loss of water. A similar scenario is seen in Alice Springs, Australia, which averages 11 inches (279.4 mm) a year, but has a desert climate.

What kind of climate is Tuscon?

desert

What is the average amount of  yearly precipitation in Tuscon in inches?

What other city is similar to Tuscon in precipitation and climate?

Alice Springs

What does Tuscon have more than most desert climates?

precipitation

What does Tuscon have a high net loss of?

water

What is Tucson's climate type?

desert

How much rain does Tucson get each year?

11.8 inches (299.7 mm)

What is evapotranspiration?

net loss of water

Which Australian town has a similar climate as Tucson?

Alice Springs

What is Alice Springs's average rainfall?

11 inches (279.4 mm)


The monsoon can begin any time from mid-June to late July, with an average start date around July 3. It typically continues through August and sometimes into September. During the monsoon, the humidity is much higher than the rest of the year. It begins with clouds building up from the south in the early afternoon followed by intense thunderstorms and rainfall, which can cause flash floods. The evening sky at this time of year is often pierced with dramatic lightning strikes. Large areas of the city do not have storm sewers, so monsoon rains flood the main thoroughfares, usually for no longer than a few hours. A few underpasses in Tucson have "feet of water" scales painted on their supports to discourage fording by automobiles during a rainstorm. Arizona traffic code Title 28-910, the so-called "Stupid Motorist Law", was instituted in 1995 to discourage people from entering flooded roadways. If the road is flooded and a barricade is in place, motorists who drive around the barricade can be charged up to $2000 for costs involved in rescuing them. Despite all warnings and precautions, however, three Tucson drivers have drowned between 2004 and 2010.

What year did the "Stupid Motorist Law" come in effect?

How much can a motorist be charged for needing to be rescued after ignoring safety precautions?

A monsoon can last into what month?

September

What is usually higher during a monsoon compared throughout the rest of the year?

humidity

What could you say is the average start for a monsoon?

July 3

When was the "Stupid Motorist Law" passed?

What is the legal name of the "Stupid Motorist Law"?

Arizona traffic code Title 28-910

How much can the "Stupid Motorist Law" charge people for being rescued?

up to $2000

When does Tucson's monsoon usually start?

around July 3

How long does Tucson's monsoon last?

through August and sometimes into September


Winters in Tucson are mild relative to other parts of the United States. Daytime highs in the winter range between 64 and 75 °F (18 and 24 °C), with overnight lows between 30 and 44 °F (−1 and 7 °C). Tucson typically averages one hard freeze per winter season, with temperatures dipping to the mid or low-20s (−7 to −4 °C), but this is typically limited to only a very few nights. Although rare, snow has been known to fall in Tucson, usually a light dusting that melts within a day. The most recent snowfall was on February 20, 2013 when 2.0 inches of snow blanketed the city, the largest snowfall since 1987.

What are Tucson's typical winter high temperatures?

between 64 and 75 °F (18 and 24 °C)

What are Tucson's typical winter low temperatures?

between 30 and 44 °F (−1 and 7 °C)

What do Tucson's hard freeze temperatures dip to?

the mid or low-20s (−7 to −4 °C)

How much snow did Tucson get on Feb 20, 2013?

2.0 inches

When had Tucson last had as much snow as 2013?