The Crusades brought a shift in European trade routes that accelerated the decline of Kievan Rus'. In 1204 the forces of the Fourth Crusade sacked Constantinople, making the Dnieper trade route marginal. At the same time the Teutonic Knights (of the Northern Crusades) were conquering the Baltic region and threatening the Lands of Novgorod. Concurrently with it the Ruthenian Federation of Kievan Rus' started to disintegrate into smaller principalities as the Rurik dynasty grew. The local Orthodox Christianity of Kievan Rus', while struggling to establish itself in the predominantly pagan state and losing its main base in Constantinople was on the brink of extinction. Some of the main regional centres that developed later were Novgorod, Chernigov, Galich, Kiev, Ryazan, Vladimir-upon-Klyazma, Vladimir of Volyn and Polotsk.

What helped speed up the decline of the Kievan Rus?

The Crusades

In what year did the Crusade sack Constantinople?

What group was attacking the the Baltic Region in 1204?

Teutonic Knights

What helped restore the Kievam Rus?

I'm not sure.

What year did the Kievan Rus go into decline?

I'm not sure.

What group united the Baltic region in 1204?

I'm not sure.

What helped the keep the local Orthodox Christianity of Kievan Rus?

I'm not sure.


In the north, the Republic of Novgorod prospered because it controlled trade routes from the River Volga to the Baltic Sea. As Kievan Rus' declined, Novgorod became more independent. A local oligarchy ruled Novgorod; major government decisions were made by a town assembly, which also elected a prince as the city's military leader. In the 12th century, Novgorod acquired its own archbishop Ilya in 1169, a sign of increased importance and political independence, while about 30 years prior to that in 1136 in Novgorod was established a republican form of government - elective monarchy. Since then Novgorod enjoyed a wide degree of autonomy although being closely associated with the Kievan Rus.

Why was the Republic of Novgorod doing so well while the Kievan Rus declined?

it controlled trade routes

What happened to Novgorod when Kievan Rus began to decline?

became more independent

In what year did Novgorod aquire its own archbishop?

What prospered in the south?

I'm not sure.

Why was the Republic of Novogorod doing so poorly?

I'm not sure.

What year did Novgorod assign its own archbishop?

I'm not sure.

What was a sign of decreased important and political independence?

I'm not sure.

When was Novgorad established as a democrat form of government?

I'm not sure.


In the northeast, Slavs from the Kievan region colonized the territory that later would become the Grand Duchy of Moscow by subjugating and merging with the Finnic tribes already occupying the area. The city of Rostov, the oldest centre of the northeast, was supplanted first by Suzdal and then by the city of Vladimir, which become the capital of Vladimir-Suzdal'. The combined principality of Vladimir-Suzdal asserted itself as a major power in Kievan Rus' in the late 12th century. In 1169 Prince Andrey Bogolyubskiy of Vladimir-Suzdal sacked the city of Kiev and took over the title of the (Великий Князь/Velikiy Knyaz/Grand Prince or Grand Duke) to Vladimir, this way claiming the primacy in Rus'. Prince Andrey then installed his younger brother, who ruled briefly in Kiev while Andrey continued to rule his realm from Suzdal. In 1299, in the wake of the Mongol invasion, the metropolitan moved from Kiev to the city of Vladimir and Vladimir-Suzdal.

The Slavs from Kievan would eventually settle in the North East of the region, What would this region later become?

Grand Duchy of Moscow

What was the name of the oldest city in the north east?

Rostov

In what year did the mongol invasion begin?

In 1299

How did the Slavs form the Grand Duchy of Moscow in the southeast?

I'm not sure.

What is the youngest centre in the southeast?

I'm not sure.

What city did Prince Andrey Bogolyuskiy sack in the 12th century?

I'm not sure.

Who did not take the title of Grand Prince?

I'm not sure.

When did Vladimir-Suzdal assert itself as a minor power?

I'm not sure.


To the southwest, the principality of Halych had developed trade relations with its Polish, Hungarian and Lithuanian neighbours and emerged as the local successor to Kievan Rus'. In 1199, Prince Roman Mstislavich united the two previously separate principalities. In 1202 he conquered Kiev, and assumed the title of Grand Duke of Kievan Rus', which was held by the rulers of Vladimir-Suzdal since 1169. His son, Prince Daniil (r. 1238–1264) looked for support from the West. He accepted a crown as a "Rex Rusiae" ("King of Russia") from the Roman papacy, apparently doing so without breaking with Constantinople. In 1370, the patriarch of the Eastern Orthodox Church in Constantinople granted the King of Poland a metropolitan for his Russian subjects. Lithuanian rulers also requested and received a metropolitan for Novagrudok shortly afterwards. Cyprian, a candidate pushed by the Lithuanian rulers, became Metropolitan of Kiev in 1375 and metropolitan of Moscow in 1382; this way the church in the Russian countries was reunited for some time. In 1439, Kiev became the seat of a separate "Metropolitan of Kiev, Galich and all Rus'" for all Greek Orthodox Christians under Polish-Lithuanian rule.

Which neighbors did Halych develop trade relations with?

Polish, Hungarian and Lithuanian

Who united the two previously separated principalities?

Prince Roman Mstislavich

In what year did Mstislavich defeat the Kiev?

Who became metropolitan in 1370?

Cyprian

Which neighbors did Halych not develop trade relations with?

I'm not sure.

Who did not unit the two principalities?

I'm not sure.

Who did not conquer Kiev in 1202?

I'm not sure.

When did Prince Daniil rule?

I'm not sure.

What did the patriarch of the Western Orthodox Church grant?

I'm not sure.


Due to the expansion of trade and its geographical proximity, Kiev became the most important trade centre and chief among the communes; therefore the leader of Kiev gained political "control" over the surrounding areas. This princedom emerged from a coalition of traditional patriarchic family communes banded together in an effort to increase the applicable workforce and expand the productivity of the land. This union developed the first major cities in the Rus' and was the first notable form of self-government. As these communes became larger, the emphasis was taken off the family holdings and placed on the territory that surrounded. This shift in ideology became known as the verv'.

How did the leader of Kiev gain political control?

Due to the expansion of trade

From what did this new princedom emerge from?

from a coalition of traditional patriarchic family communes

What type of government came from the coalition of traditional patriachic family?

first notable form of self-government

What caused the decline of Kiev political power?

I'm not sure.

What emerged from a traditional matriarchal family communes?

I'm not sure.

Why did the patriarchic family communes not band together?

I'm not sure.

What became smaller with am emphasis on family holdings?

I'm not sure.


In the 11th century and the 12th century, the princes and their retinues, which were a mixture of Slavic and Scandinavian elites, dominated the society of Kievan Rus'. Leading soldiers and officials received income and land from the princes in return for their political and military services. Kievan society lacked the class institutions and autonomous towns that were typical of Western European feudalism. Nevertheless, urban merchants, artisans and labourers sometimes exercised political influence through a city assembly, the veche (council), which included all the adult males in the population. In some cases, the veche either made agreements with their rulers or expelled them and invited others to take their place. At the bottom of society was a stratum of slaves. More important was a class of tribute-paying peasants, who owed labour duty to the princes. The widespread personal serfdom characteristic of Western Europe did not exist in Kievan Rus'.

Which two groups dominated the society of Kievan Rus?

mixture of Slavic and Scandinavian elites

What was severely lacking in Kievan in the 12th century?

class institutions and autonomous towns

What was the group called that owed labour duty to the princes?

tribute-paying peasants

Which two groups did not dominate societyof Kievan Rus?

I'm not sure.

Who did not receive income and land from the princes?

I'm not sure.

What was not lacking in Kievan in the 12th century?

I'm not sure.

What was the group called that did not owe labour duty to the princes?

I'm not sure.

What was widespread in Eastern Europe?

I'm not sure.


The change in political structure led to the inevitable development of the peasant class or smerdy. The smerdy were free un-landed people that found work by labouring for wages on the manors which began to develop around 1031 as the verv' began to dominate socio-political structure. The smerdy were initially given equality in the Kievian law code, they were theoretically equal to the prince, so they enjoyed as much freedom as can be expected of manual labourers. However, in the 13th century they began to slowly lose their rights and became less equal in the eyes of the law.

What eventually led to the creation of the peasant/smerdy class?

change in political structure

When did wages on the manors develop?

What were the smerdy initially given in the Kievian law code?

given equality

What lead to the eventual destruction of the peasant/smerdy class?

I'm not sure.

Who were the free landed people that worked by labouring for wages?

I'm not sure.

Who was not given equality in the Kievian law code?

I'm not sure.

Who was theoretically not equal to the prince?

I'm not sure.

Who began to slowly gain their rights and become more equal in the eyes of the law?

I'm not sure.


Kievan Rus', although sparsely populated compared to Western Europe, was not only the largest contemporary European state in terms of area but also culturally advanced. Literacy in Kiev, Novgorod and other large cities was high. As birch bark documents attest, they exchanged love letters and prepared cheat sheets for schools. Novgorod had a sewage system and wood paving not often found in other cities at the time. The Russkaya Pravda confined punishments to fines and generally did not use capital punishment. Certain rights were accorded to women, such as property and inheritance rights.

Despite being much smaller than wester europe, what they known for being?

the largest contemporary European state

What could you find in Novgorod that you couldn't in most other cities?

sewage system and wood paving

What were some of the rights women had during this time period?

property and inheritance rights

What area was sparsely populated compared to Northern Europe?

I'm not sure.

Despite being larger than Western Europe, what was Kievan Rus known for being?

I'm not sure.

What couldn't you find in Novgoroad that was available in most other cities?

I'm not sure.

Who did not confine punishment to fines and used capital punishment?

I'm not sure.

What rights were denied to women?

I'm not sure.


Kievan Rus' also played an important genealogical role in European politics. Yaroslav the Wise, whose stepmother belonged to the Macedonian dynasty, the greatest one to rule Byzantium, married the only legitimate daughter of the king who Christianized Sweden. His daughters became queens of Hungary, France and Norway, his sons married the daughters of a Polish king and a Byzantine emperor (not to mention a niece of the Pope), while his granddaughters were a German Empress and (according to one theory) the queen of Scotland. A grandson married the only daughter of the last Anglo-Saxon king of England. Thus the Rurikids were a well-connected royal family of the time.

To which dynasty did Yarolav's step mother belong to?

Macedonian dynasty

Which three countried did Yaroslav's daughters become queens of?

Hungary, France and Norway

Who did Yaroslav's sons marry?

daughters of a Polish king and a Byzantine emperor

What did not play an important role in European politics?

I'm not sure.

Whose stepmother did not belong to a Macedonian dynasty?

I'm not sure.

Who was not the greatest ruler of Byzantium?

I'm not sure.

Which countries did Yaroslav's sons become kings of?

I'm not sure.

Who did Yaroslav's sons not marry?

I'm not sure.


From the 9th century, the Pecheneg nomads began an uneasy relationship with Kievan Rus′. For over two centuries they launched sporadic raids into the lands of Rus′, which sometimes escalated into full-scale wars (such as the 920 war on the Pechenegs by Igor of Kiev reported in the Primary Chronicle), but there were also temporary military alliances (e.g. the 943 Byzantine campaign by Igor). In 968, the Pechenegs attacked and besieged the city of Kiev. Some speculation exists that the Pechenegs drove off the Tivertsi and the Ulichs to the regions of the upper Dniester river in Bukovina. The Byzantine Empire was known to support the Pechenegs in their military campaigns against the Eastern Slavic states.[citation needed]

How early did the relationship begin between the Pecheneg and the Rus?

9th century

What did the Pecheneg frequesntly do over the span of two centuries?

sporadic raids into the lands of Rus

What year did the Pechenges attack the city of Kiev?

Whichgroup was known to support the Pecheneges in their military efforts?

Byzantine Empire

How late did the relationship between the Pecheneg and the Rus begin?

I'm not sure.

What did the Pecheneg frequently not do over the span of two centuries?

I'm not sure.

What did not escalate in full scale wars?

I'm not sure.

What year did the Pecheneg war begin?

I'm not sure.

What year did Pechenegs make peace with the city of Kiev?

I'm not sure.


The exact date of creation of the Kiev Metropolis is uncertain, as well as who was the first leader of the church. Predominantly it is considered that the first head was Michael I of Kiev, however some sources also claim Leontiy who is often placed after Michael or Anastas Chersonesos, became the first bishop of the Church of the Tithes. The first metropolitan to be confirmed by historical sources is Theopemp, who was appointed by Patriarch Alexius of Constantinople in 1038. Before 1015 there were five dioceses: Kiev, Chernihiv, Bilhorod, Volodymyr, Novgorod, and soon thereafter Yuriy-upon-Ros. The Kiev Metropolitan sent his own delegation to the Council of Bari in 1098.

Although uncertian, who is considered to be the first head of Kiev?

Michael I

Who was considered to be the first bishop of the Church of the Titches?

Leontiy

What year was the creation of the Kiev Metropolis?

I'm not sure.

Who was the last bishop of the Churchof Tiches?

I'm not sure.

Who was the leader of the church of the Kiev Metropolis?

I'm not sure.

Who was confirmed to be the first metropolitan to be confirmed in the 10th century?

I'm not sure.

How many dioceses were there in the 10th century?

I'm not sure.


The Super Nintendo Entertainment System (officially abbreviated the Super NES[b] or SNES[c], and commonly shortened to Super Nintendo[d]) is a 16-bit home video game console developed by Nintendo that was released in 1990 in Japan and South Korea, 1991 in North America, 1992 in Europe and Australasia (Oceania), and 1993 in South America. In Japan, the system is called the Super Famicom (Japanese: スーパーファミコン, Hepburn: Sūpā Famikon?, officially adopting the abbreviated name of its predecessor, the Family Computer), or SFC for short. In South Korea, it is known as the Super Comboy (슈퍼 컴보이 Syupeo Keomboi) and was distributed by Hyundai Electronics. Although each version is essentially the same, several forms of regional lockout prevent the different versions from being compatible with one another. It was released in Brazil on September 2, 1992, by Playtronic.

When was the SNES released in the US?

Where was the SNES first released?

Japan and South Korea

What was the SNES called in Japan?

Super Famicom

What was the SNES called in South Korea?

Super Comboy

When was the SNES released in Australia?

What did South Korea develop that was released in 1992?

I'm not sure.

What is the regional lockout form in Austrailasia?

I'm not sure.

What is another name for the Super Comboy in North America?

I'm not sure.

What is the definition of the Hepburn released in Brazil in 1990?

I'm not sure.

What company developed the Super Comboy in Brazil in 1990?

I'm not sure.


To compete with the popular Family Computer in Japan, NEC Home Electronics launched the PC Engine in 1987, and Sega Enterprises followed suit with the Mega Drive in 1988. The two platforms were later launched in North America in 1989 as the TurboGrafx-16 and the Genesis respectively. Both systems were built on 16-bit architectures and offered improved graphics and sound over the 8-bit NES. However, it took several years for Sega's system to become successful. Nintendo executives were in no rush to design a new system, but they reconsidered when they began to see their dominance in the market slipping.

What was NEC's competitor to the NES called in Japan?

PC Engine

What was Sega's competitor to the NES called in Japan?

Mega Drive

What was NEC's competitor to the NES called in the US?

What was Sega's competitor to the NES called in the US?

Genesis

What were the Genesis's advantages over the NES?

built on 16-bit architectures and offered improved graphics and sound

What did SEGA release in 1987?

I'm not sure.

What did NEC Home Electronics release in 1988?

I'm not sure.

What was launched in North America in 1987?

I'm not sure.

How was the 8-bit NES an improvement?

I'm not sure.

How long did it take the Family Computer to be successful?

I'm not sure.


Designed by Masayuki Uemura, the designer of the original Famicom, the Super Famicom was released in Japan on Wednesday, November 21, 1990 for ¥25,000 (US$210). It was an instant success; Nintendo's initial shipment of 300,000 units sold out within hours, and the resulting social disturbance led the Japanese government to ask video game manufacturers to schedule future console releases on weekends. The system's release also gained the attention of the Yakuza, leading to a decision to ship the devices at night to avoid robbery.

Who designed both the NES and SNES?

Masayuki Uemura

How much in yen did the Super Famicom cost in Japan?

How much in dollars did the Super Famicom cost in Japan?

How many Super Famicoms were produced in the first run?

What criminal group plotted to steal Super Famicoms?

the Yakuza

What did the Japanese government release in Japan on November 21, 1990?

I'm not sure.

How many units were stolen by the Yakuza?

I'm not sure.

How much did the original Famicom cost in Japan?

I'm not sure.

After the original Famicom sold out, what did the Japanese government do?

I'm not sure.

What event happened after the Yakuza noticed the sale of the original Famicom?

I'm not sure.


On August 23, 1991,[a] Nintendo released the Super Nintendo Entertainment System, a redesigned version of the Super Famicom, in North America for US$199. The SNES was released in the United Kingdom and Ireland in April 1992 for GB£150, with a German release following a few weeks later. Most of the PAL region versions of the console use the Japanese Super Famicom design, except for labeling and the length of the joypad leads. The Playtronic Super NES in Brazil, although PAL, uses the North American design. Both the NES and SNES were released in Brazil in 1993 by Playtronic, a joint venture between the toy company Estrela and consumer electronics company Gradiente.

How much did the SNES cost in the US?

How much did the SNES cost in the UK?

When was the SNES released in the UK?

April 1992

When was the SNES released in Brazil?

Which company distributed the SNES in Brazil?

Playtronic

What was a redesign of the Super NES?

I'm not sure.

How much did the Super Famicom cost in Germany?

I'm not sure.

How much did the Playtronic cost in the UK and Ireland?

I'm not sure.

What kind of design did the Playtronic Super NES use in Ireland?

I'm not sure.

What venture released the Super Famicom in Brazil in 1991?

I'm not sure.


The rivalry between Nintendo and Sega resulted in what has been described as one of the most notable console wars in video game history, in which Sega positioned the Genesis as the "cool" console, with more mature titles aimed at older gamers, and edgy advertisements that occasionally attacked the competition. Nintendo however, scored an early public relations advantage by securing the first console conversion of Capcom's arcade classic Street Fighter II for SNES, which took over a year to make the transition to Genesis. Despite the Genesis's head start, much larger library of games, and lower price point, the Genesis only represented an estimated 60% of the American 16-bit console market in June 1992, and neither console could maintain a definitive lead for several years. Donkey Kong Country is said to have helped establish the SNES's market prominence in the latter years of the 16-bit generation, and for a time, maintain against the PlayStation and Saturn. According to Nintendo, the company had sold more than 20 million SNES units in the U.S. According to a 2014 Wedbush Securities report based on NPD sales data, the SNES ultimately outsold the Genesis in the U.S. market.

What market did the Genesis target?

older gamers

How much sooner than the Genesis did the Street Fighter II game come out for SNES?

over a year

How much of the US 16-bit console market did the Genesis have in summer 1992?

What game was key to the SNES's success?

Donkey Kong Country

How many SNES units were sold in the US overall?

more than 20 million

How many units did SEGA sell in the US?

I'm not sure.

According to a 1992 report by SEGA, how did the consoles sell in the US?

I'm not sure.

How did SEGA position the NES?

I'm not sure.

What kind of game titles did the SNES have?

I'm not sure.

What did Donkey Kong Country do for video game history?

I'm not sure.


During the NES era, Nintendo maintained exclusive control over titles released for the system—the company had to approve every game, each third-party developer could only release up to five games per year (but some third parties got around this by using different names, for example Konami's "Ultra Games" brand), those games could not be released on another console within two years, and Nintendo was the exclusive manufacturer and supplier of NES cartridges. However, competition from Sega's console brought an end to this practice; in 1991, Acclaim began releasing games for both platforms, with most of Nintendo's other licensees following suit over the next several years; Capcom (which licensed some games to Sega instead of producing them directly) and Square were the most notable holdouts.

What was Nintendo's limit on games per developer per year on the NES?

five

What alternate name did Konami use to get around Nintendo's yearly limit?

Ultra Games

For how many years did Nintendo require exclusivity on NES games?

two

Which competitor caused Nintendo to end its restrictions on game developers?

Sega

Which developer began releasing games for both NES and Sega in 1991?

Acclaim

What kind of control did SEGA maintain during the NES era?

I'm not sure.

How many games were released per year by Square?

I'm not sure.

What practice did competition from Capcom end?

I'm not sure.

What did Nintendo do in 1991?

I'm not sure.

What did SEGA have to approve during the Konami era?

I'm not sure.


The company continued to carefully review submitted titles, giving them scores using a 40-point scale and allocating Nintendo's marketing resources accordingly. Each region performed separate evaluations. Nintendo of America also maintained a policy that, among other things, limited the amount of violence in the games on its systems. One game, Mortal Kombat, would challenge this policy. A surprise hit in arcades in 1992, Mortal Kombat features splashes of blood and finishing moves that often depict one character dismembering the other. Because the Genesis version retained the gore while the SNES version did not, it outsold the SNES version by a ratio of three or four-to-one.

How did Nintendo rank submitted games?

using a 40-point scale

What game first challenged Nintendo's anti-violence policy?

Mortal Kombat

When was Mortal Kombat released in arcades?

Which game console had a full-gore version of Mortal Kombat?

Genesis

How much did the Genesis version of Mortal Kombat out-sell the SNES version?

three or four-to-one

How did Genesis rank submitted titles?

I'm not sure.

What was the policy of Genesis about games?

I'm not sure.

When was Mortal Kombat submitted to Nintendo?

I'm not sure.

By how much did the SNES version outsell the Genesis one?

I'm not sure.

What were the features that included gore in the SNES version?

I'm not sure.


Game players were not the only ones to notice the violence in this game; US Senators Herb Kohl and Joe Lieberman convened a Congressional hearing on December 9, 1993 to investigate the marketing of violent video games to children.[e] While Nintendo took the high ground with moderate success, the hearings led to the creation of the Interactive Digital Software Association and the Entertainment Software Rating Board, and the inclusion of ratings on all video games. With these ratings in place, Nintendo decided its censorship policies were no longer needed.

Which senators held a hearing about video game violence in 1993?

Herb Kohl and Joe Lieberman

What was the focus of the hearing about video game violence in 1993?

the marketing of violent video games to children

What organizations did the hearing about video game violence in 1993 lead to?

the Interactive Digital Software Association and the Entertainment Software Rating Board

What regulatory change did the hearing about video game violence in 1993 lead to?

the inclusion of ratings on all video games

How did video game ratings affect Nintendo?

Nintendo decided its censorship policies were no longer needed

How did game players affect Nintendo's policy?

I'm not sure.

What did the Digital Software Association investigate in 1993?

I'm not sure.

What position did Senator Joe Lieberman take on the issue?

I'm not sure.

How successful was Senator Herb Kohl during the hearing?

I'm not sure.

What organizations were created due to Nintendo taking the high ground?

I'm not sure.


While other companies were moving on to 32-bit systems, Rare and Nintendo proved that the SNES was still a strong contender in the market. In November 1994, Rare released Donkey Kong Country, a platform game featuring 3D models and textures pre-rendered on SGI workstations. With its detailed graphics, fluid animation and high-quality music, Donkey Kong Country rivaled the aesthetic quality of games that were being released on newer 32-bit CD-based consoles. In the last 45 days of 1994, the game sold 6.1 million units, making it the fastest-selling video game in history to that date. This game sent a message that early 32-bit systems had little to offer over the SNES, and helped make way for the more advanced consoles on the horizon.

Which company developed Donkey Kong Country?

Rare

When was Donkey Kong Country released?

November 1994

What kind of computers were Donkey Kong Country's graphics rendered on?

SGI workstations

How many copies of Donkey Kong Country were sold in its first 45 days?

6.1 million

How did Donkey Kong Country's quality compare to games on newer consoles?

detailed graphics, fluid animation and high-quality music

What was Nintendo moving on to?

I'm not sure.

When did Nintendo release Donkey Kong Country?

I'm not sure.

How many copies of Donkey Kong Country were sold in November 1994?

I'm not sure.

What was the quality of Donkey Cong Country compared to games on Rare consoles?

I'm not sure.

What message did SGI workstations send to Rare about games?

I'm not sure.


In October 1997, Nintendo released a redesigned model of the SNES (the SNS-101 model) in North America for US$99, which sometimes included the pack-in game Super Mario World 2: Yoshi's Island. Like the earlier redesign of the NES (the NES-101 model), the new model was slimmer and lighter than its predecessor, but it lacked S-Video and RGB output, and it was among the last major SNES-related releases in the region. A similarly redesigned Super Famicom Jr. was released in Japan at around the same time.

How much did the SNS-101 cost in the US?

What game was bundled with the SNS-101?

Super Mario World 2: Yoshi's Island

What features were removed in the SNS-101?

S-Video and RGB output

What redesigned console was released in Japan at the time of the SNS-101?

Super Famicom Jr.

When was the SNS-101 released in the US?

October 1997

How much did the Super Famicom Jr. cost in North America?

I'm not sure.

What was missing from the Super Famicom Jr.?

I'm not sure.

What did the NES-101 model include?

I'm not sure.

When was the NES-101 released in Japan?

I'm not sure.

How many new releases were offered for the Super Famicom Jr.?

I'm not sure.


Internally, a regional lockout chip (CIC) within the console and in each cartridge prevents PAL region games from being played on Japanese or North American consoles and vice versa. The Japanese and North American machines have the same region chip. This can be overcome through the use of adapters, typically by inserting the imported cartridge in one slot and a cartridge with the correct region chip in a second slot. Alternatively, disconnecting one pin of the console's lockout chip will prevent it from locking the console; hardware in later games can detect this situation, so it later became common to install a switch to reconnect the lockout chip as needed.

How were adapters used to get around PAL region restrictions?

by inserting the imported cartridge in one slot and a cartridge with the correct region chip in a second slot

How was hardware modification used to get around PAL region restrictions?

disconnecting one pin of the console's lockout chip

What problem did the hardware modification cause with later games?

hardware in later games can detect this situation, so it later became common to install a switch to reconnect the lockout chip as needed

What does having a cartridge in the console prevent in North American consoles?

I'm not sure.

What had to be installed when adapters detect the locked console?

I'm not sure.

How were lockout chips used to get around PAL restrictions?

I'm not sure.

What did adapters with later consoles detect that caused a problem with modification?

I'm not sure.

What kind of machines have the same adapters?

I'm not sure.


PAL consoles face another incompatibility when playing out-of-region cartridges: the NTSC video standard specifies video at 60 Hz while PAL operates at 50 Hz, resulting in approximately 16.7% slower gameplay. Additionally, PAL's higher resolution results in letterboxing of the output image. Some commercial PAL region releases exhibit this same problem and, therefore, can be played in NTSC systems without issue while others will face a 20% speedup if played in an NTSC console. To mostly correct this issue, a switch can be added to place the SNES PPU into a 60 Hz mode supported by most newer PAL televisions. Later games will detect this setting and refuse to run, requiring the switch to be thrown only after the check completes.

What video frequency does NTSC use?

60 Hz

What video frequency does PAL use?

50 Hz

How much slower do games run on PAL consoles than NTSC due to frequency differences?

16.7% slower

What hardware modification could be made to the SNES to support game speed differences?

a switch can be added to place the SNES PPU into a 60 Hz mode supported by most newer PAL televisions

What video standard do PPU cartridges use?

I'm not sure.

What video standard to later games operate at?

I'm not sure.

How much slower are games on PPU consoles than PAL due to incompatibility?

I'm not sure.

What do SNES consoles face when facing a 20% speedup?

I'm not sure.

What does NTSC higher resolution result in?

I'm not sure.


All versions of the SNES are predominantly gray, although the exact shade may differ. The original North American version, designed by Nintendo of America industrial designer Lance Barr (who previously redesigned the Famicom to become the NES), has a boxy design with purple sliding switches and a dark gray eject lever. The loading bay surface is curved, both to invite interaction and to prevent food or drinks from being placed on the console and spilling as had happened with the flat surfaced NES. The Japanese and European versions are more rounded, with darker gray accents and buttons. The North American SNS-101 model and the Japanese Super Famicom Jr. (the SHVC-101 model), all designed by Barr, are both smaller with a rounded contour; however, the SNS-101 buttons are purple where the Super Famicom Jr. buttons are gray. The European and American versions of the SNES controllers have much longer cables compared to the Japanese Super Famicom controllers.

What color is the SNES?

predominantly gray

Who designed the North American SNES?

Lance Barr

What was Barr's job?

industrial designer

What color were the North American SNES's buttons?

purple

What color were the Japanese Super Famicom Jr.'s buttons?

gray

What does the Japanese Super Famicom have that is longer than the European and American versions?

I'm not sure.

What color are all versions of the Super Famicom Jr.?

I'm not sure.

What was placed on the console because of the curved surface of the NES?

I'm not sure.

What color were the buttons for the SNS-100 version from Japan?

I'm not sure.

What does the flat surface of the redesigned SNES invite people to do?

I'm not sure.


All versions incorporate a top-loading slot for game cartridges, although the shape of the slot differs between regions to match the different shapes of the cartridges. The MULTI OUT connector (later used on the Nintendo 64 and GameCube) can output composite video, S-Video and RGB signals, as well as RF with an external RF modulator. Original versions additionally include a 28-pin expansion port under a small cover on the bottom of the unit and a standard RF output with channel selection switch on the back; the redesigned models output composite video only, requiring an external modulator for RF.

How is the SNES's slot positioned?

top-loading

What connection types did MULTI OUT support?

composite video, S-Video and RGB signals, as well as RF with an external RF modulator

How many pins did the SNES expansion port have?

What output type was the only one directly supported on the SNS-101?

composite

What other Nintendo systems used MULTI OUT?

Nintendo 64 and GameCube

What do all versions have for expansion ports?

I'm not sure.

Why does the MULTI OUT connector differ between regions?

I'm not sure.

How many pins were on the RF modulator?

I'm not sure.

What two systems later used a channel selection switch?

I'm not sure.

What can all models output that requires them to have an external modulator for RF?

I'm not sure.


The ABS plastic used in the casing of some older SNES and Super Famicom consoles is particularly susceptible to oxidization on exposure to air, likely due to an incorrect mixture of the stabilizing or flame retarding additives. This, along with the particularly light color of the original plastic, causes affected consoles to quickly become yellow; if the sections of the casing came from different batches of plastic, a "two-tone" effect results. The color can sometimes be restored with UV light and a hydrogen peroxide solution.

What material is the SNES case made of?

ABS plastic

What chemical process turned some SNES cases yellow?

oxidization

What mixture error in the plastic caused some SNES cases to turn yellow?

an incorrect mixture of the stabilizing or flame retarding additives

How can SNES yellowing sometimes be reversed?

with UV light and a hydrogen peroxide solution

Why would some SNESes be only partly yellow?

if the sections of the casing came from different batches of plastic

What color did affected consoles become after exposure to UV light?

I'm not sure.

What are flame retarding additives susceptible to?

I'm not sure.

What does hydrogen peroxide inside the cases cause if they came from different batches of plastic?

I'm not sure.

What does the light color of additives help restore to a console?

I'm not sure.

What is caused due to an incorrect mixture of a hydrogen peroxide solution during manufacturing?

I'm not sure.


The cartridge media of the console is officially referred to as Game Pak in most Western regions, and as Cassette (カセット, Kasetto?) in Japan and parts of Latin America. While the SNES can address 128 Mbit,[f] only 117.75 Mbit are actually available for cartridge use. A fairly normal mapping could easily address up to 95 Mbit of ROM data (48 Mbit at FastROM speed) with 8 Mbit of battery-backed RAM. However, most available memory access controllers only support mappings of up to 32 Mbit. The largest games released (Tales of Phantasia and Star Ocean) contain 48 Mbit of ROM data, while the smallest games contain only 2 Mbit.

What are SNES game cartridges officially called in the US?

Game Pak

What are SNES game cartridges officially called in Japan?

Cassette

How much data space can an SNES cartridge use?

117.75 Mbit

What were the largest SNES games?

Tales of Phantasia and Star Ocean

How much data do the smallest SNES games use?

2 Mbit

What is referred to as Cassette in Western regions?

I'm not sure.

What is referred to as Game Pak in Japan?

I'm not sure.

How much ROM data do Talesof Phantasia and Star Ocean have as the smallest games released?

I'm not sure.

What mappings do most Game Pak support in Japan?

I'm not sure.

How many Mbit of FastROM are contained in games from Latin America?

I'm not sure.


The standard SNES controller adds two additional face buttons (X and Y) to the design of the NES iteration, arranging the four in a diamond shape, and introduces two shoulder buttons. It also features an ergonomic design by Lance Barr, later used for the NES-102 model controllers, also designed by Barr. The Japanese and PAL region versions incorporate the colors of the four action buttons into system's logo. The North American version's buttons are colored to match the redesigned console; the X and Y buttons are lavender with concave faces, and the A and B buttons are purple with convex faces. Several later consoles derive elements of their controller design from the SNES, including the PlayStation, Dreamcast, Xbox, and Wii Classic Controller.

What face buttons do SNES controllers have that NES controllers didn't?

X and Y

How many shoulder buttons do SNES controllers have?

two

Who designed the SNES controllers?

Lance Barr

What color are the US SNES controllers' X and Y buttons?

lavender

What color are the US SNES controllers' A and B buttons?

purple

What face buttons do NES controllers have that aren't on the SNES controllers?

I'm not sure.

What was also designed by Dreamcast?

I'm not sure.

What consoles controller designs are inspired by the Japanese system logo?

I'm not sure.

What color are the shoulder buttons X and Y in Japan?

I'm not sure.

How many shoulder buttons are incorporated into the Japanese system logo?

I'm not sure.


Throughout the course of its life, a number of peripherals were released which added to the functionality of the SNES. Many of these devices were modeled after earlier add-ons for the NES: the Super Scope is a light gun functionally similar to the NES Zapper (though the Super Scope features wireless capabilities) and the Super Advantage is an arcade-style joystick with adjustable turbo settings akin to the NES Advantage. Nintendo also released the SNES Mouse in conjunction with its Mario Paint title. Hudson Soft, under license from Nintendo, released the Super Multitap, a multiplayer adapter for use with its popular series of Bomberman games. Some of the more unusual controllers include the BatterUP baseball bat, the Life Fitness Entertainment System (an exercise bike controller with built-in monitoring software), and the TeeV Golf golf club.

What game accessory was similar to the NES Zapper?

Super Scope

What game accessory was similar to the NES Advantage?

Super Advantage

What game used the SNES Mouse?

Mario Paint

What type of accessory was the Super Scope?

light gun

What game came with a baseball bat controller?

BatterUP

What was released that added to the Hudson Soft functionality?

I'm not sure.

What adjustable settings did the Super Scope have on its joystick?

I'm not sure.

What mulit player adapter did Super Scope release under its license from Nintendo?

I'm not sure.

What was the BatterUP baseball bat similar to?

I'm not sure.

What game was the NES Zapper released in conjunction with?

I'm not sure.


While Nintendo never released an adapter for playing NES games on the SNES (though the instructions included a way to connect both consoles to the same TV by either daisy chaining the RF switches or using AV outputs for one or both systems), the Super Game Boy adapter cartridge allows games designed for Nintendo's portable Game Boy system to be played on the SNES. The Super Game Boy touted several feature enhancements over the Game Boy, including palette substitution, custom screen borders, and (for specially enhanced games) access to the SNES console. Japan also saw the release of the Super Game Boy 2, which added a communication port to enable a second Game Boy to connect for multiplayer games.

How did Nintendo say an NES and SNES could be used on the same TV?

either daisy chaining the RF switches or using AV outputs for one or both systems

Which other game system's cartridges could be adapted to the SNES?

Game Boy

What improvements did the Super Game Boy have over the Game Boy?

palette substitution, custom screen borders, and (for specially enhanced games) access to the SNES console

Where was the Super Game Boy 2 released?

Japan

What did the Super Game Boy 2 add?

a communication port to enable a second Game Boy to connect for multiplayer games

In what country was the SNES released?

I'm not sure.

What did the Game Boy add for multiplayer games?

I'm not sure.

What enhancements did the Game Boy have?

I'm not sure.

What allows Game Boy games to be played in Japan?

I'm not sure.

What did Super Game Boy never release for playing NES games on the SNES?

I'm not sure.


Japan saw the release of the Satellaview, a modem which attached to the Super Famicom's expansion port and connected to the St.GIGA satellite radio station. Users of the Satellaview could download gaming news and specially designed games, which were frequently either remakes of or sequels to older Famicom titles, released in installments. Satellaview signals were broadcast from April 23, 1995 through June 30, 2000. In the United States, the similar but relatively short-lived XBAND allowed users to connect to a network via a dial-up modem to compete against other players around the country.

What modem was available for the Japanese SNES?

Satellaview

What service did the Satellaview connect to?

the St.GIGA satellite radio station

When did the Satellaview begin operation?

April 23, 1995

When did the Satellaview end operation?

June 30, 2000

What was the US equivalent of Satellaview?

XBAND

When did dial-up stop broadcasting in the US?

I'm not sure.

When did Satellaview start broadcasting in the US?

I'm not sure.

What did users of XBAND do in Japan?

I'm not sure.

What did an XBAND attach to on consoles in Japan?

I'm not sure.

What kind of games were downloaded on XBAND  to compete in Japan?

I'm not sure.


During the SNES's life, Nintendo contracted with two different companies to develop a CD-ROM-based peripheral for the console to compete with Sega's CD-ROM based addon, Mega-CD. Ultimately, deals with both Sony and Philips fell through, (although a prototype console was produced by Sony) with Philips gaining the right to release a series of titles based on Nintendo franchises for its CD-i multimedia player and Sony going on to develop its own console based on its initial dealings with Nintendo (the PlayStation).

Which companies did Nintendo try to get to make a CD add-on for the SNES?

Sony and Philips

What was Philips' multimedia system?

CD-i

What competing console did Sony release after working with Nintendo?

PlayStation

What was Sega's CD add-on?

Mega-CD

What did Sony do to develop a CD ROM  to compete with Philips?

I'm not sure.

What was the name of Sony's CD ROM?

I'm not sure.

What happened to the deals made with Sega?

I'm not sure.

What did Sega develop after its first dealings with Philips?

I'm not sure.

What was Sega's multimedia player?

I'm not sure.


Nintendo of America took the same stance against the distribution of SNES ROM image files and the use of emulators as it did with the NES, insisting that they represented flagrant software piracy. Proponents of SNES emulation cite discontinued production of the SNES constituting abandonware status, the right of the owner of the respective game to make a personal backup via devices such as the Retrode, space shifting for private use, the desire to develop homebrew games for the system, the frailty of SNES ROM cartridges and consoles, and the lack of certain foreign imports.

What did Nintendo consider emulators?

flagrant software piracy

What is the term for a software product abandoned by its owners?

abandonware

What device allows backing up SNES games?

Retrode

What is the term for homemade software?

homebrew

What did owners of the respective game consider emulators?

I'm not sure.

What status did discontinued image files have?

I'm not sure.

What did Nintendo do under abandonware status via the Retrode?

I'm not sure.

What were emulation supporters against regarding files?

I'm not sure.

What other system did supporters of SNES emulation also take the same stance with?

I'm not sure.


Emulation of the SNES is now available on handheld units, such as Android devices, Apple's iPhone and iPad, Sony's PlayStation Portable (PSP), the Nintendo DS and Game Boy Advance, the Gizmondo, the Dingoo and the GP2X by GamePark Holdings, as well as PDAs. While individual games have been included with emulators on some GameCube discs, Nintendo's Virtual Console service for the Wii marks the introduction of officially sanctioned general SNES emulation, though SNES9x GX, a port of SNES9x, has been made for the Wii.

What smartphones have SNES emulators?

Android devices, Apple's iPhone and iPad

What portable game systems have SNES emulators?

Sony's PlayStation Portable (PSP), the Nintendo DS and Game Boy Advance, the Gizmondo, the Dingoo and the GP2X by GamePark Holdings

What was Nintendo's first approved emulator?

Nintendo's Virtual Console service for the Wii

What was Android's first official emulator?

I'm not sure.

What have been included with emulators on Playstation Portable?

I'm not sure.

What smartphones have Gamecube emulators?

I'm not sure.

What game systems are officially sanctioned by GameCube to include emulators?

I'm not sure.

What is the GP2X a port of on the Wii?

I'm not sure.


In 2007, GameTrailers named the SNES as the second-best console of all time in their list of top ten consoles that "left their mark on the history of gaming", citing its graphic, sound, and library of top-quality games. In 2015, they also named it the best Nintendo console of all time, saying, "The list of games we love from this console completely annihilates any other roster from the Big N." Technology columnist Don Reisinger proclaimed "The SNES is the greatest console of all time" in January 2008, citing the quality of the games and the console's dramatic improvement over its predecessor; fellow technology columnist Will Greenwald replied with a more nuanced view, giving the SNES top marks with his heart, the NES with his head, and the PlayStation (for its controller) with his hands. GamingExcellence also gave the SNES first place in 2008, declaring it "simply the most timeless system ever created" with many games that stand the test of time and citing its innovation in controller design, graphics capabilities, and game storytelling. At the same time, GameDaily rated it fifth of ten for its graphics, audio, controllers, and games. In 2009, IGN named the Super Nintendo Entertainment System the fourth best video game console, complimenting its audio and "concentration of AAA titles".

Which publication said Nintendo's best console ever was the SNES?

GameTrailers

Which writer said the SNES was the best console ever from any company?

Don Reisinger

Where did GameTrailers rank the SNES among all consoles?

second-best

Who said the SNES was "simply the most timeless system ever created"?

GamingExcellence

Where did IGN rank the SNES?

fourth best

Why did GameTrailers name the SNES second-best console of all time in 2008?

I'm not sure.

What did Will Greenwald proclaim about the Playstation in 2009?

I'm not sure.

Who said the Playstation was simply the most timeless system ever created?

I'm not sure.

Why did Big N. Technology rate the Playstation fifth of ten?

I'm not sure.

In 2007 how did GamingExcellence rate the NES?

I'm not sure.


However, some scholars contest the idea of a Proto-Euphratean language or one substrate language. It has been suggested by them and others, that the Sumerian language was originally that of the hunter and fisher peoples, who lived in the marshland and the Eastern Arabia littoral region, and were part of the Arabian bifacial culture. Reliable historical records begin much later; there are none in Sumer of any kind that have been dated before Enmebaragesi (c. 26th century BC). Professor Juris Zarins believes the Sumerians were settled along the coast of Eastern Arabia, today's Persian Gulf region, before it flooded at the end of the Ice Age.

Some scholars contest that there was only one what?

substrate language

Who do some scholars think the Sumerian language originally belonged to?

hunter and fisher peoples

Where did the original Sumerians live?

marshland

What culture did the peoples who would be called Sumerian have a part in?

Arabian bifacial

When were the earliest historical records of Sumer?

26th century BC

What language is believed to have started among nomadic people?

I'm not sure.

What people lived in river region of Arabia?

I'm not sure.

Who was king in the 2600's BC?

I'm not sure.

Who believes the Sumerians lived in the area of modern Persia?

I'm not sure.


Native Sumerian rule re-emerged for about a century in the Neo-Sumerian Empire or Third Dynasty of Ur (Sumerian Renaissance) approximately 2100-2000 BC, but the Akkadian language also remained in use. The Sumerian city of Eridu, on the coast of the Persian Gulf, is considered to have been the world's first city, where three separate cultures may have fused — that of peasant Ubaidian farmers, living in mud-brick huts and practicing irrigation; that of mobile nomadic Semitic pastoralists living in black tents and following herds of sheep and goats; and that of fisher folk, living in reed huts in the marshlands, who may have been the ancestors of the Sumerians.

How long was there native Sumerian rule during the Third Dynasty of Ur?

about a century

When was the Third Dynasty of Ur?

approximately 2100-2000 BC

What language was in use in the Neo-Sumerian Empire?

Akkadian

What is considered to be the world's first city?

Eridu

How many cultures may have fused together in Eridu?

three

What Empire was followed by native Sumerian rule?

I'm not sure.

What dynasty was in power from the 21st to the 20th century BC?

I'm not sure.

What was the worlds first settlement?

I'm not sure.

How many cultures could be found in Arabia at the time?

I'm not sure.


The term "Sumerian" is the common name given to the ancient non-Semitic inhabitants of Mesopotamia, Sumer, by the Semitic Akkadians. The Sumerians referred to themselves as ùĝ saĝ gíg-ga (cuneiform: 𒌦 𒊕 𒈪 𒂵), phonetically /uŋ saŋ giga/, literally meaning "the black-headed people", and to their land as ki-en-gi(-r) ('place' + 'lords' + 'noble'), meaning "place of the noble lords". The Akkadian word Shumer may represent the geographical name in dialect, but the phonological development leading to the Akkadian term šumerû is uncertain. Hebrew Shinar, Egyptian Sngr, and Hittite Šanhar(a), all referring to southern Mesopotamia, could be western variants of Shumer.

What is the common name given to the non-Semitic dwellers of Mesopotamia by the Akkadians?

Sumerian

What did the Sumerians refer to themselves as in their language?

"the black-headed people"

How did the Sumerians refer to their land?

"place of the noble lords"

Shumer, an Akkadian word, could reference what type of name?

geographical

What compass point of Mesopotamia did the Hebrew Shinar refer to?

southern

What is the common name for the Semitic people Mesopotamia?

I'm not sure.

What were the Semitic Akkadians called?

I'm not sure.

What did the term Shumer lead to?

I'm not sure.


The Sumerian city-states rose to power during the prehistoric Ubaid and Uruk periods. Sumerian written history reaches back to the 27th century BC and before, but the historical record remains obscure until the Early Dynastic III period, c. the 23rd century BC, when a now deciphered syllabary writing system was developed, which has allowed archaeologists to read contemporary records and inscriptions. Classical Sumer ends with the rise of the Akkadian Empire in the 23rd century BC. Following the Gutian period, there is a brief Sumerian Renaissance in the 21st century BC, cut short in the 20th century BC by Semitic Amorite invasions. The Amorite "dynasty of Isin" persisted until c. 1700 BC, when Mesopotamia was united under Babylonian rule. The Sumerians were eventually absorbed into the Akkadian (Assyro-Babylonian) population.

During what periods did the Sumerican city-states rise to power?

prehistoric Ubaid and Uruk

What is obscure until the Early Dynastic III period around the 23rd century BC?

Sumerian written history

What was developed that has allowed archaeologists to read contemporary records and inscriptions?

syllabary writing system

When does Classical Sumer end?

rise of the Akkadian Empire

What cut short the Sumerian Renaissance in the 21st century BC?

Semitic Amorite invasions

What city-states declined during the Ubaid and Uruk periods?

I'm not sure.

What history goes back to 2700's BC?

I'm not sure.

What was obscure until 2300 BC?

I'm not sure.

What Empire came to power in 2300 BC?

I'm not sure.

What dynasty lasted until the 17th century BC?

I'm not sure.


The Ubaid period is marked by a distinctive style of fine quality painted pottery which spread throughout Mesopotamia and the Persian Gulf. During this time, the first settlement in southern Mesopotamia was established at Eridu (Cuneiform: NUN.KI), c. 5300 BC, by farmers who brought with them the Hadji Muhammed culture, which first pioneered irrigation agriculture. It appears that this culture was derived from the Samarran culture from northern Mesopotamia. It is not known whether or not these were the actual Sumerians who are identified with the later Uruk culture. Eridu remained an important religious center when it was gradually surpassed in size by the nearby city of Uruk. The story of the passing of the me (gifts of civilization) to Inanna, goddess of Uruk and of love and war, by Enki, god of wisdom and chief god of Eridu, may reflect this shift in hegemony.

Fine quality painted pottery is a distinctive style of what period in Sumerian history?

Ubaid

Where could the pottery be found spread throughout?

Mesopotamia and the Persian Gulf

During the Ubaid, where was the first settlement in southern Mesopotamia established?

Eridu

What type of agriculture did the farmers settling at Eridu bring with them?

irrigation

Who was the chief god of Eridu?

Enki

What period was marked by a decline in Mesopotamian and Persian fine Art?

I'm not sure.

what was established at Eridu in the 53rd century BC?

I'm not sure.

What culture adopted and improved on irrigation agriculture?

I'm not sure.

What city became the new religious center after Eridu?

I'm not sure.


By the time of the Uruk period (c. 4100–2900 BC calibrated), the volume of trade goods transported along the canals and rivers of southern Mesopotamia facilitated the rise of many large, stratified, temple-centered cities (with populations of over 10,000 people) where centralized administrations employed specialized workers. It is fairly certain that it was during the Uruk period that Sumerian cities began to make use of slave labor captured from the hill country, and there is ample evidence for captured slaves as workers in the earliest texts. Artifacts, and even colonies of this Uruk civilization have been found over a wide area—from the Taurus Mountains in Turkey, to the Mediterranean Sea in the west, and as far east as central Iran.

What facilitated the rise of Sumerian cities?

trade goods

How were trade goods transported in southern Mesopotamia?

transported along the canals and rivers

How many people lived in the cities?

over 10,000

During which period did Sumerian cities begin using slave labor?

Uruk

What have been found as far east as central Iran?

Artifacts

What period ranged from the 41st to the 29th century BC?

I'm not sure.

What was transported along the rovers and canals of northern Mesopotamia?

I'm not sure.

Who employed many laborers in the cities?

I'm not sure.

When did Sumerians stop using slave labor?

I'm not sure.


Sumerian cities during the Uruk period were probably theocratic and were most likely headed by a priest-king (ensi), assisted by a council of elders, including both men and women. It is quite possible that the later Sumerian pantheon was modeled upon this political structure. There was little evidence of organized warfare or professional soldiers during the Uruk period, and towns were generally unwalled. During this period Uruk became the most urbanized city in the world, surpassing for the first time 50,000 inhabitants.

What is an "ensi"?

priest-king

What type of leadership did Sumerian cities during the Uruk period probably have?

theocratic

Who assisted the ensi?

a council of elders

What was the most urbanized city in the world at the time?

Uruk

Over how many people lived in Uruk?

When were Sumerian cities lead by a council of elders?

I'm not sure.

What was the Sumerian political structure based on?

I'm not sure.

During what period did Sumeria develop professional soldiers?

I'm not sure.

How many inhabitants did Sumeria have during the Uruk period?

I'm not sure.


The earliest dynastic king on the Sumerian king list whose name is known from any other legendary source is Etana, 13th king of the first dynasty of Kish. The earliest king authenticated through archaeological evidence is Enmebaragesi of Kish (c. 26th century BC), whose name is also mentioned in the Gilgamesh epic—leading to the suggestion that Gilgamesh himself might have been a historical king of Uruk. As the Epic of Gilgamesh shows, this period was associated with increased war. Cities became walled, and increased in size as undefended villages in southern Mesopotamia disappeared. (Gilgamesh is credited with having built the walls of Uruk).

What is the name of the earliest dynastic Sumerian king?

Etana

What dynasty was Etana the 13th king of?

Kish

Who is the earliest king that is authenticated by actual physical evidence and not just legend?

Enmebaragesi

Where is Enmebaragesi's name mentioned?

Gilgamesh epic

What is the period of Enmebaragesi's reign associated with?

increased war

Who is the first Sumerian king?

I'm not sure.

Who was the king during the last dynasty o Kish?

I'm not sure.

Who was king of Kish in the 2600's BC?

I'm not sure.

What epic was about Enmebaragesi?

I'm not sure.

What hero destroyed the walls of Uruk?

I'm not sure.


Although short-lived, one of the first empires known to history was that of Eannatum of Lagash, who annexed practically all of Sumer, including Kish, Uruk, Ur, and Larsa, and reduced to tribute the city-state of Umma, arch-rival of Lagash. In addition, his realm extended to parts of Elam and along the Persian Gulf. He seems to have used terror as a matter of policy. Eannatum's Stele of the Vultures depicts vultures pecking at the severed heads and other body parts of his enemies. His empire collapsed shortly after his death.

What is one of the first empires known in history?

Eannatum of Lagash,

What city-state was the rival of Lagash?

Umma

What did Eannatum annex?

practically all of Sumer

What did Eannatum use to keep the people of the time in line?

terror

What happened to Eannatum's empire after his death?

collapsed

What was the shortest empire in history?

I'm not sure.

What city was the ally of Lagash?

I'm not sure.

What cities flocked to Eannatum's empire?

I'm not sure.

Who made Lagash a tribute state?

I'm not sure.


The Semitic Akkadian language is first attested in proper names of the kings of Kish c. 2800 BC, preserved in later king lists. There are texts written entirely in Old Akkadian dating from c. 2500 BC. Use of Old Akkadian was at its peak during the rule of Sargon the Great (c. 2270–2215 BC), but even then most administrative tablets continued to be written in Sumerian, the language used by the scribes. Gelb and Westenholz differentiate three stages of Old Akkadian: that of the pre-Sargonic era, that of the Akkadian empire, and that of the "Neo-Sumerian Renaissance" that followed it. Akkadian and Sumerian coexisted as vernacular languages for about one thousand years, but by around 1800 BC, Sumerian was becoming more of a literary language familiar mainly only to scholars and scribes. Thorkild Jacobsen has argued that there is little break in historical continuity between the pre- and post-Sargon periods, and that too much emphasis has been placed on the perception of a "Semitic vs. Sumerian" conflict. However, it is certain that Akkadian was also briefly imposed on neighboring parts of Elam that were previously conquered by Sargon.

Where is the Semetic Akkadian language first found?

proper names of the kings of Kish

Where is the Semetic Akkadian language found preserved after 2800 BC?

king lists

During whose rule was the use of Old Akkadian at its peak?

Sargon the Great

What language did scribes use over Akkadian?

Sumerian

How long did Akkadian and Sumerian coexist as spoken languages?

about one thousand years

What language was used only to make the king lists?

I'm not sure.

What language was used for the kings list in the 28th century BC?

I'm not sure.

What was written in the 25th century BC?

I'm not sure.

Who's reign ended in the 22nd century BC?

I'm not sure.

What was a literary language by the 18th century BC?

I'm not sure.


Later, the 3rd dynasty of Ur under Ur-Nammu and Shulgi, whose power extended as far as southern Assyria, was the last great "Sumerian renaissance", but already the region was becoming more Semitic than Sumerian, with the rise in power of the Akkadian speaking Semites in Assyria and elsewhere, and the influx of waves of Semitic Martu (Amorites) who were to found several competing local powers including Isin, Larsa, Eshnunna and eventually Babylon. The last of these eventually came to dominate the south of Mesopotamia as the Babylonian Empire, just as the Old Assyrian Empire had already done so in the north from the late 21st century BC. The Sumerian language continued as a sacerdotal language taught in schools in Babylonia and Assyria, much as Latin was used in the Medieval period, for as long as cuneiform was utilized.

Which dynasty of Ur was the last great Sumerian renaissance?

Who guided Ur during the last gasp of power?

Ur-Nammu and Shulgi

Even during the 3rd dynasty, what was happening to the racial makeup of the region?

more Semitic than Sumerian

What was there an influx of waves of coming into Sumerian lands?

Amorites

How long did the Babylonians and Assyrians continue to teach the Sumerian language in their schools?

for as long as cuneiform was utilized.

When was the first Sumerian renaissance?

I'm not sure.

During who's reign was the area becoming more Sumerian than Semitic?

I'm not sure.

Where was the power of Akkadian speaking Semites declining?

I'm not sure.

What people where leaving the are  to form other powers?

I'm not sure.

Who dominated northern Mesopotamia in the 2100's?

I'm not sure.


This period is generally taken to coincide with a major shift in population from southern Mesopotamia toward the north. Ecologically, the agricultural productivity of the Sumerian lands was being compromised as a result of rising salinity. Soil salinity in this region had been long recognized as a major problem. Poorly drained irrigated soils, in an arid climate with high levels of evaporation, led to the buildup of dissolved salts in the soil, eventually reducing agricultural yields severely. During the Akkadian and Ur III phases, there was a shift from the cultivation of wheat to the more salt-tolerant barley, but this was insufficient, and during the period from 2100 BC to 1700 BC, it is estimated that the population in this area declined by nearly three fifths. This greatly upset the balance of power within the region, weakening the areas where Sumerian was spoken, and comparatively strengthening those where Akkadian was the major language. Henceforth Sumerian would remain only a literary and liturgical language, similar to the position occupied by Latin in medieval Europe.

What effect was rising salinity having on the agricultural productivity of the Sumerian lands?

compromised

The salinity of what in the region was long recognized as a major problem?

Soil

Poorly drained irrigated soils in an arid climate with a good deal of evaporation is responsible for leaving what?

dissolved salts

What did cultivation shift from to salt-tolerant barley during the Ur III phase?

wheat

How much did the population of the region decline due to the decrease in crop productivity?

by nearly three fifths

What shifted from the north to the south of Mesopotamia?

I'm not sure.

What was increasing agricultural productivity in the area?

I'm not sure.

What crop was more salt tolerant than barley?

I'm not sure.

What caused the population to decrease between the 21st and 17th century BC?

I'm not sure.

What weakened the areas where Akkadian was spoken?

I'm not sure.


The Sumerians were a non-Semitic caucasoid people, and spoke a language isolate; a number of linguists believed they could detect a substrate language beneath Sumerian, because names of some of Sumer's major cities are not Sumerian, revealing influences of earlier inhabitants. However, the archaeological record shows clear uninterrupted cultural continuity from the time of the early Ubaid period (5300 – 4700 BC C-14) settlements in southern Mesopotamia. The Sumerian people who settled here farmed the lands in this region that were made fertile by silt deposited by the Tigris and the Euphrates rivers.

Who were a non-Semitic caucasoid people?

The Sumerians

What influences did the Sumerian language seem to retain?

earlier inhabitants

What do archaeological records clearly show about the Sumerian culture?

uninterrupted cultural continuity

When were settlements started in southern Mesopotamia?

early Ubaid period

Why were the lands in the region the Sumerian people settled fertile?

silt deposited by the Tigris and the Euphrates rivers

What people were Semitic Caucasoid?

I'm not sure.

What period began in the 53rd century?

I'm not sure.

Where did people fish in the Ubaid period?

I'm not sure.


It is speculated by some archaeologists that Sumerian speakers were farmers who moved down from the north, after perfecting irrigation agriculture there. The Ubaid pottery of southern Mesopotamia has been connected via Choga Mami transitional ware to the pottery of the Samarra period culture (c. 5700 – 4900 BC C-14) in the north, who were the first to practice a primitive form of irrigation agriculture along the middle Tigris River and its tributaries. The connection is most clearly seen at Tell Awayli (Oueilli, Oueili) near Larsa, excavated by the French in the 1980s, where eight levels yielded pre-Ubaid pottery resembling Samarran ware. According to this theory, farming peoples spread down into southern Mesopotamia because they had developed a temple-centered social organization for mobilizing labor and technology for water control, enabling them to survive and prosper in a difficult environment.[citation needed]

Where do some archaeologists speculate Sumerians originally moved from?

the north

What had the Sumerians perfected before coming south?

irrigation agriculture

Who were the first to practice a primitive form of irrigation agriculture?

the Samarra

How many levels of pre-Ubaid pottery were excavated by the French in the 1980s?

eight

What did the temple-centered social organization of the farming peoples allow them to mobilize?

labor

Who perfected irrigation in the south of Mesopotamia?

I'm not sure.

Who moved from south Mesopotamia to the north?

I'm not sure.

What cultural period began in the 57th century BC?

I'm not sure.

What type of agriculture was developed along the Euphrates river?

I'm not sure.


Though women were protected by late Sumerian law and were able to achieve a higher status in Sumer than in other contemporary civilizations, the culture was male-dominated. The Code of Ur-Nammu, the oldest such codification yet discovered, dating to the Ur-III "Sumerian Renaissance", reveals a glimpse at societal structure in late Sumerian law. Beneath the lu-gal ("great man" or king), all members of society belonged to one of two basic strata: The "lu" or free person, and the slave (male, arad; female geme). The son of a lu was called a dumu-nita until he married. A woman (munus) went from being a daughter (dumu-mi), to a wife (dam), then if she outlived her husband, a widow (numasu) and she could then remarry.

How were women protected in Sumerian society?

law

What gender dominated Sumerian culture?

male

Whose code reveals a bit about the societal structure through Sumerian law?

Ur-Nammu

Who was at the top of the power pyramid in Sumerian society?

the lu-gal

How many strata existed in Sumerian society?

two

Who had higher status in other cultures that in Sumeria?

I'm not sure.

Who's code protected women above all others?

I'm not sure.

Who was able to remarry whenever they chose?

I'm not sure.


The most important archaeological discoveries in Sumer are a large number of tablets written in cuneiform. Sumerian writing, while proven to be not the oldest example of writing on earth, is considered to be a great milestone in the development of man's ability to not only create historical records but also in creating pieces of literature both in the form of poetic epics and stories as well as prayers and laws. Although pictures — that is, hieroglyphs — were first used, cuneiform and then Ideograms (where symbols were made to represent ideas) soon followed. Triangular or wedge-shaped reeds were used to write on moist clay. A large body of hundreds of thousands of texts in the Sumerian language have survived, such as personal or business letters, receipts, lexical lists, laws, hymns, prayers, stories, daily records, and even libraries full of clay tablets. Monumental inscriptions and texts on different objects like statues or bricks are also very common. Many texts survive in multiple copies because they were repeatedly transcribed by scribes-in-training. Sumerian continued to be the language of religion and law in Mesopotamia long after Semitic speakers had become dominant.

What were the most important discoveries for archaeologists from Sumer?

tablets written in cuneiform

What is Sumerian writing considered to be in the development of man's ability to create literature?

milestone

What followed cuneiform in writing?

Ideograms

How many texts in the Sumerian language have survived to modern day?

hundreds of thousands

What was the Sumerian language used for long have their civilization had diminished?

religion and law in Mesopotamia

What are the oldest examples of writing?

I'm not sure.

What kind of picture writing followed cuneiform?

I'm not sure.

were wedge shaped stones used to write on?

I'm not sure.

What type of ideogram writings have survived?

I'm not sure.

Who were the only people who could write at the time?

I'm not sure.


The Sumerian language is generally regarded as a language isolate in linguistics because it belongs to no known language family; Akkadian, by contrast, belongs to the Semitic branch of the Afroasiatic languages. There have been many failed attempts to connect Sumerian to other language groups. It is an agglutinative language; in other words, morphemes ("units of meaning") are added together to create words, unlike analytic languages where morphemes are purely added together to create sentences. Some authors have proposed that there may be evidence of a sub-stratum or add-stratum language for geographic features and various crafts and agricultural activities, called variously Proto-Euphratean or Proto Tigrean, but this is disputed by others.

Why is the Sumerian language usually thought of as a language isolate in linguistics?

belongs to no known language family

Akkadian's language can be traced to the Semitic branch of what languages?

Afroasiatic

What has been the result of attempts to connect Sumerian to other language groups?

failed

What are morphemes?

"units of meaning"

In Sumerian, what are morphemes added together to create?

words

Why is Akkadian an isolate language?

I'm not sure.

What are added together to make words in analytic languages?

I'm not sure.

What language has been proven to proceed Sumerian?

I'm not sure.


Sumerian religion seems to have been founded upon two separate cosmogenic myths. The first saw creation as the result of a series of hieros gami or sacred marriages, involving the reconciliation of opposites, postulated as a coming together of male and female divine beings; the gods. This continued to influence the whole Mesopotamian mythos. Thus in the Enuma Elish the creation was seen as the union of fresh and salt water; as male Abzu, and female Tiamat. The product of that union, Lahm and Lahmu, "the muddy ones", were titles given to the gate keepers of the E-Abzu temple of Enki, in Eridu, the first Sumerian city. Describing the way that muddy islands emerge from the confluence of fresh and salty water at the mouth of the Euphrates, where the river deposited its load of silt, a second hieros gamos supposedly created Anshar and Kishar, the "sky-pivot" or axle, and the "earth pivot", parents in turn of Anu (the sky) and Ki (the earth). Another important Sumerian hieros gamos was that between Ki, here known as Ninhursag or "Lady Sacred Mountain", and Enki of Eridu, the god of fresh water which brought forth greenery and pasture.

How many cosmogenic myths does the religion of the Sumerians appear to be founded upon?

two

What does one myth see creation as being the result of?

a series of hieros gami

In the Enuma Elish, what is creation seen as the union of?

fresh and salt water

What were the titles given to the gate keeps of the E-Abzu temple of Enki?

the muddy ones

Who was the Lady Sacred Mountain?

Ninhursag

What influenced world religions?

I'm not sure.


These deities formed a core pantheon; there were additionally hundreds of minor ones. Sumerian gods could thus have associations with different cities, and their religious importance often waxed and waned with those cities' political power. The gods were said to have created human beings from clay for the purpose of serving them. The temples organized the mass labour projects needed for irrigation agriculture. Citizens had a labor duty to the temple, though they could avoid it by a payment of silver.

What did the Sumerian deities form?

a core pantheon

What could Sumerian gods be associated with?

different cities

What did the religious importance of city gods wax and wan with?

those cities' political power

Why did the gods create human beings from clay?

for the purpose of serving them

How could a citizen avoid their labor duty to their local temple?

a payment of silver

What did each Sumerian city have?

I'm not sure.

What changed with a particular gods popularity?

I'm not sure.

Who made humans for their amusement?

I'm not sure.

who organized large building projects?

I'm not sure.


Ziggurats (Sumerian temples) each had an individual name and consisted of a forecourt, with a central pond for purification. The temple itself had a central nave with aisles along either side. Flanking the aisles would be rooms for the priests. At one end would stand the podium and a mudbrick table for animal and vegetable sacrifices. Granaries and storehouses were usually located near the temples. After a time the Sumerians began to place the temples on top of multi-layered square constructions built as a series of rising terraces, giving rise to the Ziggurat style.

What were Sumerian temples known as?

Ziggurats

What was the central pond in the forecourt of a Ziggurat for?

purification

Who were the rooms on either side of the aisles in the temple for?

the priests

What was the mudbrick table in the temple for?

animal and vegetable sacrifices

Where did the Sumerians usually locate their granaries and storehouses?

near the temples

What feature of temples provided fresh drinking water?

I'm not sure.

What was stored away from the temples?

I'm not sure.

what was a precursor to pyramids?

I'm not sure.


It was believed that when people died, they would be confined to a gloomy world of Ereshkigal, whose realm was guarded by gateways with various monsters designed to prevent people entering or leaving. The dead were buried outside the city walls in graveyards where a small mound covered the corpse, along with offerings to monsters and a small amount of food. Those who could afford it sought burial at Dilmun. Human sacrifice was found in the death pits at the Ur royal cemetery where Queen Puabi was accompanied in death by her servants. It is also said that the Sumerians invented the first oboe-like instrument, and used them at royal funerals.

What type of afterlife could Sumerians look forward to?

confined to a gloomy world

What realm was guarded by gateways containing various monsters?

Ereshkigal

Where were dead Sumerians buried?

outside the city walls in graveyards

Who was Queen Puabi accompanied in death by?

her servants

What type of instrument are the Sumerians thought to have invented to use at royal funerals?

oboe-like


In the early Sumerian Uruk period, the primitive pictograms suggest that sheep, goats, cattle, and pigs were domesticated. They used oxen as their primary beasts of burden and donkeys or equids as their primary transport animal and "woollen clothing as well as rugs were made from the wool or hair of the animals. ... By the side of the house was an enclosed garden planted with trees and other plants; wheat and probably other cereals were sown in the fields, and the shaduf was already employed for the purpose of irrigation. Plants were also grown in pots or vases."

When do the pictograms suggest Sumerians had domesticated livestock?

Uruk period

What was the primary purpose of oxen for Sumerians?

beasts of burden

What animal did Sumerians use primary to facilitate transportation?

donkeys

What might be found by the side of a Sumerian house?

enclosed garden planted with trees and other plants

Where were plants also grown besides the garden?

pots or vases

What animals were domesticated following the Uruk period?

I'm not sure.

Who used donkeys as beasts of burden?

I'm not sure.

Who first grew plants in pots?

I'm not sure.

What writing form was invented by the Sumerian?

I'm not sure.


The Sumerians were one of the first known beer drinking societies. Cereals were plentiful and were the key ingredient in their early brew. They brewed multiple kinds of beer consisting of wheat, barley, and mixed grain beers. Beer brewing was very important to the Sumerians. It was referenced in the Epic of Gilgamesh when Enkidu was introduced to the food and beer of Gilgamesh's people: "Drink the beer, as is the custom of the land... He drank the beer-seven jugs! and became expansive and sang with joy!"

What was Sumerians one of the first societies known to consume?

beer

What was the key ingredient in early Sumerian brews?

Cereals

What kinds of beer did the Sumerians brew?

wheat, barley, and mixed grain

How important was beer brewing to Sumerians?

very important

What did Enkidu become and do after consuming seven jugs of beer?

expansive and sang with joy

Who invented beer?

I'm not sure.

What Epic tells how to make beer?

I'm not sure.

What hero refused to drink beer?

I'm not sure.


As is known from the "Sumerian Farmer's Almanac", after the flood season and after the Spring Equinox and the Akitu or New Year Festival, using the canals, farmers would flood their fields and then drain the water. Next they made oxen stomp the ground and kill weeds. They then dragged the fields with pickaxes. After drying, they plowed, harrowed, and raked the ground three times, and pulverized it with a mattock, before planting seed. Unfortunately the high evaporation rate resulted in a gradual increase in the salinity of the fields. By the Ur III period, farmers had switched from wheat to the more salt-tolerant barley as their principal crop.

How do archaeologists know about Sumerian agricultural practices?

from the "Sumerian Farmer's Almanac"

When would farmers flood their fields?

after the Spring Equinox and the Akitu

Why did the Sumerian farmers make their oxen stomp the ground?

kill weeds

How many times did Sumerian farmers plow, harrow and rake the ground?

three times

The the Ur III period, what crop had Sumerians switched to from wheat for their primary crop?

salt-tolerant barley

What people first wrote an Almanac?

I'm not sure.

What was the name of the first Almanac?

I'm not sure.

What did farmers flood just before the new year?

I'm not sure.

When did farmers switch from barley to wheat?

I'm not sure.


According to Archibald Sayce, the primitive pictograms of the early Sumerian (i.e. Uruk) era suggest that "Stone was scarce, but was already cut into blocks and seals. Brick was the ordinary building material, and with it cities, forts, temples and houses were constructed. The city was provided with towers and stood on an artificial platform; the house also had a tower-like appearance. It was provided with a door which turned on a hinge, and could be opened with a sort of key; the city gate was on a larger scale, and seems to have been double. The foundation stones — or rather bricks — of a house were consecrated by certain objects that were deposited under them."

What does Archibald Sayce think early Sumerian pictograms suggest about the availability of stone?

was scarce

How did the Sumerians fashion the stone they cut?

into blocks and seals

What was the ordinary building material of Sumerians?

Brick

What kind of appearance did Sumerian houses have?

tower-like

What were the foundation stones of Sumerian houses consecrated by?

objects that were deposited under them

What suggested that stone was common?

I'm not sure.

Who claims stone was common in Sumeria since it was used for seals?

I'm not sure.

Where were towers built from stone?

I'm not sure.


The most impressive and famous of Sumerian buildings are the ziggurats, large layered platforms which supported temples. Sumerian cylinder seals also depict houses built from reeds not unlike those built by the Marsh Arabs of Southern Iraq until as recently as 400 CE. The Sumerians also developed the arch, which enabled them to develop a strong type of dome. They built this by constructing and linking several arches. Sumerian temples and palaces made use of more advanced materials and techniques,[citation needed] such as buttresses, recesses, half columns, and clay nails.

What is the most impressive and famous style of Sumerian buildings?

the ziggurats

Sumerians also built houses from reeds not very different from ones built by inhabitants in Iraq as recently as when?

400 CE

What development by the Sumerians allowed them to make use of domes?

the arch

How did the Sumerians build their strong domes?

by constructing and linking several arches

Where were the use of advanced materials and techniques on display in Sumer?

Sumerian temples and palaces

What are the oldest examples of "Sumerian buildings?

I'm not sure.

What type of seals were made with reeds?

I'm not sure.

What type of house was built until the 4th century CE?

I'm not sure.

Who built reed houses until the 4th century CE?

I'm not sure.


The Sumerians developed a complex system of metrology c. 4000 BC. This advanced metrology resulted in the creation of arithmetic, geometry, and algebra. From c. 2600 BC onwards, the Sumerians wrote multiplication tables on clay tablets and dealt with geometrical exercises and division problems. The earliest traces of the Babylonian numerals also date back to this period. The period c. 2700 – 2300 BC saw the first appearance of the abacus, and a table of successive columns which delimited the successive orders of magnitude of their sexagesimal number system. The Sumerians were the first to use a place value numeral system. There is also anecdotal evidence the Sumerians may have used a type of slide rule in astronomical calculations. They were the first to find the area of a triangle and the volume of a cube.

What did the Sumerians a complex system of around 4000 BC?

metrology

From the Sumerian metrology sprang forth the creation of what disciplines?

arithmetic, geometry, and algebra

Where did the Sumerians put their multiplication tables?

on clay tablets

When was the abacus first seen between?

2700 – 2300 BC

What were the Sumerians the first to do when it came to mathematics?

use a place value numeral system

Who developed  a complex system of metrology in the 4th century BC?

I'm not sure.

What type of math did the Sumerians invent by the 26th century BC?

I'm not sure.

What tool was invented in the 27th century BC?

I'm not sure.

Who invented the slide ruler?

I'm not sure.


Commercial credit and agricultural consumer loans were the main types of loans. The trade credit was usually extended by temples in order to finance trade expeditions and was nominated in silver. The interest rate was set at 1/60 a month (one shekel per mina) some time before 2000 BC and it remained at that level for about two thousand years. Rural loans commonly arose as a result of unpaid obligations due to an institution (such as a temple), in this case the arrears were considered to be lent to the debtor. They were denominated in barley or other crops and the interest rate was typically much higher than for commercial loans and could amount to 1/3 to 1/2 of the loan principal.

What were the main types of loans in Sumerian society?

Commercial credit and agricultural consumer

What was trade credit backed by when extended by temples?

silver

How man shekel per mina was the interest rate for loans?

one

For how long was the interest rate of Sumerian loans consistent?

about two thousand years

What typically arose as a result of unpaid obligations?

Rural loans

Who extended personal credit to citizens?

I'm not sure.

What was set at 1/60 a month after 2000 BC?

I'm not sure.

Who lent money to farmers to plant crops?

I'm not sure.


Periodically "clean slate" decrees were signed by rulers which cancelled all the rural (but not commercial) debt and allowed bondservants to return to their homes. Customarily rulers did it at the beginning of the first full year of their reign, but they could also be proclaimed at times of military conflict or crop failure. The first known ones were made by Enmetena and Urukagina of Lagash in 2400-2350 BC. According to Hudson, the purpose of these decrees was to prevent debts mounting to a degree that they threatened fighting force which could happen if peasants lost the subsistence land or became bondservants due to the inability to repay the debt.

What type of debt did "clean slate" decrees cancel?

rural

When did rulers typically proclaim "clean slate" decrees?

the first full year of their reign

Who made the first known clean slate decrees?

Enmetena and Urukagina

Why were the clean slate decrees useful to the rulers of Sumer?

to prevent debts mounting to a degree that they threatened fighting force

What would happen if peasants couldn't repay their debts?

lost the subsistence land or became bondservants

Who some times cleared commercial debts?

I'm not sure.

What was it called when rulers cleared commercial debts?

I'm not sure.

Who made a clean slate decree in the 24th century BC?

I'm not sure.


The almost constant wars among the Sumerian city-states for 2000 years helped to develop the military technology and techniques of Sumer to a high level. The first war recorded in any detail was between Lagash and Umma in c. 2525 BC on a stele called the Stele of the Vultures. It shows the king of Lagash leading a Sumerian army consisting mostly of infantry. The infantrymen carried spears, wore copper helmets, and carried rectangular shields. The spearmen are shown arranged in what resembles the phalanx formation, which requires training and discipline; this implies that the Sumerians may have made use of professional soldiers.

What contributed to developing military technology for Sumer?

almost constant wars

How many years were the Sumerian city-states at war?

2000 years

Who was the first war between in 2525 BC?

Lagash and Umma

What did the king of Lagash's army mostly consist of?

infantry

What shape were the shields of the infantry of Lagash?

rectangular


Evidence of wheeled vehicles appeared in the mid 4th millennium BC, near-simultaneously in Mesopotamia, the Northern Caucasus (Maykop culture) and Central Europe. The wheel initially took the form of the potter's wheel. The new concept quickly led to wheeled vehicles and mill wheels. The Sumerians' cuneiform writing system is the oldest (or second oldest after the Egyptian hieroglyphs) which has been deciphered (the status of even older inscriptions such as the Jiahu symbols and Tartaria tablets is controversial). The Sumerians were among the first astronomers, mapping the stars into sets of constellations, many of which survived in the zodiac and were also recognized by the ancient Greeks. They were also aware of the five planets that are easily visible to the naked eye.

When did evidence of wheeled vehicles appear throughout the world?

mid 4th millennium BC

What form did wheels initially take?

potter's wheel

The writing system of the Sumerian's is the second oldest to have what done to it?

been deciphered

What did the Sumerians map stars into?

sets of constellations

How many planets were the Sumerians aware of?

five

What type of vehicle was invented in 400 BC?

I'm not sure.

What  writing system predates heiroglphs?

I'm not sure.

What science was developed by Greeks?

I'm not sure.

How many planets did the Sumerians discover?

I'm not sure.


They invented and developed arithmetic by using several different number systems including a mixed radix system with an alternating base 10 and base 6. This sexagesimal system became the standard number system in Sumer and Babylonia. They may have invented military formations and introduced the basic divisions between infantry, cavalry, and archers. They developed the first known codified legal and administrative systems, complete with courts, jails, and government records. The first true city-states arose in Sumer, roughly contemporaneously with similar entities in what are now Syria and Lebanon. Several centuries after the invention of cuneiform, the use of writing expanded beyond debt/payment certificates and inventory lists to be applied for the first time, about 2600 BC, to messages and mail delivery, history, legend, mathematics, astronomical records, and other pursuits. Conjointly with the spread of writing, the first formal schools were established, usually under the auspices of a city-state's primary temple.

Sumerians used number systems which included what alternating bases?

base 10 and base 6

What type of number system was standard in Sumer and Babylonia?

sexagesimal

What type of formations is it possible Sumerians invented?

military

What systems did the Sumerians develop which remain the first known these types to this day?

legal and administrative

In Sumerian society, who oversaw the operation of the first formal schools?

a city-state's primary temple

What system did Sumerians borrow from Babylonia?

I'm not sure.

What was being used for private purposes well before the 26th century BC?

I'm not sure.

What learning centers were established the temples?

I'm not sure.

Who made the first laws?

I'm not sure.


Tuvalu (i/tuːˈvɑːluː/ too-VAH-loo or /ˈtuːvəluː/ TOO-və-loo), formerly known as the Ellice Islands, is a Polynesian island nation located in the Pacific Ocean, midway between Hawaii and Australia. It comprises three reef islands and six true atolls spread out between the latitude of 5° to 10° south and longitude of 176° to 180°, west of the International Date Line. Its nearest neighbours are Kiribati, Nauru, Samoa and Fiji. Tuvalu has a population of 10,640 (2012 census). The total land area of the islands of Tuvalu is 26 square kilometres (10 sq mi).

What is the previous name of Tuvalu?

Ellice Islands

In which ocean is Tuvalu found?

Pacific Ocean

Between what land areas is Tuvalu located?

Hawaii and Australia

According the the 2012 census, how many people live on the Tuvalu islands?

What originally formed the Tuvalu islands?

reef


In 1568, Spanish navigator Álvaro de Mendaña was the first European to sail through the archipelago, sighting the island of Nui during his expedition in search of Terra Australis. In 1819 the island of Funafuti was named Ellice's Island; the name Ellice was applied to all nine islands after the work of English hydrographer Alexander George Findlay. The islands came under Britain's sphere of influence in the late 19th century, when each of the Ellice Islands was declared a British Protectorate by Captain Gibson of HMS Curacoa between 9 and 16 October 1892. The Ellice Islands were administered as British protectorate by a Resident Commissioner from 1892 to 1916 as part of the British Western Pacific Territories (BWPT), and then as part of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands colony from 1916 to 1974.

In what year was Tuvalu discovered by a European?

Who was the discoverer of Tuvalu?

Álvaro de Mendaña

What land mass was de Mendana actually seeking?

Terra Australis

What was Tuvalu named in 1819?

Ellice Islands

By what means did the British govern Tuvalu?

British protectorate


The origins of the people of Tuvalu are addressed in the theories regarding migration into the Pacific that began about 3000 years ago. During pre-European-contact times there was frequent canoe voyaging between the nearer islands including Samoa and Tonga. Eight of the nine islands of Tuvalu were inhabited; thus the name, Tuvalu, means "eight standing together" in Tuvaluan (compare to *walo meaning "eight" in Proto-Austronesian). Possible evidence of fire in the Caves of Nanumanga may indicate human occupation for thousands of years.

How many years ago did migrations of people happen in the Pacific area?

3000 years

By what means did locale people travel between Pacific islands?

canoe

How many islands are in the Tuvalu group?

nine islands

On how many of Tuvalu's islands did people live?

Eight

What is the native language meaning of Tuvalu?

eight standing together


An important creation myth of the islands of Tuvalu is the story of the te Pusi mo te Ali (the Eel and the Flounder) who created the islands of Tuvalu; te Ali (the flounder) is believed to be the origin of the flat atolls of Tuvalu and the te Pusin (the Eel) is the model for the coconut palms that are important in the lives of Tuvaluans. The stories as to the ancestors of the Tuvaluans vary from island to island. On Niutao, Funafuti and Vaitupu the founding ancestor is described as being from Samoa; whereas on Nanumea the founding ancestor is described as being from Tonga.

What is the creation myth of Tuvalu?

te Pusi mo te Ali

What does the flounder of the Tuvalu myth represent?

flat atolls

What does the eel of the Tuvalu creation myth represent?

coconut palms

From what land did the people of Niutao believe they came?

Samoa

From where did the people of the island of Nanumea think they came?

Tonga


Captain John Byron passed through the islands of Tuvalu in 1764 during his circumnavigation of the globe as captain of the Dolphin (1751). Byron charted the atolls as Lagoon Islands. Keith S. Chambers and Doug Munro (1980) identified Niutao as the island that Francisco Mourelle de la Rúa sailed past on 5 May 1781, thus solving what Europeans had called The Mystery of Gran Cocal. Mourelle's map and journal named the island El Gran Cocal ('The Great Coconut Plantation'); however, the latitude and longitude was uncertain. Longitude could only be reckoned crudely as accurate chronometers were unavailable until the late 18th century.

What explorer traveled through the Tuvalu islands in 1764?

Captain John Byron

What was Captain Byron doing when he visited Tuvalu?

circumnavigation of the globe

How did Byron name the Tuvalu islands?

Lagoon Islands

Which island of Tuvalu was identified as the one that Mourelle sailed past in 1781?

Niutao

When were chronometers available for accurate location charting?

late 18th


The next European to visit was Arent Schuyler de Peyster, of New York, captain of the armed brigantine or privateer Rebecca, sailing under British colours, which passed through the southern Tuvaluan waters in May 1819; de Peyster sighted Nukufetau and Funafuti, which he named Ellice's Island after an English Politician, Edward Ellice, the Member of Parliament for Coventry and the owner of the Rebecca's cargo. The name Ellice was applied to all nine islands after the work of English hydrographer Alexander George Findlay.

When did Arent Schuyler de Peyster visit Tuvalu?

May 1819

Which of the Tuvalu isalnds did de Peyster see?

Nukufetau and Funafuti

What name did de Peyster give the Tuvalu islands?

Ellice's Island

For whom did de Peyster name Ellice's Island?

Edward Ellice

After Findlay's charting how many islands of the group were named Ellice?

all nine islands